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: 


PORCH  OF  THE  FIXE  ART  GALLERY.  CHAMP  DE  MARS 


R  E  P  O  R  T  S 


OF  THE 

United  States  Commissioners 


TO  THE 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION, 

1878. 


PUBLISHED  UNDER  DIRECTION  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  STATE 
BY  AUTHORITY  OF  CONGRESS . 


Volume  II. 

FINE  ARTS,  EDUCATION,  WOOD  CARVING,  TEXTILE  FABRICS. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE, 

1880. 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  IL 


Reports  of  Commissioners: 

Fine  Arts . William  W.  Story . 

Education . Joshua  L.  Chamberlain. 

Political  Education . Andrew  D.  White . 

Manual  Training  Schools..  ..Eliot  C.  Jewett . 

Wood-carving . John  Treadwell  Norton . 

Textile  Fabrics . —  Henry  Howard . 

Index . . . . 


Page. 


1 

181 

349 

383 

417 

429 

467 


III 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  VOLUME  II. 


Commissioner  Story’s  report: 

Porch  of  the  Gallery  of  Fine  Arts,  Champ  de  Mars 
The  Rue  des  Nations . 

Commissioner  Norton’s  report: 

Japanese  farm-gates . 

Mirror  frame . 

Carved  panel  in  walnut . . 

Wood-carving  in  jujube . 

Carved  panels  in  walnut . 

Wood-carving  in  jujube . . 


Page. 


Frontispiece. 
.  . .  152 


421 

423 

424 
424 
246 


FINE  ARTS. 


WILLIAM  W.  STORY. 


REPORT 


ON 

THE  FINE  A.  H  T  S  . 


Mr.  Edward  M.  Gallaudet,  in  his  report  on  the  Vienna  vg®fere^ice  to 
International  Exhibition  of  1873  and  “The  Governmental tionofisra. 
Patronage  of  Art,’7  after  regretting  that  no  part  of  the  ap¬ 
propriation  made  by  Congress  to  enable  “  the  people  of  the 
United  States  to  participate  in  the  advantages  of  the  Expo¬ 
sition  at  Vienna  could  be  expended  in  the  purchase  of  a 
portion  at  least  of  the  rich  art  treasures  there  exhibited,’’ 
concludes  by  “  expressing  the  hope  that  no  such  opportunity 
in  the  future  will  be  neglected  by  the  government.” 

This  hope  has  not  been  gratified.  For  the  recent  Inter-  inadequacy  ‘of 

the  sum  voted  by 

national  Exposition  at  Paris  not  only  was  no  fund  specially  the  United  states 

.  t  .  Government  for 

appropriated  to  enrich  our  country  with  treasures  of  art,  Paris  Exposition 
but  the  small  sum  of  $150,000  actually  appropriated  to° 
cover  all  expenses  of  every  kind  was  not  only  so  insufficient 
in  itself,  but  was  so  tardily  given  as  to  render  it  impossible 
for  America  to  make  an  exhibition  worthy  of  a  great  coun¬ 
try,  not  only  in  the  department  of  the  fine  arts,  but  even  in 
those  of  industry,  commerce,  machinery,  manufactures,  nat¬ 
ural  products,  and  mechanical  arts.* 

-Both  money  and  time  were  wanting,  and,  as  the  limitation  insufficient 

_  . .  . ,  , ,  time  for  prepara- 

of  time  necessarily  added  to  the  expenses,  the  sum  appro-  tion. 
priated,  small  as  it  was,  was  by  this  circumstance  practi¬ 
cally  diminished.  The  consequence  has  been  an  injury,  not 
only  to  the  reputation  of  the  country,  but  even  more  to  its 
material  interests. 

u  Noblesse  oblige ”  is  a  motto  which  is  unknown  to  or  re¬ 
jected  by  our  country.  We  wish  to  take  among  nations  the 
high  place  to  which  we  are  justly  entitlec1  but  we  grudge 
the  necessary  outlay.  Our  penurious  grants  of  money  for 
great  public  objects  retard  the  development  of  the  country; 
our  inefficient  salaries  to  public  officers  of  trust  offer  a 

*  This  sum  was  in  fact  found  to  he  so  utterly  inadequate  that  subse¬ 
quently,  after  the  Exposition  was  open,  and  ifc  was  too  late  to  retrieve 
the  past,  an  additional  sum  of  $40,000  was  granted  to  cover  necessary 
expenses. 


3 


4 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


temptation  to  fraud,  or  exclude  from  them  all  who  have  not 
private  means  to  sustain  worthily  their  position  and  inde¬ 
pendence.  The  laborer  is  not  considered  worthy  of  his  hire. 
trenoiiment”  re*^-he  cry  of  retrenchment  suffices  to  stop  a  proper  and  even 
necessary  expenditure.  We  expect  to  secure  great  public 
services  for  inadequate  pay,  and  that  which  would  be  rec¬ 
ognized  as  folly  in  the  administration  of  private  affairs  is 
thought  to  be  quite  satisfactory  in  the  conduct  of  public  and 
national  interests. 

The  Paris  Ex-  At  this  International  Exposition  at  Paris  a  great  opnor- 

position  of  1878  ...  .  ° 

America’s  oppor  tunity  was  offered  to  America  to  lift  itself  in  the  estima¬ 
tion  of  the  world,  and  to  increase  the  market  for  all  its  ma¬ 
terial  products.  Whether  or  not  we  care  what  is  thought  of 
us  abroad,  we  are  at  least  susceptible  to  our  interests,  and 
these  have  been  undoubtedly  affected  to  a  serious  extent  by 
the  incomplete  exhibition  of  ourselves  which  the  govern¬ 
ment  forced  upon  the  country  by  its  unwise  economy 
and  delay. 

It  may  be  quite  satisfactory  to  those  who  opposed  and 
.  delayed  the  grant  of  the  insufficient  sum  which  Congress 
finally  gave  to  this  Exposition,  to  be  able  to  declare  to  their 
constituents  that  by  their  earnest  efforts  for  a  retrench¬ 
ment, v  and  by  their  tender  care  of  the  u  people’s  money,” 
they  have  saved  the  country  the  sum  of  several  thousands 
of  dollars ;  but  it  is  not  quite  so  satisfactory  to  find  that  for 
poundBfooiishf e  ’  every  thousand  dollars  thus  saved  it  is  the  firm  belief  of 
those  who  have  ample  opportunity  to  know,  that  at  least  a 
hundred  thousand  dollars  have  been  lost  to  the  country  by 
this  parsimony.  Nor  is  it  quite  satisfactory  to  feel  assured 
that  we  have  also  made  an  incomplete  exhibition  of  ourselves 
before  the  world,  and,  were  we  to  be  judged  by  this  Expo¬ 
sition,  would  fail  to  take  our  proper  rank.* 
imperfect  ex-  if  this  be  the  case  in  the  departments  of  industry  and  the 
fine  arts  section,  mechanic  arts,  how  much  more  so  is  it  in  that  of  the  fine  arts, 
where  we  were  so  sparsely  and  imperfectly  represented.  W e 
have  been  accustomed  to  boast  that  in  sculpture  our  country 

*  I  desire  here  to  hear  my  testimony  to  the  spirit,  energy,  and  effi  • 
ciency  shown  by  our  chief  commissioner,  Governor  McCormick,  in 
arranging  and  directing  the  various  departments  and  administering 
the  fund  appropriated  to  this  Exposition.  All  that  was  possible  to  be 
done  with  the  means  at  his  disposal  was  promptly  and  admirably  done. 
Whatever  deficiencies  there  were  were  due  to  the  necessities  of  the  case, 
and  not  to  any  lack  of  administrative  ability  or  earnest  good  will  on 
his  part.  It  was,  for  instance,  to  his  efforts,  in  conjunction  with  those 
of  Mr.  Philbrick,  that  the  educational  section,  which  reflected  great 
honor  on  our  country  and  awakened  a  world-wide  interest ;  owed  its 
existence. 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


5 


could  at  least  take  rank  with  that  of  any  in  Europe,  but  in  exhibition 

*  1  ox  sculpture  from 

this  Exposition  American  sculpture  had  no  place  and  no  rep-  theUnitedStates. 
resentative.  It  was  necessarily  excluded.  There  was  neither 
money  nor  time  to  render  such  an  exhibition  possible.  No 
space  was  assigned  to  it  in  the  portion  of  the  building  al¬ 
lotted  to  the  United  States.  Not  only  was  no  sculptor  re¬ 
quested  to  send  any  of  his  works,  but  he  was  forbidden  to 
do  so.  The  grant  was  too  small  to  enable  the  Commis¬ 
sioner-General  to  assume  the  necessary  expenses  of  trans¬ 
mission  or  placing,  or  arrangement  of  a  proper  room,  and 
the  time  was  too  short  either  to  obtain  such  a  room  or  to  do  eluded  by  the  iu- 
what  was  absolutely  necessary.  Sculpture  was  therefore  priathm.  appiw 
excluded.  The  expenses  and  risks  incident  to  an  exhibition 
of  sculpture  are  of  course  far  greater  than  those  which  are 
required  for  an  exhibition  of  paintings,  and,  had  such  an 
exhibition  been  determined  upon,  these  would  have  fallen 
solely  upon  the  sculptors  themselves,  some  of  whom  were 
unable  and  some  unwilling  to  bear  them.  Those  whose  rep¬ 
utations  were  already  established  had  little  desire  to  assume 
such  burdens,  with  nothing  to  gain  and  everything  to  risk, 
while  others  who  properly  had  a  right  to  be  represented 
had  not  the  means. 

Small  consideration  has  ever  been  paid  by  America  to  her 
own  achievements  in  the  fine  arts  in  any  international  exhi¬ 
bition,  but  this  is  the  first  in  which  our  country  has  formally 
excluded  sculpture.  With  most  nations,  the  department  of 
the  fine  arts  has  ever  been  looked  upon  as  the  flower  of  their  flower  of  an  in- 
exhibition.  No  pains  have  been  spared  to  render  it  attract  -  bltfons°na  ex  u* 
ive  5  no  expense  refused  to  give  it  importance  and  complete¬ 
ness.  It  is  here  that  the  highest  laurels  have  been  won,  and 
in  the  success  and  distinction  of  their  artists  all  other  nations 
have  felt  the  warmest  interest  and  pride.  We  alone  have 
treated  art  with  indifference,  if  not  contempt — wholly  neg¬ 
lected  its  claims,  and  sternly  refused  any  outlay  of  money 
to  advance  its  interests.  What  we  have  done  has  been  incom¬ 
pletely  done  and  grudgingly  done. 

At  the  International  Exhibition  of  London,  in  1862,  the  Action  of  the 
Papal  Government  assumed  all  the  risk  and  expenses  ofin^nVat 
works  of  art  to  and  from  the  exhibition,  insuring  the  safe  ^2Exhll)ltlonoi 
carriage  and  return  of  any  work.  Nor  did  it  exclude  from 
this  generous  plan  the  artists  of  other  nations  working  at 
Rome,  but  extended  to  them  the  same  privileges  and  rights 
it  gave  to  its  own  subjects.  It  took  care,  at  its  own  expense, 
and  by  its  own  expert  commissioners,  that  the  rooms  allotted 
to  the  arts  should  be  handsomely  decorated  and  arranged. 

Its  generosity  was  well  rewarded.  The  Roman  court  was 


6  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


one  of  the  chief  features  of  interest  in  the  Exhibition,  and 
gave  distinction  not  only  to  the  artists  but  to  Rome. 
ment?oward&ar-  But,  without  entering  here  into  details,  it  may  be  said  in 
tists-  general  that  there  is  no  government  in  Europe  which  has 

considered  itself  absolved  from  all  duties  toward  artists, 
and  none  which  has  not  acknowledged  the  claims  of  art,  and 
shown  a  generous  and  liberal  spirit  in  advancing  its  inter¬ 
ests.  Not  only  the  first-class  powers  of  France,  England, 
Germany,  Austria,  and  Italy,  but  all  the  smaller  countries, 
without  exception,  have  equally  felt  it  to  be  their  duty,  their 
interest,  and  their  pride  to  develop  national  art,  encourage 
National  muse-  national  artists,  establish  museums  and  academies,  and  gather 
emies.  together,  for  the  study  and  delight  of  all,  collections  of  works 

of  the  past  and  present  by  the  ablest  masters  in  sculpture 
and  painting  and  the  sister  arts.  America  is  the  only  nation 
which,  as  a  nation,  has  done  nothing. 

Earnest  efforts  have  undoubtedly  been  made  in  some  of 
the  principal  cities  of  the  United  States  to  encourage  and 
develop  the  fine  arts,  and  various  academies,  museums,  and 
Private  mumfi- Schools  of  art  have  been  founded  by  private  munificence 

cence  iu  tlie  Uni-  J 


ted  states  a  sub-  and  association,  which,  as  far  as  their  funds  will  allow,  are 
tionai  encourage-  endeavoring  to  supply  the  absence  of  all  action  by  the  nation. 

These  are  well  administered,  and  great  credit  is  due  to  the 
founders  and  officers  for  their  public  spirit  and  energy. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  museums  and  academies 
Corcoran  G-ai-  at  Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  the  gallery  at  Wash- 
ton,  d.  c.  mgton,  created  and  given  to  the  city  by  Mr.  Corcoran 
and  sustained  by  his  generosity.  But  these  are  all  private 
and  local  in  their  character  and  their  funds.  They  are  not 
national  institutions. 

tiS Collections  We  have  no  national  collections;  no  national  museums, 
or  schools  of  art.  academies,  or  schools  of  art.  We  have  no  national  rewards 
for  merit ;  no  diplomas  or  medals  for  success ;  no  recogni¬ 
tion  save  that  of  public  and  general  estimation  for  the  works 
of  distinguished  artists.  The  medals,  diplomas,  and  deco¬ 
rations  which  they  have  obtained  have  been  conferred  upon 
them  by  foreign  countries.  It  is  true  that  in  the  Interna¬ 
tional  Exhibition  at  Philadelphia,  medals  were  assigned  as 
well  to  the  products  of  art  as  of  industry ;  but  the  list  of 


centennial  me- medallists  was  so  extended  as  to  detract  from  the  value  and 

dala  were  all  of  .  . 

one  grade  ami  significance  of  the  medals  given.  The  medals  had  all  the 
same  value,  and  no  distinction  of  merit  one  above  another. 

But  even  these  were  not  conferred  by  the  nation,  which 
neither  gave  its  authority  nor  its  purse  to  this  Exhibition. 
It  did,  indeed,  temporarily  lend  some  money  to  further  the 
enterprise,  which  was  of  a  private  character  purely,  but  it 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


7 


strictly  exacted  the  repayment  of  the  sum.  A  govern- 
ment  vessel  was  also  sent  abroad  to  transport  free  of  freight  from 

the  works  of  Americans,  and  especially  of  artists.  The  sum  aeipiiia. 
expended  in  this  way,  had  it  been  differently  administered, 
by  an  intelligent  commission,  would  have  gone  far  toward 
defraying  the  general  expenses  of  the  American  exhibitors 
abroad.  As  it  was,  it  was  wasted  in  merely  relieving  them 
from  the  payment  of  freights — for  which  a  quarter  of  the  sum 
would  have  sufficed  to  transport  the  works  in  the  ordinary 
way.  Freight,  however,  was  but  the  smallest  of  the  ex¬ 
penses  to  which  any  artist,  and  particularly  any  sculptor, 
was  subjected.  All  other  expenses  and  risks  were  thrown 
upon  his  shoulders.  If  his  picture  or  statue  was  damaged, 
broken,  or  lost,  he  had  no  remedy ;  if,  as  really  occurred,  the 
cases  in  which  his  works  had  been  packed  were  destroyed  by 
fire  in  the  storage  sheds,  without  his  fault,  he  alone  sus¬ 
tained  the  loss. 

As  a  nation,  we  do  not  profess  to  look  down  upon  art:  at,  National  neg- 
least,  we  utterly  neglect  it.  It  forms  no  portion  of  our  edu¬ 
cation,  and  in  the  public  representative  bodies  of  our  country 
a  lamentable  ignorance  prevails.  There  is  neither  knowl 
edge  nor  good  taste  in  the  patronage  of  the  government. 

Ho  great  national  academy  or  museum  of  art  exists  to  confer 
honors  and  rewards,  to  educate  students,  or  to  improve  the 
public  taste;  all  the  academies  and  museums  that  exist  are 
private  and  local  in  their  character,  limited  in  their  means, 
and  unsupported  by  the  nation.  The  American  artist,  there¬ 
fore,  having  but  restricted  opportunities  to  educate  himself  Americans 
in  his  own  country,  is  forced  to  expatriate  himself  for  the  pur-  abroad/0  study 
pose  of  study.  After  he  has  to  a  certain  extent  accomplished 
hinrself  in  his  art,  if  he  returns  to  his  own  country  he  meets 
at  every  turn  but  obstacles  and  disappointments.  The  pat¬ 
ronage  of  the  government  is  for  the  most  part  in  the  hands 
of  the  ignorant,  and  it  is  but  too  often  the  prize  of  success¬ 
ful  lobbying,  from  which  the  true  artist  withdraws  In  shame. 

If  we  are  a  great  country,  as  justly  we  claim  to  be,  let  us  should  not  a 
behave  like  a  great  country.  Is  it  creditable  for  us,  with  all  aSd  °miseSm  “S' 
our  wealth  and  prosperity,  to  be  without  a  great  national  theUnitedstlteS 
museum  and  academy  of  art — such  as  is  to  be  found  in 
every  great  capital  in  Europe  ?  How  can  we  expect  to  take 
rank  in  art  with  the  great  nations  of  Europe,  when  neither 
our  nation  itself  nor  any  State  or  city  in  the  Union  possesses 
a  gallery  of  art  of  which  any  second-rate  government  of 
Europe  would  not  be  ashamed?  While  we  have  nothing, 
can  we  without  mortification  look  at  the  magnificent  collec¬ 
tions  abroad  and  consider  the  munificent  manner  in  which 


8 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  J878. 


National  Gal¬ 
lery. 

British  Muse¬ 
um. 


Kensington 

Museum. 


Grants  by  Par¬ 
liament. 


British  success 
in  uneart  hing  and 
securing  antiqui¬ 
ties. 


Halicarnassus. 

Parthenon. 

Lycian  art. 

Nineveh. 

Phigalean  mar¬ 
bles. 

Royal  Acad- 
emy. 


‘ PrixdeRome . 


Trocadero  Gal- 
le  ry  of  Retrospec¬ 
tive  Art. 


they  are  supported  and  constantly  enriched  by  public  grants? 
In  England,  besides  the  treasures  of  private  collections, 
there  is  the  National  Gallery,  rich  in  the  most  splendid  works 
of  the  greatest  painters  5  the  British  Museum,  adorned  with 
the  noblest  relics  of  antique  sculpture,  vases,  gems,  terra¬ 
cotta  ornaments,  bronzes,  not  to  speak  of  the  incomparable 
library  and  other  departments  in  the  museum;  the  Ken¬ 
sington  Museum,  a  store-house  of  treasures  of  the  mediteval 
world  and  of  the  Renaissance.  Costly  as  these  collections 
are,  they  are  constantly  enlarged  by  munificent  grants  from 
Parliament.  Not  a  year  passes  that  conspicuous  sums  are 
not  paid  to  secure  still  additional  treasures.  It  suffices  that 
England  knows  that  anything  of  real  value  and  excellence 
is  to  be  procured,  and  her  purse-strings  are  liberally  opened 
to  obtain  it.  Not  only  this,  large  sums  of  money  are  con¬ 
stantly  granted  to  explore  the  soil  of  ancient  Greece,  and  to 
unearth  the  master  pieces  of  antique  sculpture  and  arch¬ 
itecture.  There  is  no  corner  of  the  world  where  she  is  not 
prying,  regardless  of  cost,  to  discover  valuable  relics  of  the 
ancient  world  of  art.  Under  her  auspices  the  soil  of  Hali¬ 
carnassus  yielded  up  the  lost  sculpture  of  the  famous  Mauso¬ 
leum.  The  Parthenon  conceded  to  her  its  glorious  but  de¬ 
faced  works.  To  her  liberality,  enterprise,  and  determina¬ 
tion  we  owe  it  that  we  still  have  the  remains  of  Lycian  art, 
the  massive  sculpture  and  cuneiform  inscriptions  of  Nine¬ 
veh — the  Phigalean  marbles.  Besides  these  great  muse¬ 
ums,  it  was  under  her  patronage  that  the  Boyal  Academy 
was  founded  and  still  lives,  and  is  regarded  as  a  national 
institution. 

Nor  far  behind  her  is  France,  with  her  magnificent  na¬ 
tional  galleries  of  sculpture  and  painting,  covering  acres 
of  ground,  and  illustrated  with  the  noblest  works  of  the 
ancient  and  modern  world,  with  her  academies  of  art,  sci¬ 
ence,  and  literature,  whose  hard- won  honors  are  coveted 
throughout  the  world,  with  her  annual  prizes  to  those  who 
distinguish  themselves  in  art.  Her  golden  medals  of  merit, 
her  uPrixde  Rome her  encouraging  hands  are  ready  to 
help  and  cheer  the  artist.  In  no  grudging  spirit  she  expends 
from  the  public  purse  large  annual  sums  to  add  to  her 
already  rich  collections  of  art ;  and  in  celebration  of  this  in¬ 
ternational  gathering,  has  built  the  great  palace  of  the  Tro¬ 
cadero  as  a  permanent  gallery  of  retrospective  art.  Here 
are  gathered  together,  in  chronological  series,  the  artistic 
relics  of  the  past  from  the  earliest  ages — a  mere  description 
of  which  would  involve  the  history  of  art  itself.  This  she 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


9 


has  done  to  show  to  the  world  that  the  Republic  does  not  FRANCE- 
intend  to  be  behind  the  Empire  in  the  liberal  fostering  of  art.  leries  °p  embrlce 

Nor  can  it  be  said  that  all  the  galleries  of  Europe  are  the  thG  present  as 
accumulations  of  the  past  only,  and  that  it  would  be  impos¬ 
sible  for  us  even  to  attempt  a  rivalship  in  this  regard  with 
the  nations  of  Europe.  The  Kensington  Museum  and  this 
very  palace  of  the  Trocadero,  among  others,  are  a  proof  of 
the  contrary  5  and  still  more  have  we  an  example  in  Munich  Munich, 
of  what  a  large  and  generous  spirit  can  do  in  our  own  day. 

It  is  within  our  own  recent  memory  that  King  Louis  founded 
the  Glyptothek  and  Pinacothek  there,  and  created  and  de-  Giyptothek. 
veloped  a  new  school  of  art.  This,  at  least,  is  certain,  that  Pmacothek- 
we  never  shall  make  any  progress  towards  having  a  great 
national  museum,  or  academy,  or  school  of  art,  until  we 
begin  in  earnest.  ITp  to  the  present  day,  we  have  not  begun. 

How,  then,  can  we  expect  to  have  a  national  character  in  our 
art  %  But  the  unfortunate  fact  is  that  the  very  proposition 
in  Congress  to  appropriate  even  an  inadequate  sum  for  such 
a  purpose  would  probably  arouse  the  strongest  opposition, 
and  afford  an  opportunity  for  much  blatant  talk  about  the 
necessity  of  retrenchment  and  the  duty  of  keeping  u  the  peo¬ 
ple’s  money.” 

As  it  is,  art  is  heavily  handicapped  in  America.  The  govcm- 

notion  of  our  government  is  that  it  must  manage  for  itself,  responsibility  ^>f 
without  means  and  opportunities  of  study  and  culture, 
depend  for  its  support  upon  private  patronage  solely,  and 
develop  itself  as  it  may  in  the  cold  shadow  of  neglect.  One 
might  as  well  expect  the  highest  literary  culture  without 
libraries  and  schools,  or  the  rarest  exotic  without  a  shelter 
frojn  the  chill  of  winter. 


One  could  not  but  be  struck,  even  in  the  most  cursory  Former  divis- 
glance  at  the  Exposition,  by  the  fact  that  the  sharp  division  of  Art”  beconXig 
of  schools  which  once  characterized  the  different  nations  of obllterated- 
Europe  has  become  very  much  obliterated.  The  modern 
facilities  of  tiavel  have  tended  to  draw  them  all  together  into 
one  great  nationality  of  art.  Formerly  the  artists  of  each 
country  remained  at  home,  seeking  their  subjects  in  the  life 
and  nature  by  which  they  were  surrounded,  and  developing 
a  national  character  and  style.  Not  only  was  this  evident 
in  the  schools  of  various  nations  in  the  past,  when  the  Dutch 
and  Flemish  schools,  for  instance,  were  so  widely  separated  in 
all  their  characteristics  from  those  of  Italy,  but  it  was  also 
seen  in  the  various  schools  of  the  same  country,  those  of 
Venice,  Tuscany,  and  Bologna  being  clearly  distinguished 
from  each  other.  In  the  present  day,  however,  these  national 


10 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


drawnsSentsaofc^arac^er^s^cs  are  far  less  discriminated.  The  great  cen- 
every  national-  ters  of  art  draw  to  them  students  of  every  nation,  who  carry 
back  methods  there  learned  to  their  own  country,  and  thus 
it  happens  that  the  French  school  has  distinguished  repre¬ 
sentatives  throughout  Germany,  Italy,  Hungary,  and  in  like 
manner  the  German  schools  have  their  representatives  in 
France  and  America,  and  the  Spanish  school  in  Italy  and 
elsewhere.  Besides  this,  many  artists  permanently  reside 
and  practice  their  art  in  foreign  lands  and  cities,  and  are 
scarcely  to  be  distinguished  in  style  and  method  from  the 
native  artists.  If  this  be  observable  to  a  certain  extent 
among  all  nations,  more  or  less,  nowhere  was  it  more  strongly 
marked  than  in  the  American  department  of  painting  in  this 
Exposition.  Here  there  was  no  nationality,  no  peculiarity  of 
method,  style,  or  thought,  distinguishing  the  works  of 
America  from  those  of  the  rest  of  the  world. 

American  art-  Our  artists  have  been  driven  abroad  to  study  by  the  utter 
ropeai°meUiodsU  absence  of  any  materials  for  study  at  home,  and  the  natural 
consequence  is  chat  they  have  taken  up  the  style  and  method 
of  their  masters,  both  in  subject  and  in  treatment.  The  apt¬ 
ness  with  which  they  have  caught  these  characteristic  fea¬ 
tures  shows  susceptibility,  but,  as  Michel  Angelo  said,  he  who 
follows  must  go  behind.  We  have  many  clever  scholars,  but, 
as  yet,  no  masters. 

American  art  This  tendency  to  imitation  in  American  art,  and  this  ab- 

imitative  rather  ' 

than  original,  sence  of  bold  originality,  is  specially  to  be  wondered  at  in 
a  nation  which  in  other  departments  has  shown  so  much 
independence  of  thought  and  character.  What  is  still  more 
remarkable  is  that  the  paintings  which  are  claimed  to  be 
most  American  are  least  characterized  by  vigor  of  design, 
fine  quality  of  workmanship,  or  originality  of  conception. 
Despite  the  talent  which  is  often  shown,  there  is,  for  the 
most  part,  a  lack  of  culture,  a  lack  of  training,  and  a  lack  of 
ideas. 

ceptions<lual  ex>  making  these  remarks  I  am  only  speaking  of  general 
characteristics  and  tendencies,  to  which  individual  excep¬ 
tions  are  undoubtedly  to  be  made.  Some  of  the  American 
pictures  at  Paris  showed  capacity  of  no  mean  order,  but  in  few 
cases  can  it  be  said  to  have  emancipated  itself  from  the  tram¬ 
mels  of  imitation,  or  boldly  made  its  own  path,  or  had  any¬ 
thing  special  to  say.  In  a  word,  there  is  little  strong  creative 
power,  even  where  there  is  considerable  mechanical  accom¬ 
plishment. 

Art’s  excuse  But  if  works  of  art  are  animated  by  no  high  poetic  sense, 

tor  being.  ,  .  1  .. 

and  are  neither  original  m  conception  nor  admirable  m  exe¬ 
cution,  they  have  but  little  excuse  for  existing  at  all.  Mere 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


11 


verses,  however  carefully  written  with  all  the  requirements  America. 
of  rhythm  and  rhyme,  are  not  poems. 

In  the  recent  Exposition  the  comparatively  few  works  of  tuf 
art  which  hung  on  the  walls  of  the  American  department  position, 
were  well  exhibited.  The  arrangement  of  the  single  room 
which  contained  them  all  compared  favorably  with  that 
of  any  other  nation.  It  is  impossible,  however,  not  to 
regret  the  absence  of  many  of  our  most  distinguished  paint¬ 
ers.  In  some  cases  undoubtedly  this  was  occasioned  by  a 
misapprehension  as  to  the  period  within  which  the  pictures  Reasons  lor  in- 
must  have  been  painted  in  order  to  render  them  admissible,  comPletedlsPlil3': 
and  also  by  an  unfounded  belief  that  only  the  works  of  liv¬ 
ing  artists  could  be  sent.  In  other  cases,  in  consequence  of 
the  exceedingly  limited  space,  pictures  were  rejected  which 
ought  to  have  been  received.  In  other  cases,  the  owners  of  in^  o? condluons 
some  of  the  best  pictures  by  American  artists  refused  toofreception’ 
incur  the  risk  and  expense  of  sending  them  without  any 
guaranty  of  their  safe  restoration.  In  other  cases,  the 
painters  had  no  sufficient  notice  to  enable  them  to  send  their 
works.  The  time  between  the  appropriation  by  Congress  want  of  notice, 
and  its  determination  to  participate  at  all  in  the  Exposi¬ 
tion  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  opening  of  the  Exposition  on 
the  other,  was  too  short  to  enable  the  Commissioner  to  give 
proper  notice.  Everything  necessarily  was  done  in  a  hurry,  short  time, 
and  what  is  done  in  a  hurry  is  seldom  well  done.  Again, 
there  were  no  committees  appointed  in  the  great  centers 
of  art — Italy,  Germany,  England,  or  France — to  give  proper 
information  to  tl^e  artists  or  to  secure  their  co-operation. 

The  result  was  that  such  artists  as  William  Hunt,  Crop-  Some  able  ar- 

.  '  tists  not  repre- 

seyf  Tilton,  Bierstadt,  Raseltine,  for  instance,  and  manysented. 
others  who  have  attained  distinction  at  home  and  abroad, 
were  not  represented  at  all ;  and  those  who  did  exhibit  were 
restricted  almost  invariably  to  one  picture,  and  that,  in 
many  cases,  was  selected,  not  because  it  was  the  best  or 
most  important  one  offered,  but  because  of  its  size.  Under 
such  circumstances  it  is  impossible  to  consider  the  paintings 
exhibited  to  be  a  fair  representation  of  American  art. 

The  total  number  of  pictures  exhibited  by  the  United  tu^mebt®r 
States,  in  oil  and  water  colors,  was  143,  and  19  engravings,  States 

etc.  There  was  no  sculpture.  England  exhibited  448 16£  ,  n 
paintings  and  46  works  in  sculpture  and  bas  relief,  26  de¬ 
signs,  170  architectural  designs,  and  36  engravings,  making 
a  total  of  726.  France  exhibited  1,065  paintings  and  389  France,  2,071, 
works  in  sculpture  and  bas  relief,  388  architectural  designs, 

228  engravings  and  lithographs,  making  a  total  of  2,071. 

Italy  exhibited  421  paintings,  180  works  of  sculpture,  30  archi-  Italy  644 
tectural  designs,  and  13  engravings,  making  a  total  of  644. 


12 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


PAINTING. 

FRANCE. 

France.  France,  not  only  by  the  number  of  its  works  but  by  their 
quality  and  character,  is  entitled  to  the  first  rank  and  de¬ 
serves  to  be  first  considered.  The  influence  of  its  school  of 
painting  has  been  felt  over  all  the  world,  and  in  its  tech¬ 
nical  works  it  takes  the  lead  of  all.  Some  of  the  most  ad- 
schooiueofCep°afiit^  rabble  works  of  artists  of  other  nations  have  been  achieved 
ins-  under  its  influence  and  by  the  adoption  of  its  methods  5  and 

its  own  achievements  are  generally  in  technical  respects, 
and  at  times  in  poetic  feeling,  worthy  of  great  praise.  The 
its  great  quai-  drawing  is  for  the  most  part  admirable,  showing  that  its 
Feeling,  artists  have  been  carefully  trained  in  those  true  principles 
which  are  the  basis  of  all  fine  and  intelligent  work.  They 
color.  also  are  masters  in  their  methods  of  using  color,  and  their 

works,  as  painting,  are  vigorous,  free,  and  rich  in  impasto. 
They  understand  the  values  of  color,  so  that  the  different 
parts  of  their  pictures  take  their  place  justly  without  con¬ 
fusion,  and  are  properly  subordinated  in  tone  and  effect. 
Knowledge  of  This,  indeed,  is  the  most  essential  technical  quality  of  good 
ue^the1  testVof painting.  Without  it  there  may  fairly  be  said  to  be  no 
the  true  artist.  g00(j  painting,  whatever  other  merits  a  picture  may  have. 

It  is  this  subordination  of  the  unessential  and  unimportant 
to  the  main  and  important  masses,  alike  in  tone,  color,  and 
chiaro-oscuro  which  shows  the  training  of  the  true  artist. 
The  intelligent  understanding  of  the  use  of  color  and  of  its 
values,  to  use  a  technical  phrase,  is  a  marked  characteristic 
of  the  French  school,  in  which  it  is  surpassed  by  no  other 
school.  * 

One  could  not  but  be  struck  by  the  great  and  various  talent 
which  was  everywhere  displayed  upon  the  walls  of  the  French 
department  of  the  fine  arts.  Among  the  thousand  pictures 
exhibited  there  were  few  which,  technically  speaking,  are 
positively  bad ;  there  were  many  that  are  admirable ;  there 
were  a  few  that  are  masterpieces. 

Technical  exe-  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  this  very  skill  of  technical 
ever^hecome  the  execution  by  which  French  art  is  betrayed.  Instead  of  being 
the  subordinate  and  servant,  it  becomes  the  master.  The 
mode  of  doing  and  saying  has  got  to  be  of  more  consequence 
than  the  thing  to  be  done  and  said.  Execution  has  tri¬ 
umphed  over  ideas.  A  clever  painting  has  got  to  be  of 
more  value  than  a  poetic  conception.  Unworthy  subjects 
are  treated  with  masterly  skill.  The  language  has  been 
thoroughly  learned,  but  there  seems  to  be  little  to  say 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


13 


which  is  worth  saying,  and  much  that  is  said  would  be  far  FRAyCB- 

better  unsaid.  There  are  almost  no  great  conceptions,  few  & ^!oi« 

poetic  ideas,  and  little  pure  sentimeni.*  Among  these the  nnde 

many  are  purely  demi-monde  in  character,  or  directly  inspired 

by  the  model,  and  essentially  studies  from  the  nude.  Naked 

women  abound — standing,  sitting,  reclining — for  no  other 

apparent  purpose  than  the  display  of  technical  skill  in 

drawing  and  color.  There  are  admirable  reports  of  nature 

and  landscape,  but  they  are  but  too  often  mere  studies, 

mere  clever  imitations  of  actual  facts,  without  feeling  or 

poetic  charm.  Any  thing  is  good  enough  upon  which  the 

artist  can  exhibit  his  technical  skill.  There  are  many  in-  Studies  8UCh 

teriors  of  windows  filled  with  bric-a-brac  and  furniture  and  ^  bric-a-brac,  in 

volvmg  technical 

vases  and  glasses,  in  which  is  seen  a  lady  looking  at  herself  skill, 
in  a  mirror,  putting  on  her  gloves,  plucking  a  flower,  in  which 
all  the  objects  are  rendered  with  admirable  imitative  skill, 
the  folds  and  breaks  of  the  satin  dresses  perfectly  imitated, 
but  which,  after  all,  mean  little,  and  are  in  themselves  mere 
bric-a-brac.  The  greatest  care  is  shown  in  painting  all  the 
details,  and  they  are  so  well  done,  and  so  realistic,  as  to  be 
almost,  if  not  quite,  as  uninteresting  as  the  reality  thereof 
would  be. 

In  a  word,  the  attempt  in  all  these  pictures  is  to  be  realis-  Realistic,  not 
tic,  not  poetic;  to  demand  applause  for  technical  skill  0fpoetlc> 
execution,  not  to  interest  the  heart  and  mind  of  the  specta¬ 
tor  by  touches  of  passion,  feeling,  and  sentiment. 

The  desire  to  attract  notice  takes  also  two  other  phases,  Microscopic 

.  .  7  minuteness  of  ex- 

One  to  paint  pictures  so  small  that  a  loupe  is  required  to  ecution. 
see  their  finish  of  detail,  one  to  cover  great  canvases 
with  representations  of  incidents  so  brutal  as  to  shock  and 
startle  the  spectator.  Thus  art  oscillates  between  the  in¬ 
significant  and  the  terrible.  The  same  realism  is  carried 
into  both.  Blood  and  wounds  are  painted  with  a  ghastly  ^startling  bru' 
and  horrible  truth,  as  if  the  artist  had  a  morbid  relish  for 
what  is  offensive  and  disgusting. 

After  these  come  the  pictures  of  a  debauched  imagination,  innuendo, 
filled  with  innuendo  and  suggestion,  corrupt  in  sentiment, 
and  having  nothing  to  recommend  them  but  the  technical 
cleverness  with  which  they  are  done — the  eternal  nude 
model  that  the  painter  has  painted  from  mere  emptiness  of 
mind,  or  for  a  worse  reason,  and  which  he  tries  to  make  Pruriency, 
poetic  by  the  title  of  his  canvas,  but  who  only  wakens  in  us 
the  wish  that  she  would  put  on  her  dress  and  go  home. 

In  all  this  there  is  not  only  a  singular  absence  of  original 

*  The  school  of  genre  predominates  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  paint¬ 
ings  are  devoted  to  anecdote  and  trivial  incident. 


14 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


reviving. 


ideas,  but  a  total  want  of  recognition  of  wbat  is  the  true 
end  and  object  of  art.  One  cannot  but  feel,  on  looking  over 
this  exhibition  of  erring  talent,  with  Hamlet— that  “  there 
is  something  rotten  in  the  state  of  [France] 79 ;  one  cannot 
but  regret  that  the  great  skill  manifest  everywhere  should 
be  so  utterly  wasted  or  dedicated  to  such  unworthy  ends. 

A  purer  feeling  Fortunately,  to  this  general  tendency  of  French  art,  which 
is  but  the  spawn  of  the  last  Empire,  there  are  eminent  ex¬ 
ceptions,  and  it  is  plain  that  even  now  the  current  is  begin¬ 
ning  to  set  against  it  among  artists  and  the  public.  The 
taste  which  had  been  so  sadly  debauched  is  beginning  to 
revive  in  sentiment,  and  there  are  indications  of  a  Rennais - 
sauce  of  a  newer  and  purer  school.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  this 
Exposition  will  have  a  beneficial  influence,  for  here  were  col¬ 
lected  some  of  the  best  pictures  of  other  schools  which  ap¬ 
peal  to  a  different  standard.  It  is  also  to  be  feared  that  the 
search  for  novelty  may  lead  them  astray  in  another  direc¬ 
tion,  and  induce  them  to  imitate  examples  which  should  be 
avoided  in  the  luture. 

What  strikes  one  at  present  is  the  absence  of  all  definite 
The  academic  school  which  so  long  tri- 
The  school  of  genre ,  which  of 
Each 

artist  seems  in  the  general  anarchy  to  be  seeking  blindly 
some  new  method — on  one  side,  towards  literal  realism on 
the  other,  towards  sensational  and  vague  impressions  with¬ 
out  detail  or  completeness ;  on  another,  towards  extrava¬ 
gance;  on  still  another,  towards  violence  and  brutality. 
lm^muc^inS*  ^ere  *s  little  discipline,  but  much  individuality,  and  this  in 
viduaiity.  itself  is  good.  Only  one  could  wish  that  this  individuality 
had  its  expression  in  better  ways,  and  directed  itself  to 
nobler  ends ;  that  it  were  not  so  self-conscious  and  ready  to 
sacrifice  anything  in  order  to  attract  attention,  and  that  it 
acknowledged  some  distinct  faith  and  some  sincere  purpose. 
However,  we  are  now  at  a  moment  of  indeterminateness  be¬ 
tween  ebb  and  flow.  The  corrupt  influence  of  the  Empire 
has  scarcely  passed  away ;  the  tide  lias  not  yet  decidedly 
out-  set  in  a  new  direction.  But  there  is  much  to  hope,  and  with 
their  mastery  of  methods  and  their  capacity  of  technical  ex¬ 
pression,  we  now  wait  to  see  if  France  has  any  great  con¬ 
ceptions  to  express.  Thus  far  there  seems  to  be  little  indi¬ 
cation  of  a  powerful  creative  energy,  of  a  lofty  imagination, 
of  a  noble  poetic  feeling.  The  artists  of  to-day  have  thor¬ 
oughly  mastered  their  instruments,  but,  instead  of  sympho¬ 
nies  and  pure  creations  of  music,  we  have  scarcely  anything 


Absence  of  defi¬ 
nite  direction  of 

art-  ,  direction  of  art. 

Academic 

school  departed,  um  plied  m  France  lias  gone, 
on  the  wane.  late  days  has  been  in  vogue,  already  begins  to  wane. 


.Hopeful 

look. 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


15 


else  than  trivial  waltzes  or  the  rubbishy  jingle  of  uLa  France. 
Grande  Duchesse 

But  it  is  not  alone  in  painting  and  sculpture  that  this 
infidelity  to  truth  and  beauty  is  seen.  In  poetry,  in  romance, 
in  the  drama,  in  music,  it  is  quite  as  clearly  manifested,  and 
exhausted  sensuality  strives  to  excite  the  jaded  senses  by 
new  and  extravagant  irritations. 

Undoubtedly  the  false  taste  of  the  public  and  its  insane  „  Public  craving 

.  _  ,  for  novelty. 

craving  for  mere  novelty  has  much  to  do  with  this  result. 

The  public  influences  art  quite  as  much,  if  not  more,  than 
art  influences  the  public.  Where  there  is  a  demand  there 
will  be  a  supply,  and  happy  talent  is  but  too  often  seduced 
by  high  rewards  and  gains  to  abandon  its  better  genius.  A 
higher  public  morality,  more  certain  ethics,  a  calmer  politi¬ 
cal  condition,  less  luxury  and  extravagance  of  life,  would 
soon  beget  a  new  spirit  in  art.  But  the  violent  contentions  Causes  of  the 
for  wealth,  the  fatal  excess  of  speculation,  the  excitements  debauchedtastes. 
of  politics,  the  worry  and  irritation  of  the  world,  the  frivoli¬ 
ties  of  society,  depress  and  enervate  art,  and  it  becomes  the 
plaything  of  the  virtuoso  and  the  dilettante.  The  influence 
of  France  in  art  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  nation. 

It  inoculates  all  the  world  with  its  disease,  but  nowhere  is 
its  contagion  so  deeply  felt  as  in  the  United  States. 

When  society  shall  become  more  serious  in  its  spirit  and  Conditions  ne- 

.  .  .  .  cessary  for  im- 

in  its  conduct,  art  will  become  more  serious  and  manly  in  proyement  in  ar- 
its  aims,  and  not  till  then.  What  in  America  we  have  spe¬ 
cially  to  guard  against  is  the  contagion  of  manners  and 
morals  averse  from  the  natural  spirit  of  a  free  republic,  and 
degrading  to  life  and  to  art,  to  which  we  offer  ourselves  as 
willing  victims,  rejoicing  in  the  corruption  we  covet. 

Let  us  now  leave  these  general  considerations  and  pro¬ 
ceed  to  a  review  of  some  of  the  pictures  of  the  French  de¬ 
partment. 

Since  the  International  Expositions  at  Paris  in  1855  and  Loss  to  art  in 
1867,  some  of  the  most  eminent  painters  who  then  illus-  neSt French paTn- 
trated  its  art  have  passed  away.  Belonging  to  a  previous  tfonfof  if55Panci 
generation,  whose  principles  and  practice  had  not  been 1SG'- 
forced  in  the  hot-bed  of  the  Empire,  they  still  maintained 
a  certain  seriousness  of  attitude  worthy  of  admiration. 

Among  those  who  are  no  more  may  be  mentioned  the  con¬ 
spicuous  names  of  Ingres,  Delacroix,  Descamps,  Kousseau, 

Millet,  Daubigny,  and  Troyon,  each  in  his  line  a  master, 
showing  boldness,  poetic  feeling,  originality,  seriousness, 
and  reserve  in  their  works,  qualities  which  but  too  often  are 
wanting  in  their  successors. 


16 


FRANCE. 


Millet,  in 
Exposition 
1861. 


Millet, 
Rousseau, 
absent  in  1878. 


Corot, 


Daubigny. 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

No  lover  of  art  can  fail  to  remember  with  delight  the 
remarkable  pictures  exhibited  in  1867  by  Millet.  These, 
among  others,  were  the  powerful  and  intense  u  La  Mort  et  le 
Bucheron?  animated  with  the  truest  spirit  of  tragedy, 
uLes  Glaneuses ,”  uLe  Parc  au  Moutons ,”  u  Glair  de  Lurie? 
perfect  in  its  depth  of  sentiment,  and  the  u  Angelus  du 
Soir?  profoundly  touching  in  its  pure  religious  sentiment. 
No  one  ever  expressed  as  Millet  did  the  simple  poetry  of 
peasant  life.  As  themes,  his  pictures  are  at  times  almost 
nothing,  but  the  pathos,  sentiment,  intensity  of  feeling,  and 
profound  simplicity  with  which  they  were  felt  and  rendered 
are  unsurpassed.  There  was  nothing  affected  in  them  5 
they  had  no  conscious  graces  to  attract  attention  ;  no  over¬ 
insistence  of  detail  to  show  the  cleverness  of  the  artist. 
Homely,  direct,  and  true  to  life,  they  went  to  the  heart ;  in 
technical  qualities  they  were  masterly,  broad,  and  firm  ;  in 
drawing,  deep  and  restrained;  in  color,  penetrated  by  a 
delicate  and  exquisite  feeling.  One  of  his  pictures  may  be 
seen  in  a  private  gallery  of  Philadelphia,  which  may  serve 
as  a  lesson  for  all  earnest  artists.  It  is  merely  a  shepherd 
leading  home  his  flock  after  sundown.  The  delicate  gleam 
of  fading  twilight  lingers  in  the  sky.  The  landscape  is 
vague  and  dark  with  the  coming  on  of  night ;  the  shepherd 
is  but  a  silhouette  in  the  foreground,  and  his  sheep  are 
densely  clustered  together  so  that  you  have  to  peer  into 
them  to  see  what  they  are,  as  you  would  in  nature;  nothing 
is  overdone,  nothing  cries  out  to  be  seen.  There  is  com¬ 
plete  stillness  and  repose.  The  day  is  done ;  a  tender  regret, 
as  for  that  which  is  gone,  broods  over  the  scene.  The  weary 
shepherd  is  going  home,  unconscious  that  we  see  him.  Ten¬ 
derness,  refinement,  and  simplicity  can  scarcely  go  further. 

Unfortunately  for  art,  there  were  none  of  Millers  pictures 
in  the  recent  Exposition,  nor  were  there  any  of  Rousseau’s 
noble  landscapes,  which  illuminated  the  walls  in  1867.  Of  Co¬ 
rot’s  poetic  but  somewhat  vague  and  blurred  landscapes  there 
were  several,  but  they  were  not  of  his  best.  His  delicate 
and  refined  talent  has  been  largely  appreciated  in  France,  but 
it  was  not  a  robust  and  powerful  talent,  and  his  pictures  are 
but  too  generally  mere  suggestions,  monotonous  in  charac¬ 
ter,  and  with  little  vigor  of  sentiment  or  execution ;  on 
the  other  hand,  they  are  quiet,  unobtrusive,  and  refined, 
which,  among  the  many  noisy,  impudent,  and  vulgar  pic¬ 
tures  of  the  present  day,  is  in  itself  a  virtue  and  a  grace  for 
which  we  must  be  thankful. 

Several  of  Daubigny’s  landscapes  adorned  the  walls  of  the 
Exposition,  but  they  were  for  the  most  part  ill-hung.  One  of 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


17 


them,  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  of  all,  was  a  “  Lever  de  Lune , 
d  Anvers ”.  The  full,  warm  summer’s  moon  has  just  risen, 
spreading  a  faint,  purplish  light  about  its  yellow  disk.  A 
deep  and  delicate  shadow  hangs  over  the  dim  and  quiet 
landscape  $  all  is  subdued ,  peaceful,  and  serene.  Two  figures 
may  be  seen  sitting  on  a  slope  near  the  foreground.  There 
is  also  another  Lever  de  Lune ,  much  the  same  in  character 
and  sentiment,  with  peasants  driving  cows  home,  and  one 
kissing  the  other.  Both  these  pictures  are  admirably 
painted,  quiet  in  tone,  and  full  of  feeling.  Besides  these 
there  are  uLe  Tonnelier ,”  u  La  Matson  de  la  Mere  Bazot ,” 
uLe  Pr  intemps”  all  vigorous  and  striking  pictures.  The 
one  which  is  least  worthy  of  Daubigny  is  uLa  Beige ”  a 
snowy  landscape  with  black  leafless  trunks,  around  which 
crows  are  flying,  against  a  cold  sunset  sky,  with  gleams  of 
bright  color.  This  is  effective  when  seen  at  a  distance,  but 
is  of  the  impressionist  school,  painted  rudely  with  the 
palette  knife,  and  is  a  pretentious  exhibition  of  technical 
talent  of  which  we  should  hardly  have  thought  this  artist 
would  have  been  guilty. 

Of  Henri  Begnault  there  were  only  five  pictures,  but  these 
were  of  a  character  and  promise,  as  well  as  of  performance, 
which  make  us  only  more  deeply  lament  the  untimely  end 
of  this  young  and  gifted  artist.  Almost  the  last  shot  in  the 
German  attack  on  Paris  struck  him  with  death,  and  French 
art  could  scarcely  have  suffered  a  greater  loss.  In  the  few 
pictures  he  painted,  he  showed  a  surprising  vigor  and  orig¬ 
inality.  They  are  very  powerful  in  color,  without  being- 
violent,  neat  in  tone  and  quality,  and  admirable  in  drawing 
and  composition.  Nothing  could  exceed  the  refinement  and 
delicacy  of  color,  sentiment  and  character,  of  the  portrait 
of  u  Madame  de  Bar  eh  en  Espagnole ”,  her  head  covered  with 
a  mantilla  ;  and  the  u  Sortie  du  Paclia  d  Tangier  ”,  which  he 
left  unfinished  to  go  to  his  death,  is  a  marvel  of  exquisite 
and  splendid  color  as  well  as  of  composition.  There  are 
portions  of  his  picture  which  leave  scarcely  anything  to  be  de¬ 
sired  in  harmony  of  colors  and  tone.  His  equestrian  portrait 
of  Prim  is  also  striking,  and  the  head  is  particularly  strong 
and  serious.  The  black  charger  on  which  the  General  is 
mounted  is  excessive,  and  occupies  too  much  the  eye  and  the 
canvas.  u  Execution  sans  Jugement ,  sous  les  Bois  Maures  de 
Grenade ,”  painful  and  disagreeable  as  it  is,  shows  a  wonder¬ 
ful  mastery  and  artistic  power.  It  is  terrible  and  ghastly  in 
its  realism,  but  it  shows  a  force  of  conception  and  treatment 
which  in  so  young  a  man  are  marvellous. 

In  the  u  Sortie  du  Pacha ,  ”  the  scene  is  in  the  court-yard 

2  p  R 


FRANCE. 


Daubigny. 


R6gnault. 


18 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


FRANCE. 


Kegnault. 


Genre. 

Meissonier. 


of  the  palace.  The  walls  are  white,  and  pierced  with  Arab 
windows.  The  Pacha,  on  a  white  horse,  clothed  in  a 
white  houmous ,  is  coming  from  the  gate- way,  accompanied 
by  his  mounted  suite.  In  the  center  of  the  court  is  a  group 
of  horses  and  men  with  purple  and  green  standards.  In 
the  foreground  is  a  raised  terrace  looking  down  into  the 
court-yard  and  thronged  by  spectators  who  are  merely 
sketched  in.  Nothing  could  surpass  the  delicate  splendor 
and  harmony  of  color  of  the  Pacha  and  his  suite,  or  of  the 
central  group  of  horses  and  attendants $  and  the  manner  in 
which  the  white  horse  is  retained  against  the  white  wall  is 
a  triumph  of  art.  The  key  is  high,  but  nothing  is  glaring, 
and  the  general  tone  is  worthy  of  the  greatest  master. 
Nothing  is  hard  or  crude,  but,  brilliant  as  the  picture  is,  it 
is  subdued  in  tone,  and  full  of  air  as  well  as  light.  The  fig¬ 
ures  are  scarcely  more  than  two  inches  in  height,  yet  noth¬ 
ing  is  niggled  or  little  in  their  execution- — nothing  over¬ 
done  or  overstated. 

If  power  such  as  is  exhibited  in  these  pictures  could  have 
been  devoted  to  great  conceptions,  what  might  not  the  artist 
have  achieved ! 

Genre. 

Let  us  contrast  with  this  picture  the  small  panels  of  Meis¬ 
sonier.  These,  sixteen  in  number,  were  all  arranged  in  a 
line  upon  the  same  wall.  This  was,  perhaps,  unfortunate,  as  it 
brought  one  too  closely  to  a  certain  rigid  monotony  of  effect 
which  would  not  have  been  as  evident  had  they  been  sepa¬ 
rated.  Meissonier  has  a  great  reputation,  particularly  in 
our  country,  and  his  pictures  have  there  brought  enormous 
prices.  There  can  be  no  question  of  his  talent.  He  is  an 
admirable  draftsman.  His  works  are  finished  with  exceed¬ 
ing  elaboration  and  pains.  His  attitudes  and  movements 
are  correct,  his  minuteness  of  finish  and  study  of  detail  are 
surprising,  his  precision  of  touch  admirable,  but  all  his 
work  bears  the  mark  of  over-study  and  effort.  There  is  a 
want  of  freedom  and  happiness  in  it  all.  It  is  very  well 
done,  but  it  leaves  us  cold.  It  is  monotonous  in  tone,  rigid 
and  hard  in  feeling,  and  not  agreeable  in  color.  His  figures 
are  as  hard  as  tin.  His  dresses  have  no  texture  and  quality, 
his  landscapes  and  skies  no  air.  Everything  has  a  look  of 
pre-determination  and  not  of  accident.  It  is  what  it  is,  be¬ 
cause  the  artist  has  chosen  to  have  it  so,  and  not  because 
it  happened  to  be  so.  Nothing  is  like  the  real  thing,  though 
it  is  wonderfully  copied  in  all  its  details.  The  charm  of  a 
work  that  is  finished  more  through  happiness  than  pains  is 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


19 


entirely  lost — one  feels  tlie  labor.  One  of  bis  principal 
pictures,  for  instance,  represents  himself  and  his  son  riding 
along  the  shore  near  Antibes.  There  are  the  sea  and  the 
mountains,  and  the  shy,  and  the  road,  and  the  figures  of 
the  horsemen — all  of  them  have  the  same  quality,  the  same 
definiteness  and  rigidity.  The  sea  is  not  watery,  the  shy  has 
no  atmosphere,  the  mountains  no  haze  of  air.  The  draw¬ 
ing  is  correct,  save  always  the  preposterous  little  figure  on 
the  edge  of  the  sea,  which  is  totally  out  in  perspective  and 
is  only  as  large,  relatively,  as  a  fly,  but  the  whole  has  a 
preciousness  of  looh.  Tahe  again  the  portrait  of  Alexander 
Dumas,  fils.  Elaboration  can  go  no  further — only  every 
thing  has  the  same  value.  The  boots  are  as  good  as  the 
head,  the  accessories  as  much  insisted  on  as  the  essentials. 
There  is  all  that  makes  up  Monsieur  Dumas  and  his  study, 
part  by  part,  but  there  is  no  whole  and  no  reality  of  per¬ 
son.  The  u  Peintre  dH  Unsigned  and  the  u  Portrait  du  Ser- 
gent ,  ”  contain  the  largest  figures,  but  the  latter  is,  perhaps, 
the  thinnest  of  all  in  painting — one  does  not  feel  that  they 
have  any  other  side,  they  so  stick  to  the  background.  u  Mo¬ 
reau  et  son  Chef  d\ Etat-Major  Dessoles ,  avant  Hohenlindenf 
is  one  of  the  best,  if  not  the  best.  The  drawing  is  good — 
the  incident  interesting — the  story  well  told,  and  the  sub¬ 
ject  lends  itself  to  his  peculiar  style.  The  wind  which 
blows  the  naked  branches  of  the  trees,  the  tails  of  the 
horses,  the  skirts  of  the  dresses,  the  dreary  coldness  reign¬ 
ing  over  all,  the  two  officers  standing  apart  and  studying 
the  country  through  their  glasses,  the  horses  shivering  in 
the  bleak  air — are  all  admirably  expressed  and  composed — 
but  there  are  still  the  same  defects  of  color  and  tone.  So 
too  the  long  line  of  the  u  cuirassiers  f  stretching  out  in  a 
wedge,  is  undoubtedly  clever  in  all  the  details  of  the  fig¬ 
ures.  Their  attitudes  are  good,  and  they  are  most  care¬ 
fully  drawn- — but  they  are  rigid  in  color  and  character  as  a 
line  of  Nuremberg  tin  soldiers.  Details  are  painted  which 
in  nature  would  be  beyond  the  sight,  and  the  sky  and  land¬ 
scape  are  vague,  cold,  and  uncertain.  Perhaps  the  very 
cleverest  of  all,  as  far  as  mere  cleverness  goes,  is  the  small¬ 
est — for  his  extreme  precision  then  has  a  value,  which 
in  the  larger  figures  is  lost — ordinarily  there  is  no  loose¬ 
ness  of  texture — no  happiness  of  touch — no  freedom  of 
spirit.  Yet  despite  all  these  drawbacks,  there  is  no  doubt 
of  the  great  talent  of  Meissonier — and  his  honesty  and 
patience  of  labor,  his  conscientiousness  and  faithfulness  as 
an  artist,  his  general  skill  in  drawing  and  composition,  are 
deserving  of  the  highest  praise.  But  he  is  not  a  colorist ; 


FRANCE. 

Meissonier. 


20 


FRANCE. 

Meissunier. 


Meissonier,  jr. 


Gerome. 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

and  one  gets  quite  as  good,  perhaps  even  a  better,  impres¬ 
sion  from  engravings  of  his  works  than  from  the  original 
paintings. 

His  son,  who  follows  in  the  footsteps  of  his  fattier  and 
imitates  his  style,  had  four  pictures  which  are  quite  worthy 
of  his  master. 

Another  distinguished  painter  of  genre  pictures  is  M. 
Gerome,  who  exhibited  ten  pictures.  The  first  by  which  he 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  public  were  very  large  and 
crowded  with  figures,  and  had  for  subjects  episodes  or  inci¬ 
dents  of  ancient  Eome.  Of  late,  however,  he  has  devoted  his 
talent  to  small  cabinet  pictures,  ordinarily  of  a  less  ambi¬ 
tious  character.  These  are  elaborated  to  the  utmost,  and  so 
labored  in  every  detail  as  almost  to  be  painful  exhibitions 
of  patience.  The  subjects  are  often  drawn  from  Eastern 
life,  but  fail  to  reproduce  the  Eastern  character  studied. 
Clever  as  they  are,  they  are  wholly  wanting  in  reality,  and 
have  a  hard  metallic  quality  of  color  and  tone.  Perhaps 
the  best  of  the  specimens  he  has  here  collected  is  UL’ Emi¬ 
nence  Grise ,”  which  is  cleverly  composed  and  drawn.  Crowds 
of  elaborately  dressed  courtiers  are  ascending  the  palace 
stairs  and  profoundly  saluting  His  Eminence,  who  is  de¬ 
scending,  dressed  in  his  monkish  robes,  and  intent  on  read¬ 
ing  his  missal.  Well  as  this  is  painted,  and  patient  as 
are  the  care  and  elaboration  shown  in  its  details,  it  misses 
its  point  and  fails  to  touch  us  with  the  sense  of  reality. 
The  picture  is  clear  and  polished  as  steel,  the  dresses  new 
and  precise,  the  attitudes  a  little  exaggerated,  and  all  a 
little  too  exact.  Compared  with  the  picture  by  Zamacois 
in  the  Spanish  department,  representing  the  self-important 
Court  Dwarf  descending  the  court  stairs  accompanied  by 
a  great  dog  and  saluted  by  smiling  courtiers,  by  which  this 
picture  of  Gerome  was  plainly  inspired,  one  cannot  but 
feel  the  great  inferiority  of  the  French  painter  to  the 
Spanish  as  a  colorist  or  a  delineator  of  character.  Not 
only  is  the  picture  by  Zamacois  warm  and  rich  in  tone, 
and  free  in  execution,  but  it  exhibits  a  remarkable  sense  of 
restrained  humor. 

The  paintings  of  oriental  scenes  represent  “  The  Arab  and 
his  courser,”  “  Women  at  the  Bath,”  “  Santon  at  the  Cate  of 
the  Mosque,”  “  Turkish  Bath,”  u  Bachi-Bouzouks  Dansant” 
a  “Lion,”  “  Cafe  Rue  de  Caire .”  These  have  a  certain  kind 
of  interest,  but  they  all  have  the  same  defects  and  the  same 
merits.  We  have  had  quite  enough  of  women  at  the  bath, 
and  these  two  are  more  than  enough.  They  have  no  interest 
save  that  of  nudity,  and  one  of  them  is  absolutely  vulgar. 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


21 


u  San  ton  at  tlie  Gate  of  tlie  Mosque  ”  is  an  ugly  Arab  stand¬ 
ing  at  a  door  which  is  surrounded  by  a  mass  of  shoes  and 
slippers — ‘all  very  carefully  done.  The  Arab  and  his  dead 
horse  in  the  desert  is  cold,  hard,  and  antipathetic.  There 
is  no  air  and  no  feeling  of  desert  and  solitude,  and  the  figures 
are  finished  to  death.  “St.  Jerome  and  the  Lion”  is  artifi¬ 
cial  in  sentiment,  and  nothing  is  freely  felt :  the  green  eyes 
in  the  lion  are  scarcely  worthy,  in  their  exaggeration,  of 
an  artist  like  Gerome.  All  these  pictures  are  character¬ 
ized  by  the  same  hard  metallic  quality  of  color ;  all  are  elabo¬ 
rated  with  the  greatest  patience — too  much  elaborated,  in 
fact.  The  extreme  pains  has  killed  life  and  feeling.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  there  is  undoubted  talent  and  capacity 
to  seize  upon  characteristic  subjects,  careful  drawing,  artis¬ 
tic  skill,  and  conscientious  work. 

Beside  these  pictures  by  GerOme  are  those  by  Berne-Bel- 
lecour,  in  the  same  school,  but  rendered  with  more  freedom 
and  truth.  One  of  these,  “  Tin  Officier  de  Mobiles,”  represents 
a  soldier  lighting  a  cigarette,  with  a  cold,  .gray,  brumy 
landscape  behind  him.  This  is  very  clever,  free  though 
careful  in  execution,  and  touched  with  much  spirit.  But  his 
“  Coup  de  Canon ”  is  a  work  of  much  more  power  and  char¬ 
acter.  It  represents  a  group  of  cannoniers  and  officers  firing 
a  cannon  over  a  rampart  of  earth- works.  It  is  early  morn¬ 
ing.  The  sky  is  cold  and  gray,  and  the  group  is  relieved 
darkly  against  the  breast-high  ramparts.  The  scene  is  repre¬ 
sented  with  great  truth  and  sentiment,  the  drawing  and 
character  are  admirable,  and  the  color  is  subdued. 

In  tfie  same  room  are  seven  genre  pictures  by  Vibert,  much 
in  the  same  school,  and,  though  very  clever,  sinning  on  the 
side  of  hardness  and  over-elaboration.  Of  these,  perhaps 
the  most  interesting,  alike  in  story,  humor,  and  execution, 
is  uLa  Cigale  et  la  Fourmi .”  This  represents  a  fat,  well-fed 
Capucin  carrying  over  his  shoulder  a  basket  laden  with 
game  and  poultry,  who,  on  a  hill-side  of  cold  snow,  meets  a 
slim,  starving  lutanist  clad  in  green,  with  his  long  lute  slung 
on  his  back.  The  poor,  shivering  lute-player  craves  alms. 
The  fat,  warmly-clad  monk  utterly  rejects  his  demand.  Both 
the  figures  are  very  cleverly  painted,  especially  the  strolling 
lutanist,  and  the  picture  is  full  of  humor  and  character. 
Even  more  clever  and  spirited  in  character,  drawing,  and 
execution  is  the  admirable  portrait  of  Coqueter  in  the  role 
of  Mascarille  in  the  uPrecieuses  Ridicules ”  of  Moliere.  Of 
the  others,  uTlie  Serenade”  is  a  little  confused  and  over¬ 
charged  in  details,  and  not  so  satisfactorily  expressed.  The 
“ Depart  des  Maries ”  is  clever  in  composition  and  drawing, 


FRANCE. 


Berne-Bellecour. 


Vibert. 


22 


FRANCE. 


Worms. 


Goubie. 


Goupil. 

Toulmouclie. 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

as  is  also  u  La  Toilette  de  la  Madone,”  but  they  have  neither 
of  them  the  excellence  of  the  two  first  mentioned. 

In  the  school  of  genre  the  seven  pictures  by  Worms  are 
entitled  to  a  high  rank.  They  are,  like  all  the  other  small 
pictures  of  this  class,  a  little  hard  and  over-careful,  but  they 
show  a  good  deal  of  humor  and  character.  uLe  Depart  pour 
la  Revue ”  is  admirable.  A  tall  guardsman  in  full  dress 
stands  in  the  center  of  the  picture  drawing  on  his  gloves 
before  a  mirror  with  its  inevitable  French  clock,  while  his 
wife  stands  before  him  with  clasped  hands  in  mute  admira¬ 
tion.  The  raide  self-sufficiency  of  the  one,  and  the  naive 
delight  and  approbation  of  the  other,  are  very  humorously 
rendered.  Perhaps  even  better  is  u  La  Fleur  Freferee”  This 
is  a  scene  in  a  garden.  A  young  girl  is  sitting  sewing  under 
a  porch.  The  old  father  has  taken  away  a  young  Spaniard 
to  show  him  his  flowers.  He  is  holding  up  one  in  a  pot,  and 
pointing  out  its  wonderful  merits,  but  the  young  man,  in  a 
short  Spanish  jacket,  whose  back  is  turned  to  ns,  instead  of 
examining  the  flowers,  turns  his  head  aside  to  gaze  at  the 
girl.  The  whole  story  is  told  with  delicacy  and  sentiment, 
and  the  humor  of  the  incident  is  not  forced  in  any  point. 
As  far  as  mere  painting  goes  the  best  is  uLe  Compliment ,” 
which,  besides  being  very  spirited  and  characteristic,  is  in 
execution  the  freest  of  all  the  series.  It  represents  a  4-  Bon - 
homme  endimanche ”  in  a  brown  coat  with  a  favor  in  his  but¬ 
ton-hole,  his  hands  in  over-large  gloves  and  spread  at  his 
side,  who,  with  an  elaborate  smile  on  his  face,  has  just 
uttered  his  compliment,  which  he  evidently  thinks  he  has 
done  very  well. 

Among  the  cabinet  pictures  of  genre  are  also  to  be  noted, 
as  showing  spirit  and  cleverness,  the  u  Voyage  deNoces ,”  by 
Goubie,  in  which  an  old-fashioned  chaise  and  postillion, 
with  the  new-married  couple,  are  represented  coming  down 
a  steep  and  deep-rutted  hill,  drawn  by  a  black  and  white 
horse,  while  a  storm  is  rising  behind,  and  also  “  Tine  Ci-Di- 
vant  ”  by  Goupil,  which  is  delicate  in  color  and  pleasing  in 
character.  Toulmouche  also  sends  three  pictures,  uLe  Coin 
du  Feu,”  u  Le  Miroir  ”  and  uI?EteP  The  last  is  a  lady  gath¬ 
ering  roses.  She  is  dressed  in  yellow-striped  silk,  with  a 
blue  sash  tied  behind,  a  blue  parasol,  and  a  red  flower  in  her 
hand.  uLe  Coin  du  Feu”  is  the  pendant.  It  is  a  lady  in 
pink  satin  in  a  boudoir  warming  her  hands  at  the  fire.  u  Le 
Miroir  ”  is  another  lady,  or  the  same  in  blue  satin,  holding 
a  mirror.  In  these  pictures  the  silks,  the  satins,  the  stuffs, 
the  furniture  are  all  painted  with  the  greatest  care,  but  the 
sentiment  is  fade  and  affected,  and  it  seems  a  pity  to  waste 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


23 


so  much  skill  of  execution  on  such  weak  and  trivial  subjects. 
Beaumont  sends  two  pictures,  uLa  Fin  Wune  Chanson”  and 
u  Ou  diable  V Amour  va-t-il  se  nicher  !”  The  first  represents 
a  lover  who,  while  serenading  his  mistress,  has  been  killed 
under  her  window.  She  is  weeping  over  his  body.  The 
faint  light  of  morning  is  beginning  to  dawn.  The  story  is 
well  told,  and  the  scene,  though  a  little  theatric,  well  ren¬ 
dered.  u  Tin  Duel  sans  Temoins”  by  Leleau,  represents  a  girl 
in  red  woolen  corsage  with  a  dusting-brush,  who  is  seated 
in  a  flowered  cretonne  chair  hunting  for  a  flea  in  her  bosom. 
The  picture  is  well  painted ;  but  what  a  subject!  It  makes 
one  sad  to  think  that  talent  should  be  so  frivolously  wasted 
on  such  unworthy  themes.  The  title  certainly  is  witty. 

Could  such  pictures  as  these  be  painted  if  the  public  taste 
were  not  corrupted  ? 

Some  very  clever  genre  pictures  must  also  be  noted  by 
Comte,  one  of  which,  u  Recreation  de  Louis  XI”  represents 
the  old  monarch  in  his  bed  watching  with  amused  interest 
two  pigs  that,  dressed  in  green  and  red,  with  swords  at  their 
sides,  are  made  to  dance  ou  the  floor,  while  two  Capucins 
are  kneeling  before  the  fire,  pretending  to  be  praying,  but 
glancing  aside  at  the  pigs.  The  old  king  in  the  bed  is  quite 
in  shadow.  His  attendants  are  at  his  side  and  at  the  foot 
of  the  bed.  This  picture  is  remarkably  well  painted,  and 
exhibits  great  humor  and  sense  of  character. 

Leloir’s  pictures,  five  in  number,  must  not  be  omitted  in 
this  connection.  u  Tin  Bapteme”  is  very  clever  in  character 
and  design,  painted  with  great  care,  but  without  niggling 
or  hard  elaboration  or  over-voyant  colors.  So  also  is  the 
uPecheurs  du  Treport 7”  which  is  very  quiet  in  tone,  and  repre¬ 
sents  two  figures  under  an  arch,  one  lighting  a  pipe,  one 
with  a  turbot  and  basket.  u  Le  Repos  ”  is  a  delicate  picture, 
of  very  pale  grays  and  yellows,  of  a  young  girl  lying  on  a 
couch  tickling  a  cockatoo.  u  Dentation”  represents  Saint 
Anthony  clinging  to  a  low  breaking  cross  planted  in  the 
ground,  while  two  naked  girls  lie  against  him  and  fondle 
him.  The  picture  is  clever,  and  shows  decided  ability;  but 
if  it  is  sad  to  see  talent  devoted  to  trivial  subjects  like  those 
we  have  mentioned,  how  much  more  sad  to  see  art  dragged 
into  the  mire  of  sensuality,  and  driven  to  such  base  uses. 

And  here,  perhaps,  it  may  be  as  well  to  give  a  glance  at 
a  series  of  pictures  which  have  no  other  reason  to  be  at  all, 
save  to  gratify  sensual  or  brutal  appetites,  but  to  which 
great  talent  has  been  devoted.  Of  the  former  class  is  par¬ 
ticularly  to  be  remarked  u La  Sultane  Favorite”  of  M.  Gar- 
nier,  illustrative  of  some  verses  of  Victor  Hugo,  and  the 


FRANCE. 


Beaumont. 


Leleau. 


Comte. 


Leloir. 


Garni  er. 


24- 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

France.  picture  is  quite  as  exaggerated  as  the  verses.  The  scene  is 
in  a  seraglio.  On  the  edge  of  a  hath  sprawls  the  nakedest  of 
courtesans.  The  Sultan,  a  coarse  and  languid  voluptuary, 
is  seated  cross-legged  and  leering  at  her,  and  behind  him 
enters  a  slave  bearing  the  decapitated  head  of  a  woman,  a 
previous  favorite,  on  a  salver.  There  is  a  combination  of 
the  brutal  and  the  sensual,  which  out-Herods  Herod.  The 
Sultan  is  asking  whether  it  is  necessary  that  for  every  coup 
of  her  fan  there  should  follow  a  coup  of  the  axe.  The  great 
vulgar  courtesan  does  not  seem  to  answer,  but  is  quite  satis¬ 
fied  with  being  utterly  naked,  as  if'  that  were  an  excuse  for 
everything. 

the  realise8 a  re*  over-stress  of  the  realistic  school  on  the  common,  bru- 

voit  against ‘^the  tal,  and  even  ugly,  is  of  course  the  revolt  against  the  artifi- 
va&uc  i  ea  is  ic.  tawdry  sentiment  and  effeminate  feebleness  of  the 

vague  idealistic  school.  It  is  quite  natural  that  a  person  of 
strong  feelings,  in  disgust  at  the  affected  prettiness  of  the 
enameled  dolls  and  characterless  conceptions  of  nameless 
idealists,  should  even  affect  brutality  and  coarseness,  as  at 
least  giving  play  to  life  and  energy  where  before  there  was 
mere  asphyxia,  and  prefer  even  the  awkward  and  common 
to  simpering  affectation  and  platitude.  But,  like  all  revolts, 
this  goes  too  far,  and  conducts  the  artist  but  too  often  to  an 
opposite  excess,  and  thus  misses  the  true  aim  of  art,  which 
is  to  delight  and  not  to  disgust,  to  charm  and  not  to  repel. 
It  is  not  everything  in  nature  that  is  fit  for  art,  nor  is  the 
mere  plea  of  truth  to  fact  a  sufficient  excuse  for  a  work  that 
simply  repels  the  spectator. 

Giaize.  One  of  the  largest  canvases  in  the  exhibition  represents  “A 

Conspiracy  in  the  Early  Days  of  Borne,”  by  Giaize.  There  is 
decided  talent,  but  the  conception  is  brutal  and  disgusting. 
It  is  an  illustration  of  a  passage  in  Plutarch  (Publicola),  and 
represents  a  group  of  men  half-naked  around  a  bleeding 
corpse.  They  have  filled  a  cup  with  his  blood,  which  one 
conspirator  is  holding  up  while  the  others  make  oath  to  some 
common  crime.  All  the  horrors  of  such  a  scene  are  empha¬ 
sized  even  to  exaggeration,  as  if  the  artist  delighted  to  shock 
our  sensibilities  j  and,  acknowledging  the  talent,  we  can 
only  regret  that  it  should  be  devoted  to  so  loathsome  a  sub¬ 
ject.  The  taste  of  M.  Giaize,  however,  seems  to  be  in  this 
direction.  Another  of  his  large  canvases  represents  fugi¬ 
tives  let  down  by  a  rope  over  the  steep  walls  of  a  fortified 
place.  Here  again,  the  incident  is  over-told,  and  the  painful 
character  exaggerated.  Still  another  canvas  represents 
uLe  premier  Duel ,”  where  a  naked  woman  lying  on  a  cliff 
watches  with  interest  the  death-struggles  of  two  naked  men, 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


25 


each  striving  to  force  the  other  over  a  precipice.  This  is  the  FRANCB- 
cleverest  and  least  brutal  of  the  three  in  conception  and 
execution,  and,  painful  as  it  is,  does  awaken  one’s  interest, 
which  the  others  do  not. 

Delaunay  also,  in  his  “Ixion,”  has  gone  farther  in  the  Delaunay, 
delineation  of  the  loathsome.  His  Ixion  is  the  contorted, 
tortured  shape  of  a  human  being  torn  upon  a  wheel,  rent 
with  wounds  and  bleeding.  It  is  a  picture  from  which  every 
one  must  turn  with  horror.  His  “ La  Peste  a  Rome”  is  also 
painful  in  character,  but  there  is  a  certain  reserve  in  it  which 
there  is  not  in  “Ixion,”  and  it  shows  undoubted  power. 

Dead  bodies  are  lying  on  the  pavement,  while  a  good  angel 
directs  an  evil  angel,  armed  with  a  bar,  to  beat  at  the  door  of 
a  house,  where,  according  to  the  legend  it  illustrates,  there 
will  be  as  many  dead  as  there  are  blows.  There  is  over-em¬ 
phasis  of  action  in  these  two  principal  figures,  but  the  pic¬ 
ture  shows  strength.  His  “Diana,”  on  the  contrary,  is 
merely  the  naked  model  executed  with  skill,  though  the 
action  of  the  figure  is  not  clearly  or  happily  conceived,  but 
far  more  like  Elise  or  Henriette ,  who  posed  for  it,  than  the 
goddess  of  the  silver  bow;  so,  too,  his  “ David  Triumphant ” 
is  a  Paris  gamin  with  his  legs  spread  wide  apart,  armed  with 
a  gigantic  sword  and  a  sling,  and  screaming. 

In  such  ideal  subjects  as  these  last  two,  nothing  is  so  fatal  inI“JmodeisPy' 
as  to  attempt  to  embody  them  by  careful  imitation  from  par¬ 
ticular  models.  The  model  should  be  but  the  dictionary  or 
grammar  of  the  artist,  and  not  accepted  as  the  true  repre¬ 
sentation  of  his  ideal.  Into  this  error  painters  are  far  more 
apt  to  fall  than  sculptors,  and  in  this  Exposition  we  every¬ 
where  saw  naked  female  figures  plainly  inspired  by  some 
actual  model  figuring  under  the  name  of  a  classic  divinity 
or  nymph,  or  representing  some  ideal  virtue.  For  instance, 

Lefebvre’s  u  La  Verite ”  is  plainly  merely  a  naked  model,  Lefebvre. 
holding  up  a  mirror.  His  “  Femme  couchee ”  has  no  pre¬ 
tense  to  be  other  than  a  study  from  a  particular  nude.  It 
is  drawn  and  painted  with  great  ability,  and  as  a  study  de¬ 
serves  very  high  praise,  and,  in  fact,  is  far  the  best  of  all 
his  nude  women.  His  “  La  Reve  ”  is  a  nude  model  whitely 
and  thinly  painted  on  a  cloud  which  hangs  low  above  the 
surface  of  water,  on  which  are  lilies  and  leaves,  and  not 
particularly  graceful  in  the  pose.  That  is  the  dream.  His 
“ Madeleine”  is  also  a  nude  woman,  and  evidently  copied 
from  a  model.  In  like  manner  in  “  Le  Jugement  de  Paris,” 
by  Parrot,  the  three  goddesses  are  merely  naked  models.  Parrot* 
Nothing  ideal  in  character  or  feeling  is  even  attempted; 
and  this  is  still  more  striking  in  his  “  Galatee ,”  which  pre- 


26 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

feance.  tends  to  be  nothing  but  a  naked  model  on  an  actual  mod¬ 
eling-stand.  Why  he  calls  it  u  Galatee”  it  is  difficult  to 
see.  There  are  several  u  Davids”  also,  which  are  all  Paris 
gamins.  All  -this  is  very  tiresome  and  disappointing,  and 
all  the  more  so  because  of  the  technical  skill  displayed. 
What  is  wanting  in  the  treatment  of  all  such  subjects 
is  the  creative  power,  the  imaginative  sense,  the  poetic 
sensibility,  and  in  the  realism  of  the  present  day  these  have 
little  chance.  The  artist  is  too  subordinated  to  his  facts  to 
pay  heed  to  his  ideas  and  inspirations.  He  becomes  a  pain¬ 
ful  copier  and  imitator  of  nature  and  fact,  instead  of  a  cre¬ 
ator  and  coactor  with  nature.  She  rules  him  with  a  rod  of 
iron.  She  does  not  inspire  him. 

nation.  ^  In  the  higher  range  of  subjects  this  lack  of  imagination 
is  fatal  to  all  real  success.  In  genre  subjects  it  is  less  fatal, 
because  imitation  is  more  legitimate  in  these ;  the  material 
things  exist  to  be  copied,  and  taste  and  skill,  humor,  and  a 
sense  of  character  supply  its  place.  The  subjects  are  to  be 
seen  by  the  real  eye,  and  not  to  be  divined  and  created,  or 
at  least  not  to  such  an  extent.  Whatever  may  be  the  ex¬ 
planation,  the  fact  is  certain,  that  while  so  many  succeed  in 
genre ,  so  few  succeed  in  the  higher  range  of  purely  ideal 
work.  We  see  many  naked  women,  but  no  figure  like  uLa 
Source ,”  by  Ingres,  which  was  a  sentiment  and  a  creation, 
ideal  in  character,  and  perfectly  pure  in  feeling. 

Brutal  pictures.  But  to  return  to  the  series  of  what  may  be  called  brutal 
pictures,  wherein  the  scope  of  the  artist  has  been  to  be  pow¬ 
erful  at  the  expense  of  being  disagreeable.  An  eminent 

Becker.  example  of  this  may  be  found  in  Becker’s  uBizpali  protect¬ 
ing  the  Bodies  of  her  Sons  against  the  Birds  of  Prey?  Here 
undoubtedly  a  remarkable  talent  is  shown,  but  is  it  legiti¬ 
mately  employed  ?  Here  is  imagination,  if  you  will,  but  is 
it  governed  by  good  taste,  by  happy  selection,  by  proper  re¬ 
straint,  by  the  sense  of  beauty,  by  the  true  sentiment  of  the 
subject1?  Is  there  any  profound  feeling  in  it?  Bead  the 
story  as  told  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  see  if  this  in  any 
way  represents  it.  Six  ghastly  naked  dead  figures  are  hung 
in  a  line  upon  crosses  against  the  sky.  Below  at  their  feet 
is  an  enormous  virago,  one  hand  straight  up,  and  the  other 
swinging  a  club  to  drive  away  an  eagle,  which  is  swooping 
down  on  her.  Where  is  the  pathos,  the  solemn  sorrow  of 
the  desolate  mother,  watching  at  night  over  her  dead  sons? 
This  is  but  a  theatrical  display  of  horror  and  violence. 

There  were  other  pictures,  generally  of  large  size,  which  are 
of  a  similar  character,  showing  a  total  want  of  a  true  imag¬ 
inative  sense ;  but  it  is  needless  to  enumerate  them.  In 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


27 


Scripture  subjects  specially  there  is  generally  wanting  all 
true  sentiment.  The  incidents  are  forced,  the  attitudes  ex¬ 
aggerated  ;  there  is  almost  invariably  too  much  action.  On 
the  other  hand,  some  of  the  religious  pictures  are  academ¬ 
ically  sentimental  and  languidly  weak.  For  instance,  in  the 
latter  category  are  to  be  placed  the  three  paintings  of  Bou- 
guereau,  representing  uLa  Vierge ,  V Enfant  Jesus,  et  St.  Jean 
Baptiste”  the  uPieta,”  uLa  Vierge  consolatrice .”  They  are 
placed  in  line  side  by  side,  and  are  monotonously  like  in  char¬ 
acter,  feature,  and  color.  The  surface  is  smooth  as  enamel. 
They  are  carefully  drawn  and  worked  out  with  extreme  elab¬ 
oration.  In  a  word,  they  are  fatally  pretty  and  purely  senti¬ 
mental.  This  is  the  characteristic  quality  of  all  the  paint¬ 
ings  by  Bouguereau  which  are  there  exhibited.  uLa  Gliar- 
ite”  is  even  weaker  than  those  already  mentioned.  The 
most  pleasing  of  all — and  this  has  too  much  of  an  album 
prettiness — is  u  La  Grande  Soeur,”  which  represents  a  sister 
pulling  on  the  stocking  of  a  little  one  on  her  lap.  The  sub¬ 
ject  of  some  of  his  pictures  will  clearly  indicate  the  char¬ 
acter — uAme  au  Ciel,”  u  Nympliee,”  uLa  Jeunesse  et  V Amour.” 

One  other  picture  of  the  brutal  school  must  not  be  passed 
over.  It  represents  u  St.  Sebastian  et  LEmpereur  Maximien 
Eercule.”  The  ghastly  figure  of  the  saint  is  seen  descend¬ 
ing  the  steps  before  Maximien  and  his  companions.  He 
raises  his  white  drapery  so  as  to  expose  his  corpse-like  body 
covered  with  wounds  and  stabs.  The  emperor  and  his  at¬ 
tendants  start  back  in  dismay,  as  well  they  may.  Nothing 
can  be,more  repulsive.  The  saint  is  well  drawn  from  the 
model,  but  he  is  no  saint — only  a  murdered  man  covered  with 
wounds.  The  other  figures  are  grotesque  in  their  attitudes 
and  purely  academic,  and  the  picture  is  an  offense  to  good 
taste. 

Moreau  also  exhibited  six  pictures  of  a  purely  imaginative 
class. — UR ercule  et  EHydre”  u Salome”  u Jacob  et  IPAnge ,” 
u David,”  uMoise  exposee  sur  le  Nil,”  uLe  Sphinx  divine” — all 
kaleidoscopic  in  color,  and  of  a  strange  bizarre  character. 
There  is  undoubtedly  a  certain  fancy  and  grotesqueness  of 
imagination  displayed  in  these  paintings.  They  avoid  at  once 
the  academic  and  the  real ;  but  they  are  neither  of  the  earth 
nor  the  air,  nor  the  waters  under  the  earth.  They  are  wild 
phantasies  like  opium  dreams. 

Le  Boux  has  also  sent  several  pictures  of  imaginative 
subjects,  partially  historical,  partially  ideal.  One  repre¬ 
sents  the  uDanaides ,”  two  vague  lines  of  damsels,  stretch¬ 
ing  far  into  the  distance,  the  one  bringing  jars  of  water  to 
pour  into  a  well  in  the  foreground,  the  other  disappointed 


FRANCE. 


Bouguereau. 


Moreau. 


Le  Roux. 


28 


FRANCE. 


Historical. 

Laurens. 


Robeit-Fleury . 


Cabanel. 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878 

going  away.  There  is  a  certain  poetic  feeling  in  this  picture, 
hut  it  is  pale,  and  vague  of  color  and  of  form.  Another 
picture  by  him  is  uLa  Vestale  Tuccia”  carrying  water  in  an 
uplifted  sieve;  and  still  another,  uUn Miracle  chez  la  Bonne 
Beesse”  is  a  group  of  vestal  virgins  all  in  white  seated  in  a 
hall,  while  a  sister  virgin  in  black  implores  the  aid  of  the 
goddess  to  relume  the  sacred  fire.  There  is  an  idea  in  all 
these,  and  a  refinement  of  sentiment,  but  they  are  pallid, 
weak  in  color,  and  want  grasp  and  vigor. 

Historical  Paintings. 

From  these  it  may  be  well  to  turn  to  some  of  the  purely 
historical  paintings,  and  among  these  the  most  forcible  and 
well  conceived  and  expressed  were  those  of  Laurens.  They 
were  twelve  in  number,  all  vigorous  in  color  and  drawing, 
and  all  historical  in  their  character.  The  least  good  were 
those  which  are  taken  from  the  New  Testament,  such  as 
u  Jesus  chasse  de  la  Synagogue”  and  u La  Piscine  de  Bethzaida.” 
Far  more  satisfactory  is  he  in  such  subjects  as  uLe  Pape 
Formose  et  Etienne  VII”  which,  though  a  little  black  and 
harsh  in  its  shadows,  is  a  powerful  and  well  conceived  pic¬ 
ture,  without  exaggeration  or  confusion  of  figures.  uISEtat 
Major  Autrichien  devant  le  Corps  de  Marceau”  is  also  an  ad¬ 
mirable  picture.  It  is  simply  treated  without  that  exagger¬ 
ation  and  gesticulation  which  so  often  supplies  the  place  of 
true  action.  The  general  tone  is  gray  and  subdued,  the  heads 
expressive,  and  the  grouping  good.  The  body  of  Marceau 
is  lying  on  a  couch,  and  the  Austrian  staff  is  passing  into  the 
room  to  pay  its  last  tribute  of  respect.  UL> Excommunication 
de  Robert  le  Pieux”  uFunerailles  de  Guillaume  le  Conquer  ant ,” 
and  u  IS  Inter  dit”  have  all  serious  qualities,  a  true  historical 
character,  and  simplicity  as  well  as  power.  The  last  men¬ 
tioned  is  especially  marked  by  sentiment.  We  mark  in  M. 
Laurens,  the  evidence  of  a  return  to  the  older  traditions 
and  the  more  serious  schools  of  art. 

Boberf-Fleury  also  sent  two  large  pictures  one  uLe  Ber¬ 
nier  Jour  de  Corinth,”  and  one  uPinel ,  Medecin  en  Chefde  la 
Salpetriere ,  en  1795.”  Of  these,  by  far  the  best  is  the  latter. 
It  represents  Pinel  entering  the  court  of  a  mad-house  to 
carry  out  his  reforms  in  the  treatment  of  the  insane.  There 
is  a  good  deal  of  character  in  this  picture,  and  a  good  deal 
of  expression. 

Cabanel  also  exhibited  four  pictures  of  this  class,  one  the 
uMort  de  Francesca  da  Rimini  etde  Paolo  de  Malatesta ,”  one 
u  Thamar  et  Absalom.”  In  neither  of  these  has  he  been  able, 
with  all  his  talent,  to  rise  to  the  dignity  of  history  or  the 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


29 


tragedy  of  his  subjects.  Both  are  forcibly  feeble,  exagger-  France. 
ated  in  action,  and  falsely  conceived.  It  is  impossible  to 
recognize  Thamar  in  the  half  naked  woman  in  Absalom’s 
lap,  and  it  is  equally  difficult  to  recognize  Absalom  in  the 
modern,  violent,  scowling,  and  overdressed  Oriental  who  is 
clutching  the  air  in  so  impotent  a  rage.  There  is  nothing 
Biblical  in  the  sentiment,  the  character,  or  the  facts  of  this 
picture.  It  is  rather  like  a  modern  harem.  It  shows  talent 
as  a  painting,  but  not  as  a  conception.  These  are  not  the 
sort  of  subjects  in  which  this  artist  succeeds.  The  larger 
his  canvas  the  weaker  his  work.  His  uPeste  Florentine 
was  charming,  and  herein  he  showed  his  special  talent. 

The  enormous  paintings  in  three  divisions  for  the  Church  of 
Saint  Genevieve  still  more  bear  out  this  opinion.  They  are 
feeble,  flat,  and  characterless. 

M.  Lecompte  du  NTouy  had  a  series  of  pictures,  historic  Lecompte  du 
and  semi-historic,  displaying  a  very  considerable  talent,  and  Nouy' 
of  the  school  of  Gerome.  The  uHomere  Mendicant”  is  well 
composed  and  interesting,  but  too  enameled  in  surface.  In 
uLes  Porteurs  des  Mauvaises  Nouvelles ”  Pharaoh  lies  on  a 
couch  looking  out  and  anxiously  awaiting  messengers  with 
tidings.  Those  who  have  already  arrived  with  bad  news 
lie  slain  at  the  foot  of  the  couch.  This  picture  is  clever, 
but  disagreeable  in  subject  and  hard  in  color.  It  has  the 
defect  so  common  in  France  of  excess  and  over  statement 
in  action,  as  if  convulsion  and  attitudinizing  could  alone 
express  deep  passion  and  emotion. 

There,  were  many  other  large  historic  pictures,  but  time 
and  space  are  wanting  to  go  over  all  of  them.  Those 
already  mentioned  are  the  most  prominent,  and  convey  a 
fair  idea  of  the  character  of  this  kind  of  work  in  France. 

There  is  in  all  of  them  ability.  One  cannot  deny  the  talent 
or  the  artistic  knowledge  displayed ;  but  it  is  displayed,  and 
this  is  its  defect.  The  heart  of  the  mystery  is  not  plucked. 

There  is  much  realism  and  capital  painting,  but  little  evi¬ 
dence  of  high  dramatic  purpose,  serious  sentiment,  or  power 
of  conception.  It  is  perhaps  worth  remarking  that  in  almost 
all  the  pictures,  as  well  as  statues,  of  figures  in  action,  the 
toes  are  in  crispation  beyond  all  reason  in  nature. 

M.  Luminais’  uLe  Poi  Mow  an”  and  u Brunehaut”  should  Lumtnias. 
not  be  overlooked.  In  the  former  particularly,  M.  Lu¬ 
minais  has  given  evidence,  not  only  of  a  strong  sense  of 
color,  but  also  of  discrimination  of  character.  The  compo¬ 
sition  is  not  very  satisfactory,  but  the  figure  and  expression 
of  the  queen,  who  is  seeking  by  her  wiles  and  caresses  to 
deter  the  king  from  acceding  to  the  terms  of  peace  offered  by 


30 


FRANCE. 


Gustave  Dor6. 


Portraits. 

Bormat. 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

the  Abbe  Witchar,  are  subtle  and  striking.  Other  pictures 
by  M.  Luminais  also  show  talent  and  force,  as  the  u  Eclair- 
eurs  Gaulois two  figures  crouched  to  the  earth  and  listen¬ 
ing  to  distant  steps,  and  the  u  Retour  de  Ghasse  dans  les 
Gaules  ”  where  four  figures  are  carrying  a  wild  boar  on 
poles,  while  another  on  horseback,  with  shield  and  spear, 
accompanied  by  two  dogs,  is  at  their  side.  These  pictures 
are  low  in  tone  and  painted  with  mu<?li  vigor. 

uLes  Martyrs  Chretiens by  Gustave  Bore,  has  all  his 
faults  and  some  of  his  merits.  It  represents  an  amphitheater 
strewn  with  bodies,  among  which  lions  are  walking,  while 
a  circle  of  bluish  smoky  angels  are  descending  through  the 
air.  It  will  touch  the  sentimental  side  of  many  minds,  but 
as  a  work  of  art  it  is  poor  and  thin.  uLe  Neophyte by 
him,  is  a  much  better  picture,  and  represents  a  young  priest 
sitting  among  a  line  of  old  ones.  The  latter  are  sunken  in 
the  ruts  of  mechanical  religious  duties.  To  him  comes 
regret  for  the  past  and  dissatisfaction  with  the  present. 
The  theme  is  good,  but  the  execution  is  weak  and  unsatis¬ 
factory.  M.  Dore  has  great  fertility  of  talent,  but  no  con¬ 
centration  of  purpose  or  intensity  of  feeling.  He  is  at 
times  admirable,  and  he  has  great  variety  of  fancy  and 
facility  of  composition,  but  these  large  and  ambitious  sub¬ 
jects  only  bring  into  stronger  relief  his  innate  weakness  as 
well  as  his  flimsiness  of  execution. 

Portraits. 

In  portraiture  there  were  many  notable  works.  Those  of 
M.  Bonnat  showed  vigor  of  design  and  firmness  of  drawing 
and  impasto ,  and  as  likenesses  are  evidently  good.  They 
have  a  metallic  quality,  particularly  in  their  shadows,  which 
is  not  quite  agreeable,  and  the  backgrounds  are  not  pleas¬ 
ant  in  color,  but  there  is  great  sincerity  of  work.  That  of 
M.  Thiers  is  perhaps  the  most  characteristic.  But  far  be¬ 
yond  all  is  his  portrait  of  M.  Bobert-Fleury.  This  is  admi¬ 
rable,*  freely  painted,  loose  in  texture,  and  without  the  rigid¬ 
ity  which  is  the  defect  of  the  others.  The  character  and 
expression  and  pose  are  all  good.  All  his  portraits  are  on 
a  dark  background,  generally  of  a  hard  maroon  tone,  on 
which  the  figure  and  face  are  cut  out  or  almost  modeled  out 
in  light,  so  that  they  affect  one  a  little  like  embossed  photo¬ 
graphs.  But,  with  all  his  defects,  there  is  strength  and 
manliness  and  firm  intention,  without  weakness  or  senti¬ 
mentality. 

M.  Bonnat  also  exhibited  other  pictures  which  are  quite 
as  noteworthy  as  his  portraits.  Of  these  specially  is  to 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


31 


be  noted  u  TJne  Rue  a  Jerusalem ,”  figures  coming  through  a 
dark  archway,  on  the  right  of  which  three  women  are  seated. 
These  figures  are  very  cleverly  executed,  particularly  those 
of  the  women,  and  the  whole  picture  is  effective.  Another 
is  a  uBarl)ier  Negre ,  a  Suez ,”  which  is  also  clever. 

M.  Lefebvre  exhibited  several  portraits  which  are  among 
the  best  of  his  works,  particularly  that  of  “M.  Leonce  Ray¬ 
naud.”  Carolus  Duran  had  several  large  portraits,  in  which 
there  is  distinction  and  character;  among  the  best,  uLa  Dame 
au  Gant”  a  full  length;  the  portrait  of  “ Madame  F.”  and 
of  “Mad’lle  Carolus  Duran,”  which  last  is,  specially  of  all, 
pleasing  in  effect,  though  careless.  His  u  If  Enfant  Bleu ” 
is  criard  in  color  and  far  from  successful  in  achieving  the 
task  he  set  before  himself ;  but  the  best  of  all  are  those  of 
“  M.  Emile  de  Girardin,”  and  of  “  M.  Pasdeloup,”  particularly 
the  last,  which  is  frank,  robust,  and  full  of  life  and  char¬ 
acter. 

M.  Paul  Dubois,  who  has  won  his  reputatlonas  a  sculptor, 
had  on  the  walls  three  portraits  in  which  there  were  sin¬ 
cerity  and  simplicity.  The  tones  are  gray  and  dull,  but  the 
eminent  sculptor  is  scarcely  a  colorist.  There  is,  however, 
considerable  character  and  delicacy. 

Mr.  Delaunay  sent  eight  portraits,  all  clever.  His  por¬ 
traits  of  ladies  have,  however,  too  much  consciousness  and 
pose.  They  are  too  sure  you  are  looking  at  them.  This, 
however,  is  the  defect  of  nearly  all  the  portraits  of  women 
in  France.  There  is  scarely  one  which  is  simple  and  un¬ 
conscious*.  Of  all  his  portraits,  the  best  is  that  of  “  M. 
Legouve,”  which  is  full  of  character  and  spirit. 

Cabanel  sent  five  portraits  in  which  this  self-conscious¬ 
ness  and  posing  aspect  quite  robs  them  of  all  charm. 

The  portraits  by  M.  Henner  are  very  distinguished  in 
light  color  and  individuality,  and  were  certainly  among  the 
most  remarkable  in  the  Exposition.  They  are  faithful,  sim¬ 
ple,  characteristic,  and  more  like  the  old  portraits  of  the 
best  time  than  those  which  we  see  at  the  present  day.  Be¬ 
sides  his  portraits,  M.  Henner  also  sent  a  number  of  pictures 
representing  various  subjects,  such  as  u  Bibli’s  Changee  en 
Source ,”  uLe  Christ  mortf  u  Les  Naiades  f  u  La  Femme  au 
Divan  Noir .”  But  in  all  his  pictures  the  subject  is  of  little 
consequence.  He  does  not  attempt  to  be  dramatic,  or  spe¬ 
cially  to  enter  the  domain  of  the  imagination.  His  aim  in  all 
is  to  produce  an  effect  of  light  in  flesh  tints.  Everything  is 
sacrificed  to  this  one  end.  All  of  his  pictures  have  one  or 
more  nude  figures,  to  which  everything  is  subordinated. 
Nor  does  he  fail  in  this  aim.  He  is  heart  and  soul  a  colorist, 


FRANCE. 


Lefebvre. 

Carolus  Duran. 


Paul  Dubois. 

Delaunay. 

Cabanel 

Henner. 


32 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1378. 


Henner. 


Renard. 


though  his  scale  is  limited  and  his  harmonies  nearly  always 
the  same.  Beside  his  flesh  all  the  other  pictures  in  the  room 
look  pale  and  thin.  They  are  full  of  light  and  they  glow 
upon  the  wall.  He  perfectly  understands  the  values  of  his 
tones,  and  his  pictures  are  always  harmonious  and  remind 
one  in  the  distance  of  Georgione  in  their  masses  and  illum¬ 
ination  ;  as  for  details,  there  are  absolutely  none.  The  out¬ 
lines  of  everything  are  wanting.  There  is  only  the  mass, 
so  that  on  a  near  examination  there  is  nothing  to  satisfy  us. 
His  impasto  in  the  lights  is  thick,  and  in  the  tints  the  hairs 
of  the  brushes  are  left.  His  shadows  are  merely  washed  in. 
This  is  all  of  malice  prepense,  of  course,  but  it  is  greatly  to 
be  regretted  that  with  such  power  as  a  colorist  he  should 
leave  his  work  so  utterly  incomplete. 

M.  E.  Benard  sent  only  one  work,  a  small  u  Portrait  de 
la  Grand?  mere ,w  but  this  is  a  very  remarkable  work.  It 
has  all  the  detail  and  minuteness  of  execution  without  the 
mechanical  map-like  character  of  Donner.  It  is  a  simple 
head  of  an  old  woman,  studied  in  every  particular  with  ex¬ 
traordinary  faithfulness  and  love  for  the  subject.  The 
color  is  delicate,  the  tones  refined,  the  expression  simple, 
the  pose  natural,  and  the  detail  stupendous.  Yet  all  these 
details  are  subordinated  to  the  main  general  effect,  and 
nothing  cries  out  or  is  over-insisted  upon.  It  is  a  very 
remarkable  study  from  nature. 

Among  the  other  noteworthy  portraits  were  to  be  re¬ 
marked  a  portrait  of  “Monsigneur  Rogerson,”  by  M.  C.  F. 
Gaillard,  which  is  simple,  full  of  character,  and  well  painted ; 
Roi>ert-Fieury.  a  portrait  of  u  Madame  R.-F.,”  by  M.  Robert-Fleury,  care¬ 
ful,  pleasing  and  lady-like  and  without  posing. 

But,  perhaps,  the  most  remarkable  portraits  for  the  ex¬ 
pression  of  character  were  those  of  M.  Bastien-Lepage.  For 
individuality  and  personality,  the  portrait  of  u  M.  Hayem” 
could  scarcely  be  surpassed.  The  hands,  the  pose,  the 
movement  of  features,  and  specially  the  expression  of 
the  mouth  are  evidently  of  the  person  himself.  The  very 
trousers  are  expressive.  All  go  together  to  make  the  indi¬ 
vidual.  There  is  no  attempt  to  flatter,  and  certainly  the 
portrait  is  not  flattering;  but  it  is  better  than  flattering;  it 
is  the  person  himself,  as  understood  and  felt  in  every  par¬ 
ticular  by  the  artist.  uLe  Portrait  de  mon  Grand  perev  is 
equally  strking,  and  for  the  same  qualities. 


Gaillard. 


Bastien-L 

page. 


Landscapes.  Landscapes. 

In  the  French  department  of  landscape  there  was  much 
talent  and  more  study.  In  fact,  many  of  the  large  landscapes 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


33 


were  mere  studies  from  nature,  very  cleverly  executed,  care¬ 
ful  and  true  to  nature,  full  of  facts  vigorously  rendered, 
but  inspired  by  little  sentiment  or  feeling.  What  I  mean 
will  clearly  appear  if  most  of  them  are  compared  with  the 
exquisite  works  of  Claude,  in  which  nature  is  all  subdued  to 
sentiment.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  two  should  be  di¬ 
vorced.  There  are,  however,  remarkable  exceptions  to  this 
general  rule;  and  first  of  all,  in  combination  of  figure  and 
landscape,  are  to  be  mentioned  the  remarkable  pictures  of 
Jules  Breton,  on  which  it  is  a  pleasure  to  look.  He  sent 
nine  pictures,  every  one  of  which  is  worthy  of  a  great  artist. 
It  would  be  difficult,  in  the  whole  range  of  landscape  and 
figure,  to  find  a  more  exquisite  picture  than  u  La  Sieste v — one 
more  masterly  in  drawing,  more  perfect  in  tone,  more  simple 
and  true  in  its  sentiment,  more  admirable  in  its  ideas.  It 
represents  a  party  of  hay-makers,  who  are  taking  their  siesta 
under  the  shadow  of  a  great  tree.  The  sunlight  falls  behind 
on  the  fields  and  haycocks,  which  are  bounded  by  a  line  of 
foliage,  and,  peering  through  the  great  tree,  flecks  with  spots 
oflight  one  of  the  figures.  A  woman  is  seated  and  suckling  her 
baby.  An  old  man  is  smoking  his  pipe.  The  rest  are  stretched 
carelessly  on  the  ground  enjoying  the  luxury  of  the  shadow 
and  rest.  One  of  these  figures,  a  girl  lying  flat  on  her 
back  straight  in  and  out  of  the  picture,  is  marvellously  fore¬ 
shortened.  There  is  no  air  of  effort  about  the  execution ; 
it  is  free,  but  mellow  and  clear.  There  is  a  little  careless¬ 
ness  here  and  there  in  the  landscape,  but  the  figures  are 
beautifully  finished,  low  in  tone,  but  transparently  luminous 
and  solid.  Here  is  the  very  soul  of  sentiment  ;  the  feeling 
of  summer ;  the  languor  and  repose  of  noon.  It  is  a  delight¬ 
ful  picture,  which  it  is  pleasant  to  see  and  to  praise. 

Of  an  entirely  different  character,  but  almost  equally  ani¬ 
mated  with  a  true  sense  of  the  scene,  is  uLes  Peclieurs  rfc  la 
MediterraneeP  The  scene  represents  a  curving  beach  of 
pebbles  stretching  far  round  the  bay,  on  which  are  two 
groups  drawing  in  their  nets.  The  sky  is  pure  and  bright. 
The  blue  sea  gleams  and  sparkles  in  the  sun  as  it  rolls  gladly 
in.  One  can  almost  feel  the  breeze  and  hear  the  hiss  of  the 
sea  raking  over  the  shingle.  The  figures  are  doing  their 
work  unconscious  that  we  are  observing  them,  and  their 
sharp  shadows  are  thrown  upon  the  beach.  The  whole 
effect  is  of  bright  sunlight.  If  it  have  a  defect,  it  is  in  a  lit¬ 
tle  excess  of  brightness,  but  this  time  will  tame  and  sober. 

Another  of  his  pictures,  uLes  Amies ,”  is  a  little  idyll. 
Three  girls  interlaced  are  walking  through  a  cornfield 
3  P  R 


FRANCE. 

Landscapes. 


Jules  Breton 


34 


FilAXCE. 

Breton. 


Bernier. 


Fraiujais. 


Hanoteau. 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1873. 

breast-high  with  poppies.  It  is  twilight.  They  are  going 
home.  The  sentiment  of  this  picture  is  charming. 

uLa  Fontaine ”  is  also  a  masterly  picture,  with  the  same 
characteristics  of  simplicity,  low  tone  of  color,  and  sentiment. 
The  figures  are  peasant  girls  come  to  draw  water  at  a  foun¬ 
tain,  but  they  have  a  dignity  of  bearing,  and  an  unconscious¬ 
ness  of  posing,  and  a  laziness  of  style  that  elevates  the  sub¬ 
ject  into  the  ideal.  The  same  remark  may  be  made  of  the 
large  single  figure  uLa  Glaneuse,”  which  has  something 
statuesque  and  heroic  in  its  pose  and  treatment. 

The  three  landscapes  by  M.  0.  Bernier,  “Janvier”  u TJne 
Ferme  en  Bannalec and  u  Sabotiers  dans  le  Bois  de  Qui- 
mere\”  have  all  remarkable  qualities.  The  first  represents 
a  farmer  with  a  white  and  roan  horse  plowing.  These  form 
the  main  ground-light.  Behind  are  farm-houses  and  almost 
leafless  trees,  with  a  few  brown  leaves  on  some,  dark  against  a 
marble-gray  sky.  The  second  is  a  sunset  scene  in  a  farm¬ 
yard.  Here  all  is  in  tender  shadow,  except  the  sky  where 
the  sunset  gleams.  Cows  are  drinking ;  a  pool  in  the  center 
reflects  the  light  of  the  sky ;  the  farmer  and  his  horses  are 
going  in ;  dark  trees  rear  themselves  on  either  side.  The 
sentiment  of  the  hour  is  most  happily  rendered.  The  tone 
is  charming,  and  the  soft  growing  shadow  which  involves 
the  chief  part  of  the  scene  is  delicate  and  transparent.  The 
third  above  mentioned  is  a  very  remarkable  landscape,  rep¬ 
resenting  woods  without  underbrush  and  flecked  with  mot¬ 
tled  light  and  dark,  in  which  is  a  sabotier’s  cabin  with  a 
pointed  roof,  from  which  smoke  is  rising,  while  the  sabotier 
and  his  wife  are  at  work  near  by.  Here  there  is  a  rare  feel¬ 
ing  of  open  air,  a  simplicity  and  truth  to  nature,  united  to 
breadth  and  freedom  of  execution,  which  made  this  one  of 
the  most  striking  landscapes  in  the  whole  Exposition. 

The  landscapes  by  M.  Frangais  are  not  characterized  by 
strength  and  vigor  of  execution,  and  they  are  somewhat 
academical  and  sentimental.  The  best  of  those  exhibited 
was  u  Daphnis  et  Cliloe”  which  is  a  deep  wooded  landscape 
well  composed,  with  two  nude  figures  at  a  pool  in  the  center. 

M.  H.  Hanoteau  sent  a  very  vivid  and  brilliant  picture 
representing  an  old  mill,  uLe  Moulin P  A  large  tree,  grow¬ 
ing  on  a  sloping  bank  beside  the  road,  throws  its  shadow 
over  the  chief  part  of  the  foreground,  and  some  pigs  are 
coming  down  the  bank.  The  road  strikes  across  the  picture 
over  a  bridge,  passing  the  old  mill,  which  is  partially  in 
shadow ;  and  a  house  beyond  in  full  blaze  of  sunlight.  The 
picture  is  admirably  composed  in  light  and  shade,  very  care¬ 
fully  studied  in  all  its  details,  free  of  execution,  and  very 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


35 


brilliant  in  effect.  The  technical  qualities  of  this  work  are 
remarkable. 

There  was  also  a  bright  and  spirited  picture  byM.  J.  Ma- 
sure,  uBivage  du  Golfe  Juan ,”  of  blue  sea,  which  afresh 
breeze  is  rippling  in  to  the  shore. 

M.  J.  0.  Meissonier,  fils,  had  also  three  little  pictures  after 
the  manner  of  his  father,  representing  u  TJne  Chemin  aux 
Environs  de  Nice ,”  u  Plage  aux  Environs  de  Nice,”  and  uLe 
Matin  sur  la  Plage ,  aux  Environs  dH Antibes,”  all  worthy  of  his 
father  in  truth  and  character. 

The  landscapes  by  M.  L.  G.  Pelouse  were  very  clever,  but 
they  have  rather  too  much  the  look  and  character  of  studies 
from  nature.  u  TJne  Coupe  de  Bois”  represents  a  wood,  with 
wood-cutters,  with  bright  sunset  clouds  sloping  toward  the 
horizon  behind  the  tall  trees.  This  is  perhaps  the  most 
effective  of  all,  and  is  executed  with  spirit  and  talent. 

M.  A.  Seg6  exhibited  rather  a  remarkable  picture  of  uLes 
Chaumes.”  It  is  just  afternoon,  and  the  shadows  are  begin¬ 
ning  to  slope.  A  shepherd  and  dog  stand  in  a  broad,  flat 
plain  with  a  crowd  of  sheep  in  shade  with  their  backs  touched 
with  light.  In  the  distance  rises  a  village  all  in  shadow, 
and  beyond  on  the  level  a  delicate  horizon.  The  effect  is 
very  brilliant,  the  perspective  of  the  flat  plain  is  exceedingly 
well  rendered,  and  there  is  a  considerable  novelty  of  effect 
and  distinction  in  the  picture.  One  regrets,  however,  the 
monotonous  slaty  color  of  the  whole  village,  in  which  roof 
and  walls-  are  of  the  same  hue  and  tone.  The  birds  flying 
through  the  clear  air  are  peculiarly  rendered  5  the  bodies  are 
dark,  the  wings  vague,  dim,  and  fluttering  in  effect. 

M.  E.  Yan  Marcke  sent  a  very  vigorous  picture  of  cows 
drinking  in  a  pool.  A  white  cow  forms  the  principal  light, 
while  dark  trees  and  foliage  cover  the  main  upper  part  of 
the  picture,  leaving  only  a  corner  of  clouded  sky.  This  is 
very  strongly  painted  and  well  composed.  It  is  of  the  school 
of  Troy  on,  and  well  worthy  of  that  master. 

M.  F.  de  Mesgrigny’s  u  Bateaux- Lavoirs  sur  la  Seine”  is 
also  an  admirable  picture.  It  represents  a  broad,  still  river 
with  wash-houses  on  one  side  and  ducks  swimming  down 
the  stream  in  which  trees  beyond  are  reflected.  The  key  is 
very  light,  and  the  effect  clear  and  pleasing ;  the  water  and 
the  reflections  very  transparent. 

u  Un  Marche  d  Grenade,”  by  M.  A.  Moreau,  represents  a 
street  in  Grenada  on  market-day.  Half  the  street  with  its 
portico  is  a  shadow.  Two  great  oxen  with  yellow  frontlets, 
and  drawing  a  huge  cart  out  of  which  rises  a  tall,  coarse,  gray 
net  supported  on  poles,  occupy  the  center  of  the  picture, 


FRANCE. 


Masure. 


Meissonier,/^ 


Pelouse. 


Seg6. 


Van  Marcke. 


Mesgrigny, 


Moreau, 


36 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


FRANCE. 

Moreau. 


Girard. 


Jacqueti. 


Hubert. 


Lambert. 


Desgoffe. 


Vollon. 


Aquarelles. 


and  around  this  are  groups  in  costume  coming  and  going, 
and,  behind,  the  sun  flashes  on  white  walls  of  houses.  Here 
is  Spain  in  full  blaze,  yet  without  over-statement  and  noise 
of  color,  and  without  confusion  of  parts.  The  shadow  side 
is  transparent  and  cool,  and  gives  a  brilliant  effect  to  the 
subdued  colors  around  and  the  flashing  walls  beyond.  I 
wish  here  to  mark  this  picture  particularly  as  admirable  for 
its  composed  and  effective  treatment  of  many  figures  and 
brilliant  light  without  confusion,  and  as  an  expression  of 
Spain.  I  shall  have  occasion  to  refer  to  it  in  contrasting  it 
with  pictures  of  the  Spanish  school. 

Among  other  pictures  not  coming  exactly  under  these 
classes,  several  should  be  noted.  M.  Girard  sent  a  small 
picture  of  “Les  Fiances ,w  representing  a  party  in  very  bril¬ 
liant  costumes  coming  through  an  alley  of  trees  strewn  with 
dead  leaves.  Some  of  the  figures  are  a  little  too  voyant  in 
color,  particularly  those  in  the  shadow,  but  the  shadow  itself 
is  capital,  the  figures  very  carefully  and  elaborately  exe¬ 
cuted,  and  the  dead  leaves  admirably  rendered. 

M.  J.  G.  .TacquetPs  “Reverie”  has  something  distinguished 
in  character.  It  represents  a  girl  in  a  red  dress  sitting  a  little 
affectedly  in  a  chair  and  glancing  out  of  the  picture.  If  she 
is  in  a  reverie  she  knows  we  are  looking  at  her,  and  has  a 
rather  shy  sense  of  it. 

M.  Hubert  exhibited  four  pictures,  of  which  the  best  are 
the  two  representing  “La  Pastor ella”  and  “La  Tricoteuse ,” 
both  of  which  are  refined  in  sentiment  and  quiet  in  execu¬ 
tion,  and  have  a  tender  melancholy  which  is  attractive. 

L.  E.  Lambert  had  a  humorous  and  spirited  picture  called 
“Installation  Provisoire,”  representing  kittens  which  have  got 
into  a  chest  of  drawers — the  chest  of  drawers  itself  admira¬ 
bly  painted. 

M.  Desgoffe  had  some  remarkable  representations  of  still 
life,  some  of  which  for  technical  qualities  and  imitation  de¬ 
serve  very  high  praise. 

The  “  Guriosites”  and  “Coin  du  Halle”  of  M.  A.  Vollon, 
uninteresting  enough  in  themselves,  are  extraordinarily  well 
painted.  His  “Femme  du  Pollet ,”  a  large  figure  of  a  peas¬ 
ant  with  a  basket  on  her  arm,  has  attempted  to  follow  in 
the  footsteps  of  Millet,  but  his  work,  though  clear,  has  a 
coarseness  of  quality  and  character  which  is  never  seen  in 
Millet. 

Aquarelles. 

In  aquarelles  the  French  have  distinguished  themselves 
of  late.  In  this  branch  of  art  the  names  of  Messrs.  Detaille 
and  Neuville  should  be  noticed,  though  they  exhibited  no 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


37 


specimens  of  their  talent  here.  To  these  should  be  added _ FRANCE- 

among  others  the  names  of  Messrs.  Harpignies,  Berne-  B^e’^efiecour 
Bellecour,  Bida,  Berchere,  Bruneau,  Galbrund  (en  pastel),  Bid^  etal 
Re  gnault,Veyvassat,  Worms,  Saunier,  and,  especially,  M.  M. 

Leloir  and  Mareclial.  M.  Leloir  sent  six  aquarelles ,  which,  Leiou. 
for  splendor  and  brilliancy  of  color,  were  perhaps  the  most 
remarkable  works  in  the  whole  Exposition.  The  subjects 
are  uLe  Repos,”  uLes  Souris  Branches ,”  u  Danseuse,”  uJoueuse 
de  Flute,”  uL>Oiseau  bleu,”  u Nonchalance .”  The  color,  which 
is  like  melted  gems  for  force,  is  not  glaring  or  confused  in 
tints,  the  composition  is  good,  the  values  well  rendered,  and 
altogether  this  is  a  remarkable  series  of  pictures.  M. 

MarechaPs  works  are  in  pastel  and  are  rich  and  low  in  tone,  Marshal, 
but  strongly  treated,  almost  as  if  they  were  oils.  M.  Worms7  worms. 
aquarelles,  uApres  la  Revue”  and  uLa  Toilette  Time  Bailer - 
ine,”  are  of  the  same  kind  as  his  oil  pictures,  and  admirably 
rendered.  M.  Regnault’s  Ulnterieur  de  Harem”  is  brilliant,  KSgnnuit. 
but  too  kaleidoscopic  in  colors,  and  too  much  inspired  by 
the  Spanish  school.  Baroness  Rothschild  also  sent  some  Baroness Roths- 
very  spirited  and  interesting  aquarelles  of  different  views, chll<1' 

UA  Scafati,  environs  de  Naples,”  UA  Vitre,”  and  UA  Chartres”; 

M.  Berchere,  several  clever  Egyptian  scenes;  Madame  Berchere. 
Becq  de  Fouquieres  a  pastel  of  a  uJeune  Fille  de  Kerfuntun,”  ^Mad:Becc i  de 

x  J  1/7  louquieres. 

which  is  very  pleasing  in  sentiment  and  character;  M.  Bru-  Bruneau. 
neau  several  admirable  studies  of  fruit  and  small  animals; 

M.  Chaigneau  a  clever  pastel  of  uLes  Rocliers  du  Jean-de-  chaigneau. 
Paris”;  M.  Brunet-Debaines  a  capital  view  of  liSt  Gal-  unmet-Do- 

7  r  bames. 

mier” ;  M.  Galbrund  a  spirited  portrait  in  pastel.  Annong  Galbrund . 
the  aquarelles  should  also  be  specially  noted  a  street  scene 
with  old  houses  on  a  canal,  by  M.  Saunier;  and  two  bright,  saunier. 
clear,  and  well -drawn  pictures  by  M.  Veyvassat,  of  uLe  veyvassat 
Gouter  des  Moissoneurs,”  and  uUne  Charette.” 

ENGLAND. 


Having  now  examined  the  French  school,  let  us  turn  to  englaxd. 
that  of  England.  Here,  we  are  in  an  entirely  different 
world.  There  are  perhaps  no  two  countries  in  which  the 
technical  methods,  the  subjects  chosen,  and  the  spirit  in 
which  they  are  rendered  are  so  opposed  or  diverse.  The  . 

c  A  r  Diversity  of 

characteristic  excellence,  as  we  have  seen,  of  the  French  character1  in 

.  '  .  '  French  and  En 

school  is  technique  But  this  technique  has  been  so  over- giish  painting, 
insisted  upon  in  France  as  finally  to  have  become  in  the 
eyes  of  many  of  its  cleverest  artists  the  one  thing  to  be 
aimed  at,  the  one  thing  above  all  to  be  desired,  and  to  this 
the  higher  claims  of  art  have  been  subordinated. 

On  the  contrary,  in  passing  from  the  French  school  into 


88 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


ENGLAND. 


Pictures  feeble  technique. 
in  technique 


and  impasto. 


No  true  sense  are  not  in  water-colors. 

of  values  of  color. 

technically  termed  u values”  of  color. 


Monotony. 


the  English,  one  is  at  once  struck  with  the  feebleness  of  the 
The  pictures  are  for  the  most  part  flat  and  com¬ 
paratively  feeble  in  execution.  The  grammar  of  painting 
in  oil  as  distinguished  from  painting  in  water-color  has  not 
here  been  learned.  The  first  impression  is  that  all  of  the 
oil  pictures  are  aquarelles ,  so  little  body  and  vigor  of  touch, 
so  little  depth  of  impasto ,  so  feeble  a  perception  of  light  and 
dark  do  they  show.  Some  of  them  under  glass  we  are 
forced  closely  to  examine  before  we  can  believe  that  they 

There  is  no  true  sense  of  what  is 
All  the  parts  are 

comparatively  of  the  same  value.  The  foreground  figures 
are  no  more  vigorous  and  decided  than  those  which  are  in 
the  middle  distance.  There  is  little  representation  of  per¬ 
spective  beyond  what  is  expressed  by  drawing.  The  figures 
for  the  most  part,  as  far  as  color  and  light  and  detail  are 
concerned,  are  all  in  the  same  plane.  There  is  a  general 
monotony  of  color,  a  remarkable  absence  of  shadows,  and 
an  equal  insistance  on  all  parts.  Another  peculiarity  which 
is  very  striking  is  the  lantern-like  illumination  of  all  the 
Pecuiiariiiumi- faces.  Ao  matter  whether  the  light  falls  upon  them  or  is 

natiou  of  faces. 

behind  them,  or  whether  there  is  any  intelligible  light  com¬ 
ing  from  anywhere,  the  faces  all  are  self-illuminated,  and,  in 
many  of  the  landscapes  with  figures,  they  glow  mysteriously, 
whether  turned  against  the  moon  or  the  sun  or  turned  to 
them.  What  is  also  curious  is  that,  though  these  faces  aie 
i  Absence  of  so  illuminated,  scarcely  a  figure  casts  a  shadow.  Much  of 
this  peculiarity  probably  arises  from  the  fact  that  in  Eng¬ 
land  there  is  little  brilliancy  of  sun,  the  prevalent  atmos¬ 
phere  being  gray  and  dim,  and  the  counterpoises  of  light 
and  dark  little  seen,  so  that  the  shadows  are  vague  and 
feeble,  and  the  effects  misty.  But  whatever  be  the  reason,  the 
Delicacy  offact  is  evident.  But  on  the  other  hand  there  is  much  deli¬ 
cacy  of  sentiment,  and  great  refinement  of  feeling.  The 
Purity  of  feel-  subjects  are  always  pure  in  character,  and  if  there  be  no 
great  force  of  execution  there  is  simplicity  and  sweetness, 
and  an  absence  of  violence  and  brutality  of  subject  and 
of  treatment.  This  sometimes  errs  on  the  side  of  senti¬ 
mentality  and  almost  of  triviality,  but  there  is  never  any¬ 
thing  to  shock  the  sensibilities,  and  in  all  there  is  a  pure 
purpose. 

In  draftsmanship  there  is  much  to  be  desired.  The 
best  of  the  English  painters  can  scarcely  be  said  to  reach 
the  higher  average  of  the  French.  In  figures,  and  partic¬ 
ularly  in  the  nude,  their  works  show  not-  only  a  lack  of 
firmness  and  decision  of  outline,  but  an  absence  of  careful 


Lack  of  drafts¬ 
manship. 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


39 


training,  and  of  style  in  their  drawing.  Of  the  landscapes, 
some  are  carefully,  almost  painfully,  studied  after  nature, 
hut  the  detail  is  in  many  cases  so  over  emphasized  that  the 
mass  is  sacrificed  to  the  parts.  They  do  not  seem  to  under¬ 
stand  that  a  multitude  of  particulars  do  not  constitute  a 
whole.  On  the  contrary,  with  some  at  least,  their  idea  seems 
to  he  that  unless  everything  is  said  nothing  is  said. 

English  art  seems  to  drift  in  various  currents,  without 
any  clear  and  definite  course,  and  to  subdivide  itself  into 
various  degrees  rather  than  schools.  Mr.  Burne-Jones  rep¬ 
resents  one  direction,  for  instance,  towards  the  romantic 
and  vaguely  ideal.  Mr.  Tritt  another,  towards  the  literal. 
Mr.  Watts  another,  towards  the  mythological  and  heroic. 
Mr.  Leslie  another,  towards  the  idyllic  of  common  life.  Mr. 
Armitage  another,  towards  the  antique  and  historic.  Their 
methods  and  manners  differ  as  much  as  their  subjects.  They 
have  no  style  of  workmanship  in  common ;  each,  as  it  were, 
is  striving  blindly,  as  far  as  technique  is  concerned,  to  find  a 
way  for  himself,  and  it  must  be  confessed  that  in  some  of  these 
efforts  there  is  not  a  little  affectation  of  originality,  and,  as  it 
were,  an  euphuistic  attempt  at  novelty,  both  in  subject  and 
iu  treatment.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  some  who  are 
truly  earnest  and  capable,  having  ideas  and  sentiment,  but 
wanting  the  mastery  of  the  grammar  and  language  by  which 
to  express  them.  There  is,  in  consequence,  a  good  deal  of 
wasted  power.  The  result  is  not  equal  to  the  effort.  Still,  in 
coming  ffom  the  French  department  of  the  Exposition  into 
that  of  England,  one  cannot  but  feel  that  he  has  entered 
into  a  serener  atmosphere  of  simpler  manners,  and  higher 
morals,  and  purer  sentiments,  the  absence  of  which  cannot 
be  compensated  for  by  any  technical  merits  however  great. 


Over-emphasis 
of  details. 


English  art 
drifting  in  vari¬ 
ous  directions. 


Romantic  and 
ideal. 

Literal, 

Heroic, 

Idyllic, 

Antique  and 
historic. 


Simpler  and 
purer  feeling 
than  in  the 
French  section. 


Aquarelles.  Aquarelles- 

If  in  the  use  of  oils  the  English  are  far  behind  the  French, 
in  aquarelle  they  at  least  take  equal  rank  with  them.  The 
room  dedicated  to  these  in  the  English  department  contained 
master-pieces  of  execution  as  well  as  of  sentiment.  The  side 
of  one  screen  was  dedicated  to  aquarelles  by  the  late  Mr. 

Frederic  Walker.  These  are  characterised  by  tender  and  Frederic  walk 
delicate  sentiment  and  by  harmony  of  color.  They  all  rep¬ 
resent  scenes  of  common  life,  and  are  each  so  happy  in  the 
rendering  that  it  is  difficult  to  say  which  is  to  be  preferred. 
u  The  Old  Farm  Garden”  is  charming.  It  represents  a  scene 
in  an  old-fashioned  garden  inclosed  in  walls,  over  which 
are  seen  the  farm  building  and  roof.  The  garden  is  filled 
with  bright  flowers,  a  tree  is  in  full  blossom,  and  along  the 


40 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

exglakd.  walk  is  ranged  a  row  of  bee-hives.  A  girl,  slowly  sauntering 
walker.  through  the  walk,  is  knitting.  She  has  dropped  her  ball  of 
yarn,  and  a  tortoise-shell  eat  is  couching  to  spring  at  it. 
Here  is  the  pure  English  feeling  and  character,  all  quiet  and 
in  harmony.  “  The  Ferry  ”  also  is  a  beautiful  picture,  and 
as  true  to  fact  as  to  feeling.  A  boat  is  drawing  up  to  the 
shore  of  the  river.  White  swans  are  swimming  in  the  water. 
Straight  down  to  the  ferry  opens  a  street  of  red-brick  houses 
with  groups  and  figures  scattered  here  and  there.  The 
atmosphere  is  England,  the  feeling  is  all  English,  and  the 
Frederic  Walk-  picture  is  full  of  air  and  misty  sunlight.  “  The  Housewife  ” 

•  is  a  figure  seated  in  a  court-yard,  shelling  beans ;  a  chair  is 

before  her,  and  a  great  butt  of  water  on  one  side,  and  a  low 
window  is  filled  with  flower-pots.  In  description  this  is 
nothing.  It  is  the  tenderness  and  sweetness  with  which  it 
is  done  that  make  it  a  delightful  idyl.  “The  Village”  is 
a  bit  out  of  English  life  and  scenery.  There  is  a  bridge 
with  three  arches,  under  which  the  river  flows,  and  over  the 
parapet  of  which  figures  are  leaning  lazily.  An  old  man¬ 
sion-house  is  seen  behind,  on  the  further  side  of  the  road 
which  crosses  the  bridge,  encompassed  with  a  wall,  with 
trees  inside.  Another  represents  “  The  Last  Asylum,” 
where  a  daughter  is  accompanying  her  old  mother  to  the 
almshouse — beautiful  in  sentiment  and  delicate  in  execution. 
“  The  Fishmonger  ”  also  is  admirable.  He  is  leaning  for¬ 
ward  and  pointing  out  on  his  broad  bench  covered  with 
fishes  a  large  turbot  to  a  girl  who  is  standing  beside  it  hesi¬ 
tating  whether  to  yield  to  his  persuasion  or  not.  This  is 
masterly  for  management,  color,  and  tone.  The  soft,  dark¬ 
ened  shadow  of  the  interior  is  admirably  given ;  the  figures 
are  capital  in  character  and  expression;  the  details  are 
carefully  studied  and  not  obtrusive.  Of  a  more  ambitious 
character  are  “  The  Three  Fates,  ”  who  are  three  sour  old 
ladies,  two  seated  on  a  sofa  and  one  standing,  and  deliver¬ 
ing  their  oracles  to  a  young  girl  who  is  rising  from  her  chair. 
This  is  dramatic,  entirely  modern,  and  full  of  character  and 
spirit.  The  other  pictures  are  “Health  to  the  Absent,” 
“The  Chaplain’s  Daughter,”  “The  Field  of  Violets,”  all 
charming.  Mr.  W alker  had  also  a  large  picture  in  oils,  called 
“The  Old  Gate.  ”  This  has  much  of  the  same  excellence  as 
the  smaller  water-colors  in  sentiment  and  character,  but  it 
lacks  vigor  of  execution  and  is  a  little  monotonous  in  tone 
and  color.  In  fact  it  is  rather  like  a  very  large  aquarelle  than 
a  painting  in  oil.  The  figures  are  admirably  drawn  and  the 
picture  has  much  charm. 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


41 


Mr.  A.  H.  Marsh  sent  a  good  showy  picture  of  “Mussel 
Gatherers,”  representing  a  crowd  of  fisherwomen  toiling 
along  a  beach,  with  a  storm  rising.  Mr.  J.  D.  Linton’s  “  Off 
Guard”  is  also  well  composed,  with  good  effect  of  light  and 
dark,  and  painted  with  vigor.  The  parts  are  well  subordi¬ 
nated  to  each  other,  and  the  general  masses  are  well  kept, 
which  is  a  rare  thing  in  English  art. 

Mr.  G.  J.  Pinwell  sent  three  pictures,  “The  Pied  Piper,” 
“The  Great  Lady,”  “  St.  James’  Park,”  of  which  the  best  is 
the  last  named.  This  is  a  subject  which  suits  the  English 
mind.  It  represents  a  scene  in  the  park,  English  in  its 
character  and  true  to  common  life.  The  figure  of  the  man 
seated  on  a  bench  and  looking  down  is  particularly  good. 
The  subject  does  not  call  for  a  high  effort  of  imagination, 
but  is  represented  with  much  truth  and  feeling. 

There  were  several  of  Mr.  J.  F.  Lewis’s  elaborate  oriental 
scenes,  which  are  painted  with  great  minuteness  and  detail, 
and  are  brilliant  in  color  $  but  they  are  of  little  interest  as 
to  character  or  incident,  and  are  too  uniformly  brilliant  and 
have  too  equal  insistance  of  parts.  They  represent  “A  Street 
in  Cairo,”  “The  Lilium  Auratum ,”  “The  School,”  “Cairo,” 
“The  Prayer  of  Faith.”  He  also  sent  three  oil  pictures, 
all  of  which  have  the  same  characteristics  and  are  scarcely 
to  be  distinguished  from  aquarelles ,  so  thin  and  flat  are 
they  in  treatment.  “  Twilight,”  by  Joseph  Knight,  is  power¬ 
ful  and  interesting.  There  is  a  lowering  gray  sky,  with  a 
strip  of  light  on  the  edge  of  the  horizon.  Shadows  darken 
over  the  low  deep-green  moor-like  swell  of  the  ground,  and 
in  the  foreground  is  a  pool  illuminated  by  the  sky,  and 
overgrown  on  its  banks  by  low  bushes.  This  picture,  which 
is  painted  in  body  color,  is  solemn,  lonely,  and  full  of  senti¬ 
ment.  Mr.  Boyce’s  “  Bridewell”  is  admirably  rendered,  and 
a  capital  study  of  the  place.  Mr.  J.  D.  Watson’s  “Book 
Lore  ”  is  rich  in  color.  The  low  crimson  dress  is  well  painted, 
the  color  is  rich,  and  the  composition  is  good  in  light  and 
dark.  Mr.  Thomas  Collier  sent  a  masterly  landscape  called 
“Arundel  Park,”  which  is  freely  and  vigorously  rendered. 
Mr.  E.  X.  Johnson’s  “The  Anxious  Mother”  is  delicate  in 
sentiment  and  color,  and  painted  with  much  care  and  re¬ 
finement.  The  anxious  mother  is  a  hen,  which  is  much  dis¬ 
turbed  because  the  lady  in  the  picture  has  taken  her  chicken 
from  her  and  holds  it  in  her  hand.  “  Notre  Dame  de  Brou- 
Bourg ,”  by  Mr.  S.  Bead,  is  a  careful  and  effective  study  of 
the  interior  of  the  cathedral.  “The  Higher  Pool,”  by  Mr. 
E.  H.  Fahey,  is  admirable  in  color,  tone,  and  composition. 
It  is  a  study  of  the  same  place  that  he  has  taken  for  his  oil 


ENGLAND. 

Marsh. 

Linton. 


Pinwell. 


Lewis. 


Knight. 


Boyce. 

Watson. 

Collier. 

Johnson. 


Bead. 

Fahey. 


42 


ENGLAND. 


Birket  Foster. 


Green. 


Herkomer. 


Sir  John  Gil¬ 
bert. 


Mrs.  Ailing- 
ham. 

Kilbume. 

Gregory. 
Macbeth. 
Poynter. 

Crane. 


Burne-Jones. 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

painting  “He  Never  Came,”  and  is  even  stronger  than  that. 
The  picture  is  effective  in  its  light  and  dark,  and  the  sky  is 
particularly  good.  “The  Market  at  Toulon,”  by  Mr.  Birket 
Foster,  with  its  gay  flowers,  vegetables,  and  great  yellow 
umbrellas,  is  very  bright  in  color  and  clear  in  treatment. 

“Derby  Day — Here  they  come  !”  by  Mr.  0.  Green,  is  a 
very  clever  and  characteristic  representation  of  this  scene. 
The  eager  heads  and  earnest  action  of  the  crowd  that  are 
pressing  forward  against  the  rope  to  catch  sight  of  the  com¬ 
ing  horses  are  capitally  rendered.  Mr.  H.  Herkomer’s 
“Woodcutters,”  which  represents  workmen  turning  the 
trunk  of  a  tree  they  have  felled,  is  admirable  in  its  action 
and  drawing,  and  very  pleasing  in  its  clear  gray  tones. 

Among  other  watercolors  which  may  be  noted  are  “The 
Guide,”  by  Sir  John  Gilbert $  several  pleasing  pictures  by 
Mrs.  Allingham,  “When  our  Gudeman’s  Awa’”  by  G.  G. 
Kilburne,  and  a  clever  head  of  “  Saint  George”  by  Mr.  E.  J. 
Gregory,  “Sunday  Evening  in  Chelsea  Hospital  Gardens” 
by  Mr.  James  Macbeth,  and  E.  J.  Poynter’s  portrait  of  Mrs. 
Louis  Courtauld. 

“  The  Death  of  the  Year,”  by  Mr.  Walter  Crane,  is  a  proces¬ 
sional  picture  of  maidens  carrying  a  corpse,  which  is  pleasing 
and  stronger  in  color  than  his  oils.  There  is  little  definite 
character  and  individuality  known  in  the  figures  or  faces : 
they  are  all  of  the  same  type,  and  have  a  family  likeness, 
as  if  they  were  sisters.  The  same  observation  may  be  made 
of  all  the  pictures  by  Mr.  E.  Burne-Jones.  He  sent  two  water- 
colors,  representing  “Love  among  the  Bums”  and  “Love 
as  Wisdom.”  The  first  represents  two  figures,  a  youth  and 
a  maiden,  seated  in  a  strange  place,  with  strange  fragments 
of  architecture  overgrown  with  ivy  and  thistles,  with  little 
regard  to  perspective  or  probability.  The  low  gateway,  for 
instance,  has  no  just  relation  in  point  of  size  or  height  to 
the  figures,  and  all  parts  are  so  equally  emphasized  that  the 
total  effect  of  the  picture  is  flat.  “Love  as  Wisdom”  rep¬ 
resents  two  girls  in  red  and  brown  dresses  standing  erect 
and  half  embracing,  while  opposite  to  them  stands  a  third 
in  dark  blue,  who  is  apparently  addressing  them.  A  town  on 
a  hill  behind  forms  the  background.  The  picture  is  pleas¬ 
ing  in  composition,  but  it  entirely  lacks  aerial  perspective, 
and  the  houses  of  the  distant  town  seem  to  adhere  to  the 
heads  of  the  figures.  Both  these  pictures  are  rich  in  color, 
and  in  “Love  among  the  Buins”  there  is  considerable  ex¬ 
pression  of  languid  sadness.  But  both  are  rather  conceits 
than  subjects. 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


43 


Mr.  Burne-Jones  lias  attained  so  distinguished  a  reputa¬ 
tion  in  England,  that  it  is  with  much  hesitation  that  we  ap¬ 
proached  with  criticism  pictures  which  have  received  higher 
panegyric  from  his  friends  and  admirers  than  perhaps  was 
ever  before  bestowed  upon  the  works  of  any  living  painter. 
One  of  his  admirers  has  not  hesitated  publicly  in  his  writ¬ 
ings  to  say  that  he  is  the  greatest  artist  that  ever  lived.* 

*  Note. — Lest  I  may  be  supposed  to  exaggerate  the  statements  of 
Mr.  Burne-Jones’s  admirers,  I  cite  the  following  passages  from  an  article 
in  the  “Fortnightly  Review”  for  June,  1877,  by  Professor  Sydney  Col¬ 
vin,  ou  the  Grosvenor  Gallery,  which  may  also  serve  as  a  correction  to  ‘ 
my  own  view.  The  whole  article  is  worthy  of  perusal,  as  indicating  the 
opinion  of  the  new  school  of  criticism  on  the  new  school  of  painting  in 
England.  Language  can  scarcely  go  farther.  Professor  Colvin  speaks 
of  Mr.  Burne-Jones  as  a  “master  in  whose  inspiration  there  is  nothing 
faltering  or  ambiguous,  and  in  his  ideals  nothing  harsh  and  unlovely. 
The  genius  of  Mr.  Burne-Jones  will  on  these  wralls  become  a  reality 
to  those  to  whom  hitherto  it  has  been  only  a  report.”  Speaking  of 
the  “Six  Days  of  Creation,”  he  says,  “This  is  a  favorite  mediaeval  sub¬ 
ject  for  the  opening  illustration  of  Chronicles,  and  occurs  in  some  schemes 
of  mosaic  and  other  church  decoration.  But  the  modern  work  is  no 
echo  of  any  old;  the  subject  has  been  redipped  in  the  colors  of  a  liv¬ 
ing  spirit,  and  recast  in  the  furnace  of  a  great  imagination.  .  .  . 

Since  painting  was  an  art  it  is  probable  that  no  poetry  so  intense  as 
this,  no  invention  so  rich  and  unerringly  lovely,  was  ever  pressed  into 
form  and  color.  It  is  better  to  say  it  without  hesitation,  we  have  among 
us  a  genius,  a  poet  in  design  and  color,  whose  like  has  never  been  seen 
before.  To  an  almost  incredible  j)atience  and  multiplicity  of  work¬ 
manship,  this*  painting  joins  a  quite  inexpressible  felicity  and  loveli¬ 
ness  of  pictorial  invention.  Inch  by  inch,  as  well  as  division  by  divis¬ 
ion,  it  can  only  be  studied  with  ever-increasing  wonder  and  delight.” 
Just  as  a  born  poet  and  inspired  singer  cannot  put  together  those  words 
that  have  not  the  sound,  the  spell,  the  soul  of  poetry,  so  this  artist  can¬ 
not  draw  a  ring  of  hair,  or  a  fold  of  drapery,  or  lay  the  tint  of  a  flower, 
or  a  feather,  or  a  shell,  but  the  drawing  has  a  charm  and  the  color  a 
preciousness  which  stirs  the  mind  with  the  spell  of  visible  poetry,  an 
enchantment  from  the  soul  of  things,  an  inexpressible  felicity  and 
loveliness,” — “preciousness  of  color,”  “soul  of  poetry,”  an  “incredible 
patience,”  “an  increasing  wonder  and  delight,”  “unerring  loveliness,” 
“great  imagination.” — After  such  praise  what  can  be  added — what  can 
be  said  of  those  whom  we  have  hitherto  held  to  be  great  masters  ?  As  for 
those  who  do  not  agree  to  this  “supreme”  gush  (“supreme”  is  the  word 
which  is  affected  now  by  a  certain  clique  of  critics,  and  we  wish  to  con¬ 
form  to  this  “preciousness”  of  diction  for  the  moment),  and  who  dare 
to  criticise  even  the  drawing,  they  are  told  that  their  criticisms  “can¬ 
not  be  made  with  any  show  of  reason  now,”  and  that  some  critics  of 
this  class  “  write  themselves  as  asses  and  puppies  before  the  world.” 
Still  we  must  honestly  say  that  such  extravagant  laudation  is,  in  our 
humble  opinion,  not  calculated  to  be  of  benefit  to  Mr.  Burne-Jones,  who, 
whatever  be  his  talent,  has  still  something  to  learn,  nor  to  lead  with  it 
the  calm  judgment  even  of  his  best  friends  and  much  less  of  the  public. 

It  may  also  be  interesting  to  append  here  two  opposite  criticisms  of 


ENGLAND. 


Bume-  Jones. 


Prof.  Colvin  in 
‘Fortnightly  Re- 


44 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


exgland.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  critics  are  not  wanting  who,  admit- 
Burpc-jones.  ting  his  great  talent,  protest  against  this  excessive  laudation 
as  injurious  not  only  to  art  hut  to  the  artist,  by  confirming 
him  in  a  style,  both  of  subject  and  of  treatment,  which  in 
itself  is  not  the  highest,  and  which  threatens  to  degenerate 
into  mannerism,  and  to  lead  astray  into  vague  sentiment¬ 
ality  those  who  follow  him.  It  may  not,  therefore,  be  pre¬ 
sumptuous  if  we  venture  to  choose  a  neutral  ground,  and 
proceed  to  consider  his  methods  and  his  subjects. 

These  two  pictures,  as  well  as  his  “Beguiling  of  Merlin,” 
which,  though  in  oil,  is  partially  aquarelle  in  its  technical 
treatment  and  effect,  have  been  declared  to  be  “among  his 
noblest  inspirations,”  and  it  will  be  no  injustice  to  judge  him 
by  them. 

Mr.  Burne-Jones  is  essentially  a  colorist,  and  in  the  two 
water-colors  he  has  amply  justified  his  high  reputation. 
They  are  rich  in  color,  and  harmonious  in  combination  of 
tints.  The  “  Beguiling  of  Merlin  by  Vivian”  is  not,  however, 
at  all  entitled  to  the  same  praise.  It  is  monotonous  and 


Mr.  Burne-Jones’s  latest  work,  “Pygmalion,”  as  indicating  tlie  opposite 

“L  o  n  d  o  n  extremes  of  opinion,  taken  from  the  “  London  Week”  of  May  24,  1879: 

Week.”  7 


•‘two  ways  of  seeing  a  picture. 


“Let  us  now  see  what  these  discordant  voices  have  to  say  about  Mr. 
Burne-Jones’s  ‘Pygmalion’  series.  The  following  criticisms  are  well 
worth  comparing  carefully : 


“Spectator.” 

“Illustrated 

News/’ 


“  [Spectator.] 

“  ‘No  description  of  which  we  are  capa¬ 
ble  can  convey  in  any  adequate  degree  the 
intense  beauty  of  this  work.  As  in  all 
supreme  painting,  we  lose  sight  altogether 
of  the  artist  in  the  vision  he  has  created 
for  us,  and  it  needs  a  severe  effort  of  the 
mind  to  bring  itself  back  to  the  consider¬ 
ation  of  the  marvellous  skill  which  is  here 
displayed.  But  when  this  is  done  we 
hardly  know  upon  what  to  bestow  our 
greatest  admiration,  whether  upon  the 
soft  effulgence  of  light  in  which  the  pic¬ 
ture  is  enveloped,  the  little  bit  of  azure 
sky- on  which  Venus  stands,  and  the  deli¬ 
cate  iridescence  of  the  doves’  plumage ; 
on  the  stately  strength  of  divine  beauty 
and  power  in  her  figure,  the  clinging  de¬ 
pendence  of  that  of  Galatea,  or  on  the  ex¬ 
pression  of  the  living  statue,  which  is 
probably  the  most  wonderful  painting  of 
all — surprise,  joy,  and  helplessness  strug¬ 
gling  together  in  one  woman’s  face.’ 


“  [Illustrated  News.] 

“  ‘We  are  assured  that  in  these  pictures 
there  are  latent  meanings  as  to  the  rise, 
growth,  and  fruition  of  “passion”  which 
associates  them  with  those  productions 
of  the  minor  poets  of  the  day,  which  forms 
the  *  ‘  supersensuous,  ”  or  rather,  we  should 
say,  the  ultra-sensual,  school — a  school 
which,  in  its  worst  development,  is  the 
morbid  outcome  of  weakly,  overwrought 
physique — which  every  man  who  respects 
his  manhood  and  every  woman  who  val¬ 
ues  her  honor  must  regard  with  disgust, 
and  would  destroy  everything  of  value  in 
the  national  character.  For  our  part,  we 
see  merely  mawkish  sentiment,  not  “pas¬ 
sion,”  in  these  wan,  haggard  faces — these 
limp  languors,  this  hysterical  tension — 
together  with  mediaeval  dilettanteism,  for 
there  is  nothing  whatever  of  Greek  spirit 
or  character  in  the  series.’ 


“The  ‘Spectator’  critic,  it  will  be  seen,  goes  nearly  into  hysterics;  the 
other  gentleman  is  affected  in  a  very  different  way.  We  must  say  that 
for  gush,  tears,  and  bosh  generally,  the  ^Spectator’  man  throws  all  his 
fellow-laborers  in  the  field  of  art  far  into  the  shade.” 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


45 


ineffective  in  color  and  without  perspective.  Merlin  is  repre¬ 
sented  as  reclining  in  a  contorted  and  helpless  attitude,  with 
crossed  legs,  at  the  foot  of  some  tree  or  thorn  covered  with 
blossoms,  while  Vivian,  swaddled  in  an  extraordinary  dress, 
turns  her  back  upon  him,  twisting  her  head  round  over  her 
shoulder,  and  holding  before  her  in  both  hands  a  loug  book, 
from  which  she  is  apparently  reciting  her  spell.  The  figures 
are  neither  of  them  well  drawn.  Each  is  at  least  ten  heads 
high,  and  Vivian,  from  her  feet  to  her  waist,  is  seven  heads. 
The  attitudes  are  singularly  constrained  and  graceless,  and 
inexpressive  of  the  subject,  and  Merlin  looks  rather  like  a 
feeble,  peevish  old  woman  than  the  master  magician  with 
all  the  arts  of  sorcery  at  his  command.  Without  the  title 
to  this  picture  it  would  be  difficult  to  divine  the  subject. 

The  objection  to  be  made  to  many  of  Mr.  Burne-Jones’s 
works,  and  specially  to  these  most  recent  ones,  is  the  vague¬ 
ness  of  the  theme ;  and  it  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  that  his 
remarkable  talent  should  have  taken  the  direction  it  has 
toward  subjects  either  vaguely  ideal  or  languidly  effeminate, 
removed  from  the  best  sympathies  of  our  age,  or  the  highest 
requirements  of  art.  One  gets  a  little  tired  of  the  constant 
apotheosis  of  Venus  and  Love,  of  these  un warlike  knights 
and  sentimental  ladies,  and  of  this  perpetual  repetition  of 
the  same  type  of  face.  Here,  for  instance,  are  three  pictures,  in 
all  of  which,  both  male  and  female,  is  the  same  type  of  charac¬ 
ter,  expression,  and  face  ;  and  a  similar  peculiarity  may  be 
observed  in  all  his  later  works.  They  are  all  the  same  per¬ 
son,  or  of  the  same  family,  with  the  same  prominent  chin, 
the  same  large  sickly  sad  eyes,  hollow  cheeks,  and  full  lips. 
Both  manly  and  womanly  vigor  is  wanting  to  all.  The  men 
are  not  virile ;  the  women  are  not  womanly  in  its  best  sense ; 
but  a  certain  languidness,  effeminacy,  and  dreamy  senti¬ 
mentality,  as  of  exhausted  passions,  almost  epicene  in  its 
character,  is  visible  in  all. 

It  is  not  because  we  do  not  recognize  the  ability  of  Mr. 
Burne-Jones  that  we  venture  thus  to  criticise  him.  He  has 
great  merits  to  counterpoise  his  defects  $  but  we  would  gladly 
see  his  genius  engaged  in  sturdier  struggle  with  more  vig- , 
orous  subjects  and  themes  of  greater  power. 

Revived  Medievalism. 

And  this  leads  us  to  speak  of  the  school  or  rather  clique 
of  art  which  has  lately  grown  up  in  England,  and  in  which 
some  of  the  most  noted  names  are  enrolled.  Admitting  at 
once  the  ability  of  these  artists,  we  cannot  the  less  regret 
the  influence  they  are  excitin g.  Desiring  to  lift  art  to  a  more 


ENGLAND. 

Burne-Jones. 


Medievalism. 


46 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


England,  imaginative  height,  out  of  the  commonplace  of  life,  they  have 
carried  it  beyond  its  legitimate  domain  into  the  vague  and  un¬ 
real,  and  sought  to  obtain  notice  by  eccentricity  and  medise- 
valism.  In  their  protest  against  the  lower  school  of  mere 
genre ,  they  have  sought  to  renovate  art  by  recurrence  to 
Recurrence  to  earlier  methods  and  simpler  schools.  Feeling,  through  the 
style1  y  Italian  quaint  awkwardness,  naivete ,  and  rigidity  of  the  early  Italian 
period,  a  purity  and  sweetness  of  sentiment  art  hath  since 
lost,  they  have  made  the  mistake  of  supposing  these  to  be 
inseparable  conditions  of  their  charm,  and  have  wilfully 
assumed  their  technical  limitations  and  deficiencies.  The 
sentiment  they  seek  is  modern,  but  the  manner  is  in  imitation 
of  the  early  Italian  masters.  New  wine  is  poured  into  old 
bottles.  Their  pictures  are  animated  by  the  spirit  of  the  new 
and  the  memory  of  the  old.  Scorning  Guido  and  the  Caracci, 
and  scarcely  accepting  even  Raffaelle,  they  prostrate  them¬ 
selves  before  their  predecessors,  expecting  by  imitations  of 
their  defects  to  attain  their  excellences.  For  instance,  “  Love 
as  Wisdom”  is  a  reminiscence  of  early  Italy  in  composition 
and  character.  Its  inspiration  is  from  the  early  Italian  poets 
in  sentiment,  and  of  the  early  painters  in  composition.  So 
also  the  “Renaissance  of  Venus,”  by  Mr.  Walter  Crane,  is 
plainly  inspired  by  a  picture  of  Botticelli’s  in  the  Uffizi, 
at  Florence,  and  in  “  On  the  Banks  of  the  Styx,”  by  Mr. 
R.  Spencer  Stanhope,  the  same  early,  dry  manner  is  imi¬ 
tated.  I  only  refer  here  to  some  of  those  examples  found  in 
this  Exposition,  but  the  list  might  be  greatly  enlarged,  if  it 
were  proper  to  cite  other  names  and  works  outside  the  Expo¬ 
sition.  In  these  works,  one  cannot  but  feel  that  the  genius 
of  the  artist  has  been  fettered  5  that  his  intention  is  willful ; 
imitated  quaint- that  his  method  is  not  spontaneous.  The  quaintness,  rigid - 
unafffe ct eci  cb arm  ity,  even  the  bad  drawing,  of  the  early  Italian  school  is  imi- 
”at1,tschooLy  Ita1’  tated,  but  the  unaffected  charm  is  lost.  There  is  a  touch  of 
affectation  which  ruins  all.  So  strong  is  the  protest  against 
beauty,  through  fear  of  prettiness,  that  the  ugly  and  awk¬ 
ward  is  sought,  as  it  would  seem,  with  intention. 

Another  defect  to  be  seen  in  some  of  the  English  work  is 
niteraiuess.  literalness.  The  artist  is  not  a  co-worker  with  nature,  but 
her  drudge  and  slave.  He  is  so  afraid  not  to  be  truthful 
that  he  copies  the  accidents  and  defects  of  nature  as  well 
as  all  its  unimportant  details  with  a  fatal  subjection.  This 
is  specially  observable  in  some  of  the  landscapes,  in  which 
the  parts  often  are  over  emphasized  to  the  destruction  of 
the  main  effect.  They  look  like  timid  and  labored  studies 
by  a  student,  not  free  and  plastic  interpretations  of  a  mas- 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


47 


ter.  Mr.  Ruskin  has  so  loudly  and  emphatically  preached  ekgland. 
the  gospel  of  detail  and  imitation  of  nature  that  his  fol-  RtlsMn- 
lowers  are  afraid  to  omit  anything,  and  there  is  little  dis¬ 
tinction  in  the  work  between  the  common  and  the  poetic. 

The  opposite  defect  of  slovenliness  and  meanness  of  exe¬ 
cution  is  also  frequently  seen,  and  there  is  a  strange  oscilla-  oscillation  bc- 
tion  between  overdoing  and  carelessness — between  doing  and^rSsneS? 
too  much  and  doing  too  little.  In  fact  what  the  English 
school  most  lacks  is  a  decided  style  and  training,  a  cer¬ 
tain  hand,  a  command  of  material,  and  precision  in  draw¬ 
ing.  Much  of  their  work  has,  therefore  a  groping  charac¬ 
ter,  with  no  definite  and  absolute  intention.  They  are 
happy  ideas,  half  expressed,  and  a  constant  tendency  to 
sentimentality. 

In  the  poetic  and  ideal  school  of  English  art  the  themes  subjects  for 
are  at  times  subjects  rather  for  poems  than  for  pictures. SSmpictures. ei 
They  do  not  clearly  express  their  meaning,  but  need  a 
runing  commentary  of  explanation.  Sermoni  proprior  a  is 
their  pet  motto.  “Love  as  Wisdom,”  for  instance,  might 
apparently  make  a  pleasing  poem  in  the  early  Italian  man¬ 
ner,  but  as  a  picture  it  scarcely  explains  itself.  So  much  is 
this  felt  in  England,  that  great  pains  and  ingenuity  are  ex¬ 
pended  on  the  titles  of  the  pictures.  These  are  often  tar 
more  suggestive  than  the  pictures  themselves.  Suppose 
“Love  as  Wisdom,  ”  or  “Love  Among  the  Ruins, ”  had  no 
name,  could  bne  easily  divine  what  was  the  precise  inten¬ 
tion  of  the  artist  %  Nay,  can  one,  as  it  is  ? 

Between  these  and  the  school  of  anecdote,  genre ,  and  Genre. 
familiar  life,  the  gap  is  great.  “Love  as  Wisdom”  and~~ 

“The  Railway  Station,”  by  Mr.  Frith,  represent  the  ex¬ 
tremes  of  different  styles.  In  the  familiar  school  of  England 
of  common  life  there  is  often  a  triviality  and  sentimentality 
of  commonplace  which  is  disappointing.  The  themes  are  Trivial  themes, 
often  not  worthy  of  the  cleverness  which  is  displayed,  and 
the  execution,  so  far  as  technique  is  concerned,  is  insufficient 
to  give  an  interest  of  itself  to  the  pictures.  In  these  respects 
the  superiority  of  execution  in  France  is  very  striking. 

There  are  no  oil  pictures  in  England  which  are  rendered 
with  the  skill  which,  for  instance,  is  to  be  observed  in 
Worms,  Meissonier,  Gerome,  Leloir,  or  indeed  of  any  oi 
the  chief  painters  of  such  subjects  in  France.  The  humoi 
is  often  a  little  exaggerated,  the  sentiment  a  little  flat,  and 
the  painting  weak.  At  times  the  real  poetic  sentiment  is 
reached,  as  in  the  water-colors  of  Mr.  Walker,  and  at  times 
true  pathos  is  expressed ;  but  generally  speaking  there  is  a 


48 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


England,  want  of  freshness  and  energy  of  conception,  and  firmness 
of  drawing. 

Historical.  Historical  Paintings. 

In  the  higher  branches  of  History,  the  eight  pictures  in 
this  Exposition,  with  all  their  cleverness  and  talent  in  gen¬ 
eral,  lack  power  and  firmness  of  conception  as  well  as 
More  scenic  strength  of  execution.  They  are  more  scenic  than  real;  the 
heart  of  the  mystery  is  not  plucked ;  they  do  not  interest; 
they  do  not  excite  the  spectator.  They  want  reality.  In 
^Reference  to  this  connection  I  would  refer  to  the  admirable  essay  of 
essay.  Charles  Lamb  “On  the  Want  of  Imagination  in  Modern 

Works  of  Art,  ”  as  clearly  showing  what  is  needed  in  a  great 
historical  painting. 


English  art 
shows : 
Earnestness, 
Purity, 
Propriety. 


Morris. 


But  to  pass  from  general  considerations  to  particular  in¬ 
stances,  there  were  many  works  in  the  English  department 
which  deserve  high  praise,  and  constitute  exceptions  to  the 
general  statement  we  have  made.  One  observation  is  to  be 
strongly  emphasized,  and  that  is  that,  with  all  its  short¬ 
comings,  earnestness  of  purpose,  purity  of  theme,  and  pro 
priety  of  thought  and  feeling  are  always  to  be  seen  in  Eng¬ 
lish  art.  There  are  no  indecencies,  no  doubtful  innuendoes, 
no  displays  of  mere  nudity,  no  violence  and  brutality  of 
subject  and  treatment,  such  as  deform  the  French  school, 
and  but  little  mere  bric-a-brac  work,  with  no  soul  and  noth¬ 
ing  but  the  body  of  technique — all  is  serious  or  quiet,  at  least 
in  its  intention,  and  there  are  frequently  a  naturalness,  sweet¬ 
ness,  simplicity,  and  refinement  of  feeling  which  make  up 
for  many  deficiencies.  The  English  school  in  various  and 
perhaps  blind  ways  is  feeling  its  way,  but  it  is  animated 
with  high  and  pure  purpose.  It  does  not  prostitute  itself 
to  low  and  unworthy  aims.  This  it  is  which  marked  espe¬ 
cially  all  the  department  of  English  art  at  this  Exposition, 
and  made  a  strong  impression  on  artists  of  every  country. 

Among  the  most  charming  pictures  in  this  department  was 
“  The  Beaper  and  the  Flowers,  ”  by  Mr.  P.  B.  Morris,  which 
is  a  little  idyllic  poem,  full  of  sentiment  and  feeling,  and 
very  delicate  and  pure  in  color.  The  sun  has  set,  but  the 
light  is  still  bright  in  the  sky,  and  the  trees  and  landscape 
in  the  middle  distance  rise  dark  against  it.  The  old  reaper 
with  his  scythe  on  his  shoulder  is  going  home,  and  five  little 
girls,  who  have  come  out  to  meet  him,  are  dancing  around 
him,  gay  and  llower-like.  He  is  walking  toward  the  sunset, 
and  his  face  is  illuminated  with  the  coy  light.  So,  too,  are 
the  faces  of  the  children  whose  backs  are  turned  to  the 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


49 


light.  How  their  faces  are  illuminated,  or  why  they  cast  no 
shadows,  it  is  difficult  to  say ;  but  no  matter,  the  picture  is 
charming  and  truly  poetic.  Another  of  Mr.  Morris’s  pic¬ 
tures  represents  four  mowers  working  in  a  held  of  grain. 
The  action  of  the  figures  is  well  expressed,  and  the  drawing 
and  color  good.  They  are  earnestly  at  work,  unconscious 
that  we  are  looking  at  them.  There  is  less  poetic  feeling, 
perhaps,  in  this  than  in  the  other  picture,  but  the  subject  is 
well  felt  and  rendered,  and  it  is  a  serious  and  admirable 
work.  Both  of  these  pictures  are  under  glass,  and  one  needs 
to  examine  them  closely  to  assure  one’s  self  that  they  are  not 
aquarelles. 

Mr.  Holl  sent  two  pictures,  both  of  decided  merit,  “  The 
Lord  gave,  and  the  Lord  taketh  away,”  which  is  cleverly 
composed  and  interesting,  and  “Leaving  Home.”  Here 
there  is  character,  firm  drawing,  and  truth  of  movement 
and  expression.  The  scene  is  in  the  waiting-room  of  the 
third  class,  at  a  railway  station,  and  represents  the  leave- 
taking  of  a  young  soldier  who  is  leaving  his  home.  It  is 
simply  rendered  and  without  affectation.  The  group,  con¬ 
sisting  of  mother,  father,  and  sister,  is  seated  along  a  bench, 
and  the  figure  of  the  old  father  in  especial  is  admirable  in 
every  way  for  color,  drawing,  and  character.  The  sincerity 
and  clear  intention  of  the  artist,  and  his  ability  to  depict 
what  he  means,  make  this  an  exceptional  picture.  There 
is  nothing  mawkish  in  the  sentiment,  or  slipshod  in  the  exe¬ 
cution,  and  there  are  strong  values  of  darks,  which  is  rare  in 
an  English  picture.  Unfortunately  it  is  under  glass,  which 
gives  it  somewhat  the  effect  of  an  aquarelle ,  and  disturbs  the 
eye.  Why  the  English  have  this  practice  of  covering  their 
oil  pictures  with  glass,  it  is  difficult  to  see.  The  effect  is 
injured,  and  there  is  no  apparent  necessity  for  the  practice. 

“Toilers  of  the  Field,”  by  Mr.  J.  Aumonier,  is  a  very  pleas¬ 
ing  picture,  well  composed,  and  agreeable  in  sentiment  and 
general  sunny  tone.  One  cannot  but  regret  that  it  is  so 
aquarelle  in  treatment,  that  the  figures  are  so  thin  and  even 
in  tone,  and  that  the  shadows  are  so  faint.  At  this  hour 
the  long  shadows  constitute  an  essential  feature  and  senti¬ 
ment  of  the  scene.  A  little  more  enforcement  would  have 
made  this  picture  quite  charming  ;  as  it  is,  the  figures  are  a 
little  too  transparent,  and  do  not  come  off  from  the  ground. 
But,  despite  this,  the  picture  is  full  of  feeling  and  sentiment. 

“Applicants  for  Admission  to  a  Casual  Ward,”  by  Mr. 
Luke  Fildes,  is  a  composition  of  great  talent,  full  of  dramatic 
character  and  feeling,  and  without  affectation  or  grimace. 
It  is  a  little  gloomy  and  monotonous  in  tone  and  color,  and 

4  p  R 


ENGLAND. 

Morris. 


Ho]l. 


Aumonier. 


Luke  Fildca. 


50 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  J878. 


ENGLAND. 


Herkomer. 


-Millais. 


wants  focussing  of  light  and  dark,  but  it  is  a  strong,  able, 
and  pathetic  picture,  done  with  great  directness  and  steadi¬ 
ness  of  purpose. 

“  The  Last  Muster,”  by  Mr.  H.  Herkomer,  deserved  the 
medal  of  honor  which  was  conferred  upon  it.  It  is  a  remark¬ 
able  picture,  representing  a  Sunday  service  at  the  chapel  of 
the  Royal  Hospital  at  Chelsea,  with  all  the  veterans  seated  on 
their  benches  and  the  tattered  banners  hanging  over  head. 
This  picture,  which  is  really  a  picture  of  portraits,  is  painted 
with  great  vigor,  honesty,  and  solidity  of  impasto ;  but  be¬ 
yond  this  it  shows  a  quiet  dramatic  sense,  and  a  simplicity 
and  truth  of  individual  character  such  as  is  rarely  seen. 
The  two  principal  figures  are  particularly  admirable  in  truth 
of  action  and  expression.  Besides  this,  Mr.  Herkomer’s  other 
oil  painting,  “  After  the  Toil  of  the  Day,”  looks  very  washy 
and  aquarelle  in  manner,  and  is  far  behind  it  in  character  and 
vigor,  though  it  is  a  pleasing  picture. 

The  only  other  medal  of  honor  which  was  given  to  Eng¬ 
land  was  awarded  to  Mr.  Millais.  He  was  admirably  repre¬ 
sented  by  no  less  than  ten  of  his  principal  pictures,  of  which 
five  were  portraits,  two  landscapes,  and  three  subject  pic¬ 
tures.  These  pictures  have  been  repeatedly  exhibited,  and 
are  already  so  well  known  that  they  scarcely  need  to  be 
described.  Of  his  portraits,  that  of  “Mrs.  Bischoffsheim  ” 
is  one  of  the  best,  and  it  is  spirited  and  well  painted,  though 
a  little  careless  in  the  execution  of  all  but  the  head,  and 
has  the  great  merit  of  a  very  strong  resemblance.  The 
portrait  of  the  “  Duke  of  Westminster  ”  in  his  hunting  dress 
is  also  an  admirable  portrait,  simple,  direct,  and  true  to  life ; 
but  still  better  than  this  is  “  The  Gambler’s  Wife,”  which, 
notwithstanding  its  title,  is  plainly  a  portrait,  and  only  a 
portrait.  The  head  on  this  picture  is  charmingly  rendered 
with  great  delicacy  of  color  and  feeling,  and  care  in  execu¬ 
tion.  Indeed,  of  all  Mr.  Millais’  works  in  the  Exposition 
this  is  the  most  sincere  and  happy,  as  far  as  the  head  goes. 
But  the  Jicliu  on  her  neck  is  too  careless — it  means  nothing. 
Mr.  Millais  lias  quite  changed  his  whole  style  since  those  early 
works  which  first  won  him  his  high  reputation,  and  which 
were  characterized  by  fastidious  and  minute  elaboration. 
Now,  on  the  contrary,  his  style  is  free,  and  at  times  quite 
too  free  and  careless,  and  he  often  contents  himself  with 
merely  suggesting  in  the  sketchiest  manner  what,  with  the 
pressure  of  his  engagements,  he  has  no  time  to  work  out. 
There,  perhaps,  might  be  a  happy  mean  between  these  two 
manners,  and  there  is  at  times  an  indication  of  altogether 
too  much  liurrv  in  his  work.  In  the  portraits  of  his  three 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


51 


children,  for  instance,  the  dresses  are  mere  vague  smudges 
of  white,  with  no  anatomy  in  the  folds  and  no  texture.  The 
dresses  also  of  the  “  Three  Sisters”  are  very  careless,  and 
all  the  same  pattern  and  color,  while  the  background  of 
flowers  is  a  mere  sketch.  This  reckless  splashing  on  of  inci¬ 
dental  parts  is  a  characteristic  of  English  portraits.  If  an 
artist  draws  anything  it  ought,  at  least  as  far  as  it  goes, 
however  unfinished,  to  have  a  determinate  form  and  mean¬ 
ing,  and  not  to  be,  as  it  too  often  is,  a  mere  -scribble,  and 
Mr.  Millais  is  too  clever  an  artist  and  too  capable  an  exec¬ 
utant  to  allow  himself  to  slur  over  accessories  in  this  hur¬ 
ried  way.  “The  Yeoman  of  the  Guard,”  clever  as  in  some 
respects  it  is,  has  on  the  whole  something  a  little  grotesque 
in  it.  The  tones  of  the  red  costume  are  too  voyant.  The 
face  is  dabbled  and  spotty  in  execution,  and  the  general 
effect  is  of  a  huge  water-color. 

The  two  landscapes,  one  representing  “  Chill  October,” 
and  the  other  “  O’er  the  Hills  and  Far  Away,”  which  is  a 
view  of  the  Scottish  moors,  are  so  well  known  that  they 
scarcely  need  to  be  described.  In  sentiment  and  general 
tone  the  “Chill  October”  is  the  best,  and  narrowly  misses 
being  a  remarkable  picture.  But  here  is  the  same  careless¬ 
ness  of  parts,  the  same  want  of  real  love  for  the  thing  rep¬ 
resented,  the  same  hurry  of  execution.  The  background 
and  distance  are  scarcely  even  sketched  in,  as  if  the  artist 
had  got  tired  of  his  work  before  completing  it.  The  fore¬ 
ground  is  scratched  in  loosely ;  the  roots  of  the  trees  are 
scarcely  drawn  at  all.  The  only  part  which  is  really  painted 
is  the  middle  distance,  with  its  dark  trees  bending  to  the 
stress  of  the  wind  and  its  chill  gleamy  water,  and  these  are 
so  admirably  rendered  and  so  good  in  character  that  they 
hold  the  whole  picture  together  and  cover  the  deficiencies  of 
the  rest.  In  the  Scotch  landscape,  as  in  “Chill  October,” 
the  main  dark  is  in  the  middle  ground,  drawing  the  pictures 
into  two  parts,  and  the  foregrounds  are  comparatively  weak 
and  unsatisfactory.  Here  there  is  much  and  careful  study ; 
the  execution  is  free  and  the  color  good,  but  it  lacks  the 
sentiment  that  animates  the  “Chill  October,”  and  is  not  so 
happy  in  its  expression  of  feeling,  though  it  is  more  care¬ 
fully  painted.  Indeed,  it  is  to  be  objected  that  in  the  dis¬ 
tance  there  is  too  much  insistance  of  particulars  which 
could  scarcely  be  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  little  effect 
of  chiaro-oscuro. 

The  subject  pictures  by  Mr.  Millais  are  two  in  number, 
“The  Northwest  Passage”  and  “Yes  or  No.”  The  latter 
is  essentially  portrait.  The  former,  a  girl  seated  at  the  feet 


ENGLAND. 

Millais. 


52 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  J878. 


ENGLAND. 

Millais. 


Watts. 


Poynter. 


of  her  father,  an  old  sailor,  and  reading  from  a  book,  to 
which  he  is  attentively  listening.  The  character  and  expres¬ 
sion  of  the  sailor,  who  clasps  his  daughter’s  hand,  is  admira¬ 
ble,  the  incident  is  interesting,  and  the  story  well  told. 

Mr.  Millais’  reputation  is  so  established  and  his  talent  so 
decided  that  he  can  well  afford  to  be  criticised.  Had  his 
influence  and  position  been  less  we  should  not  have  dwelt 
upon  his  shortcomings,  which  are  chiefly  the  result  of 
hurry  and  carelessness  and  want  of  real  love  for  his  work. 
Art  is  a  jealous  mistress,  and  demands  devotion  and  ear¬ 
nestness.  She  is  not  satisfied  with  a  careless  nod  even  from 
so  masterly  a  workman  as  Mr.  Millais. 

Mr.  G.  F.  Watts  sent  a  number  of  interesting  portraits 
of  “  Robert  Browning,”  “Herr  Joachim,”  “General  Lau¬ 
rence,”  “P.  H.  Calderon,”  “The  Duke  of  Cleveland,”  and 
“  Hon.  Mrs.  Percy  Wyndham.”  Of  these  the  best  is  the 
full-length  of  Mrs.  Wyndham,  which  has  much  dignity  and 
breadth  of  style  and  character.  Mr.  Watts’s  genius,  how¬ 
ever,  has  a  larger  scope  in  his  ideal  subjects,  of  which  lie  sends 
us  but  two  specimens,  in  his  “Pallas,  Juno,  and  Venus,” 
and  his  “Love  and  Death 5”  of  these  the  more  carefully 
painted  is  the  former,  which  is  simple  and  unaffected,  and, 
though  it  leaves  much  to  be  desired  in  clearness  of  color  and 
exactness  of  drawing  from  the  nude,  has  no  taint  of  the 
model,  and  is  conceived  in  a  true  spirit.  There  is  something 
large  in  the  conception  of  Death,  and  the  head  of  Love  is 
expressive  in  action  and  feeling ;  but  his  figure  is  sadly  out 
of  drawing  and  strange  in  color.  There  is  in  these  pictures, 
however,  a  lift  of  spirit  and  feeling. 

Mr.  E.  J.  Poynter  sent  three  pictures,  “  The  Catapult,” 
“  Proserpine,”  and  “  Israel  in  Egypt.”  There  is  much  that 
is  refined  in  sentiment  and  conception  in  the  “  Proserpine” 
gathering  flowers,  her  figure  showing  through  the  half-trans¬ 
parent  drapery  in  which  she  is  robed.  Both  the  other  pic¬ 
tures  are  more  ambitious  in  character  and  design,  show 
great  study  and  research,  and  are  interesting  and  spirited. 
The  “Israel  in  Egypt”  represents  the  Israelites  dragging  a 
colossal  figure  through  the  burning  noon  of  Egypt.  The 
great  mass  of  figures  are  well  drawn  and  appropriate  in 
action,  the  costumes  are  carefully  studied,  and  nothing  has 
been  slighted.  Wliat  is  to  be  objected  is  that  the  values  of 
all  parts  are  too  equal  in  color  and  chiaro-oscuro ,  so  that  the 
interest  is  too  widely  distributed,  and  not  sufficiently  con¬ 
centrated  on  any  main  incident.  In  consequence  the  pic¬ 
ture  has  a  certain  thinness  and  flatness  of  effect.  “The 


PINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


53 


Catapult”  is  more  concentrated  and  more  powerful,  and 
very  clever  in  action  and  design,  though  a  little  dull  in  color. 

“Rough  Weather  in  the  Mediterranean,”  by  Mr.  Henry 
Moore,  is  a  very  careful  study  of  mid-ocean.  The  heaving 
waves  are  full  of  life  and  movement,  and  the  intense  blue 
tones  very  true  to  nature. 

Mr.  Brett’s  two  pictures  of  u  Spires  and  Steeples  of  the 
Channel  Islands,”  and  u  Mount’s  Bay,  Cornwall,”  are  immense 
birds-eye  views  of  the  sea  and  coast  in  broad  sunlight, 
crowded  with  detail,  and  studied  with  exceeding  pains  and 
labor.  Indeed,  it  is  a  painfully  careful  study,  and  despite 
the  talent  it  displays  and  the  conscientiousness  of  the  work, 
one  cannot  but  feel  that  the  labor  is  in  the  wrong  direction, 
and  that  the  artist  has  been  mastered  by  his  subject,  and 
rendered  subservient  to  the  facts.  There  is  no  reserve  any¬ 
where;  every  thing  glitters  with  excess  of  light;  every  bit  is 
of  equal  value,  and  insists  upon  forcing  itself  on  the  atten¬ 
tion.  The  minute  is  over-emphasized,  as  if  the  artist  had 
been  afraid  to  have  anything  unreported,  however  unneces¬ 
sary,  and  the  result  is  fatiguing. 

Mr.  Albert  Moore’s  two  little  pictures  of  “  Beads,  ”  and 
“  The  Palm  Fan.  ”  which  in  the  catalogue  are  called  “  har¬ 
monies  in  blue  and  gold,”  have  little  theme  or  character, 
but  they  are  well  drawn,  delicate,  unaffected,  and  graceful, 
though  a  little  pale  and  chalky  in  color.  They  are  of  the 
young  school  of  England — with  which  novelty  is  often  a 
synonym  of  excellence.  These  two  pictures  were  too  pale 
and  weak  to  produce  much  effect  in  the  Exposition,  but  they 
would  be  charming  in  a  little  boudoir. 

Mr.  R.  W.  Macbeth  sent  two  pictures,  a  “  Lincolnshire 
Gang,  ”  and  “  Potato  Harvest  in  the  Fens.”  The  first  repre¬ 
sents  a  gang  of  workmen  and  women  roused  to  labor  at  day¬ 
break.  It  is  well  composed  and  painted,  and  has  a  good 
deal  of  action  and  spirit  and  vigor  of  character.  It  is  a 
little  monotonous  from  its  want  of  contrast  in  light  and  dark, 
and  the  faces  have  that  peculiar  lantern-like  illumination 
which  is  characteristic  of  so  many  pictures  in  the  English 
department,  but  it  is  an  interesting  picture.  In  light  and 
dark,  and  in  technique^ he  “  Potato  Gatherers”  is  much  more 
vigorous,  and,  indeed,  in  these  qualities  it  is  one  of  the  most 
striking  pictures  in  the  English  department.  It  is  firmly 
and  forcibly  painted,  well  composed,  and  solidly  laid  in. 
The  sky  is  good,  and  the  massed  figures  come  up  strongly 
against  it. 

Miss  Thompson  (now  Mrs.  Bufler)  sent  a  picture  repre¬ 
senting  “  The  Return  from  Inkermann,”  in  which  we  confess. 


ENGLAND. 


H.  Moore. 


Brett 


A.  Moore. 


Macbeth. 


Mrs.  Butler,  nee 
Thompson . 


54 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


ENGLAND. 
Mrs.  Butler. 


Stanhope. 


Brewtnell. 


Sir  J.  Gilbert. 


Arraitage. 


Calderon. 


after  all  tlie  great  praise  which  has  been  bestowed  upon 
this  lady’s  work,  to  have  been  disappointed.  The  drawing 
is  studied.  There  is  character  undoubtedly  in  some  of  the 
groups,  but  the  figures  are  somewhat  confusedly  massed 
together,  and  there  is  a  certain  want  of  that  virile  strength 
and  enforcement  which  is  demanded  in  such  a  subject.  The 
color  is  dull  and  smudgy,  and  of  a  uniform  tint  throughout. 
After  the  pictures  of  a  similar  class  in  France  it  has  rather 
a  tame  effect.  But  there  is  undoubted  talent  in  it,  and  as 
the  work  of  a  woman  it  is  remarkable. 

Mr.  Spencer  Stanhope  is  a  follower  of  Mr.  Burne-Jones, 
and  his  “  On  the  Banks  of  the  Styx,  ”  is  an  effort  in  the  same 
early  Italian  direction,  though  Avitli  inferior  talent.  In  color 
it  is  washy,  thin,  and  ineffective,  and  the  figures  are  \rery 
long,  lean,  and  queer.  The  subject  is  poetic,  and  with  dif¬ 
ferent  treatment  might  have  been  made  interesting  and 
pathetic  5  but  as  it  is,  it  is  only  affected  and  eccentric,  and 
willfully  wrong.  “  Ils  sontjoliment  maigres ,”  was  the  com¬ 
ment  of  a  French  woman  that  reached  my  ears  as  I  was 
looking  at  it. 

Mr.  E.  F.  Brewtnell  is  of  the  same  following,  and  his 
“  Sleeping  Beauty”  has  the  same  quality  of  queerness. 
The  young  Prince  especially  is  very  peculiar  in  attitude 
and  drawing.  Originality  seems  in  this  class  of  pictures  to 
be  confounded  with  oddity  and  awkwardness. 

Among  the  historical  paintings,  those  of  Sir  John  Gil¬ 
bert  are  among  the  most  ambitious,  though,  perhaps,  not 
the  best  of  his  efforts.  They  represent  “The  Doge  and 
Senators  of  Venice  in  Council,”  “  Richard  II  resigning  his 
Crown  to  Bolingbroke,  ”  “The  Arrest  of  Hastings,”  and 
“Cardinal  Wolsey  at  Leicester  Abbey.”  There  is  in  the 
treatment  of  these  subjects  a  certain  academic  character  of 
composition  and  action,  the  color  is  hard  and  voyant,  and  the 
drawings  far  from  good.  “Serf  Emancipation,”  by  Mr. 
Armitage,  represents  an  Anglo-Saxon  noble  on  his  death¬ 
bed,  surrounded  by  his  family  and  friends  on  one  side,  while 
opposite  stand  a  group  of  serfs,  some  kneeling  and  some 
standing,  to  whom  he  is  givingtheir  freedom.  The  picture  is 
a  little  academic,  though  well  composed,  but  it  is  monotonous 
in  color  and  tone,  and  there  is  little  salience  in  character 
and  expression.  Mr.  P.  H.  Calderon  sent  seven  pictures. 
“Constance,”  “Victory,”  “Margaret,”  “On  her  Way  to 
the  Throne,”  “Catharine  of  Lorraine,”  “Sighing  his  Soul 
into  his  Lady’s  Face,”  and  “Home  they  brought  her  War¬ 
rior  dead.”  “On  the  way  to  the  Throne”  is  good  in 
character  and  composition  aud  is  delicate  in  color,  but  it 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


55 


is  in  the  pure  water-color  style,  and  it  would  easily  pass 
at  a  little  distance  for  an  aquarelle.  The  u  Catherine  of 
Lorraine  urging  Jacques  Clement  to  assassinate  Henry 
III,”  is  clever,  but  exaggerated,  and  the  color,  particularly 
in  the  background,  not  happy.  “  The  Last  Touch” is  a  very 
clever  bit  of  comedy  and  humor,  without  exaggeration  and 
splendidly  rendered.  “Home  they  brought  her  Warrior 
dead”  is  by  far  the  best  of  his  pictures  here.  It  is  strongly 
painted  and  clearly  felt.  The  textures  are  well  given,  par¬ 
ticularly  the  curtain  and  the  yellowish  white  and  satin 
coverlid.  There  is  pathos,  too,  and  simple  unexaggerated 
strength  of  feeling,  and  it  is  altogether  an  interesting  and 
effective  picture.  And  this  leads  me  to  speak  of  the  want 
of  feeling  and  study  of  draperies  and  textures  and  quali¬ 
ties  of  stuffs  which  is  ordinairly  seen  in  the  English  work. 
The  anatomies  of  drapery  and  the  peculiarities  of  different 
textures  are  little  studied.  The  execution  is  not  only  care¬ 
less,  but  unintelligent.  The  folds  and  breaks  are  not  under¬ 
stood  and  imitated,  but  merely  blotted  in  with  a  vague,  un¬ 
certain  touch,  and  uniformly  treated  as  if  they  were  unim¬ 
portant  accessories.  The  picture  by  Mr.  Calderon  is  known 
as  one  of  the  few  exceptions  to  the  general  rule.  Here  you 
see  what  the  stuff  is,  and  you  feel  that  the  artist  has  repre¬ 
sented  it  con  amove.  Mr.  Millais  sins  greatly  in  this  respect, 
as  we  have  already  said.  His  draperies  and  textures  are  the 
least  good  parts  of  his  pictures,  and  he  seems  not  to  feel 
their  value  and  beauty.  In  this  respect,  the  English  might 
well  take  a  lesson  from  the  French,  whose  draperies  and  text¬ 
ures  are  studied  with  great  care.  It  is  vexatious  to  see  in 
the  English  work  dresses  vaguely  rubbed  in  in  color,  with 
here  and  there  an  indeterminate  and  inexpressive  streak  of 
dark  to  break  the  surface.  There  is  one  kind  of  execution 
which  although  it  does  not  insist  on  details  or  become  nig¬ 
gled  in  execution,  is  broad,  decisive,  true,  as  far  as  it  goes. 
This  is  the  free  manner  of  a  master’s  work,  and  is  the  re¬ 
sult  of  knowledge.  There  is  another,  in  which  the  English 
school  indulges,  that  is  indecisive  and  careless,  and  which 
strives  to  mask  its  ignorance  or  carelessness  by  sloppy  inex¬ 
pressive  touches  under  the  pretense  of  freedom  of  style. 

Another  exception  to  this  general  characteristic  is  to  be 
seen  in  the  exquisitely  felt  and  carefully  studied  draperies 
of  Sir  Frederick  Leighton’s  u Music  Lesson.”  This  picture 
has  great  refinement  of  sentiment  and  composition,  and, 
though  a  little  over-labored  in  the  execution,  and  with,  per¬ 
haps,  a  touch  of  the  precieuse  in  tbe  almost  enameled  flesh, 
is,  as  a  whole,  charming.  There  is  great  harmony  in  the 


ENGLAND. 


Calderon. 


SirF.  Leighton. 


56 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


ENGLAND. 

Leighton. 


Prinsep. 


Yeames. 


GoodalJ 


general  tints  and  great  tenderness  of  feeli ng.  Sir  Frederick’s 
portrait  of  u  Captain  Burton”  is,  on  the  contrary,  masterly 
in  execution  and  strong  in  impasto ,  and  is  decidedly  one  of 
the  best  portraits  here.  We  regret  to  say  that  his  more 
ambitious  attempt  to  represent  u Elijah”  ministered  to  by 
the  angel,  does  not  show  the  same  vigor.  It  is  not  happy 
as  a  composition,  and  it  is  weak  in  execution.  The  angel 
is  graceful,  but  the  picture  lacks  that  solemnity  and  seri¬ 
ousness  of  character  that  the  subject  demands.  There  are 
in  all  Mr.  Leighton’s  works  earnestness  and  faithfulness  of 
study,  but  powerful  subjects  like  the  Elijah  are  less  in  har¬ 
mony  with  his  genius  than  that  of  a  more  idyllic,  romantic, 
and  poetic  type. 

Mr.  Y.  Prinsep  sent  three  pictures,  u  Beading  4  Sir 
Charles  Grandison,”’  “The  Linen  Gatherers,”  and  “ A  Bi- 
entot .”  “The  Linen  Gatherers”  represents  a  scene  on  the 
Devonshire  cliffs,  with  English  girls  coming  down  a  slope 
carrying  home  the  linen  that  has  been  bleaching  in  the  sun. 
In  this  picture,  though  it  represents  a  scene  in  the  open  air 
towards  evening,  with  full  light,  not  a  single  figure  casts  a 
shadow,  while  all  the  faces  coming  toward  the  spectator,  and 
with  the  light  of  sky  behind  them,  are  self-illuminated  like 
lanterns.  There  is  no  feeling  of  distance  or  perspective,  all 
the  figures  are  of  equal  value  and  distinctness  in  one  monot¬ 
onous  tint,  and  there  is  no  light  and  dark.  There  is  the 
same  monotony  of  tint  and  value,  the  same  absence  of 
shadow,  and  the  same  thinness  of  execution  in  both  the 
other  pictures,  which  are  essentially  genre. 

This  even,  flat  monotony  and  absence  of  shadows  and 
self-illumination  are  singular  peculiarities  of  most  of  the 
English  pictures.  For  instance,  Mr.  W.  F.  Yeames’s  “The 
Last  Bit  of  Gossip”  represents  a  scene  in  the  open  street  of 
Bath,  with  two  persons  meeting  in  Sedan  chairs,  the  tops  of 
which  are  raised  while  their  occupants  look  out  and  chat 
together.  The  incident  is  amusing,  there  is  a  pretty  arran ge- 
ment  of  color,  and  there  is  character,  but  the  whole  picture 
is  flat,  as  if  it  were  printed  in  cretonne ,  the  tones  are  all  even, 
and  nothing  casts  a  shadow.  There  is  no  distance,  no  tone, 
no  disengagement  of  one  thing  from  another.  In  examining 
the  picture  bit  by  bit,  one  sees  that  it  shows  spirit  and  talent, 
but  there  is  absolutely  no  light  and  dark.  uPour  les  Pan. 
vres ,”  by  the  same  artist,  has  the  same  defects  and  the  same 
merits.  Again,  in  Mr.  F.  Goodall’s  picture  of  “  The  Time  of 
Boses”  the  same  peculiarity  is  seen.  It  represents  a  mother 
with  her  infant  in  her  arms  in  a  rose-garden,  with  a  red-brick 
wall  behind.  It  is  clear  sunlight,  and  yet  nothing  casts  a 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


57 


shadow,  and  the  faces  are  self-illuminating.  There  is  much 
that  is  pretty  and  pleasing  in  parts,  hut  it  is  all  there  as 
water-color,  and  without  light  and  dark.  The  “  Head  of  the 
House  at  Prayer,”  by  the  same  artist,  represents  an  Arab 
chief  standing  in  front  of  his  tent  with  his  camels  near  by, 
in  broad  daylight,  yet  there  is  not  a  shadow  thrown  by  any¬ 
thing.  The  same  thing  may  be  said  also  of  Mr.  Goodall’s 
“  Spring,”  which  is  vaporous,  tender,  and  delicate  in  color, 
but  without  a  shadow. 

Again,  the  same  remark  may  be  made  in  respect  to  all  Mr. 
Bicliardson’s  pictures.  There  is  something  very  pleasant 
and  bright  about  them.  In  linear  composition  they  are 
clever,  the  figures  are  fairly  well  drawn,  and  the  incidents  rep¬ 
resented  are  interesting,  but  there  is  almost  no  composition 
of  light  and  dark,  all  things  are  of  equal  value,  there  are 
almost  no  shadows,  there  is  no  principal  light,  and  all  the 
faces  are  equally  illuminated.  Each  figure  is  drawn  with 
a  dark  outline,  and  flatly  filled  in  with  color.  The  back¬ 
ground  and  still  life  are  painted  in  a  thin,  stringy  manner, 
are  just  washed  in,  and  have  somewhat  the  effect  of  stained 
wood.  Still  there  is  much  talent  displayed  in  these  pictures, 
though  one  cannot  but  regret  the  feebleness  of  the  technique. 
One  exception  there  is  in  his  “Escaped,”  which  represents 
two  dogs  finding  a  cap  in  the  water.  Here  there  are  darks 
and  a  sense  of  values,  but  here,  too,  there  are  no  shadows. 

The  subject  of  “The  Queen  of  the  Swords”  is  taken  from 
Sir  Walter  Scott’s  “Pirate,”  and  the  moment  chosen  is  when 
Minna  Troil  moves  down  between  two  files  of  lifted  swords, 
which  are  crossed  above  her  head.  It  is  drawn  with  spirit 
and  animation,  and  is  an  interesting  picture.  “The  Bill  of 
Sale”  is  also  clever,  and  has  a  good  deal  of  quiet  character. 
The  “Portrait,”  however,  is  far  more  solid  and  strong  in 
color,  painted  with  good  impasto ,  and  simple,  unaffected, 
and  natural.  It  is  one  of  the  best  portraits  in  the  English 
school. 

Again,  the  same  peculiarity  is  seen  in  Mr.  G.  H.  Boughton’s 
pictures.  Xone  of  the  figures  cast  any  shadows,  and  the 
faces  are  all  self-illuminating.  This  is  especially  the  case 
in  the  “  Surrey  Pastoral,”  where  the  subject  is  an  English 
landscape  almost  in  twilight,  with  a  rising  moon.  In  the 
middle  ground  are  figures,  some  seated,  and  one  crossing  a 
brook.  All  is  in  subdued  lone  and  pleasing  in  sentiment; 
but,  though  the  backs  of  the  figures  are  turned  to  the  sky, 
their  faces  are  all  unnaturally  illuminated,  and  seem  like 
lanterns.  The  same  is  the  case  with  “The  Bearers  of  the 
Burden,”  which  is  also  marked  by  a  quiet  monotony  of  tone, 


ENGLAND. 

Goodall. 


Richardson. 


Boughton. 


58 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


ENGLAND. 


Bough  ton. 


Harmonies.” 

“Nocturnes.” 

•“Symphonies.” 


What  “color” 
means. 


English  combi¬ 
nations  of  mere 
tints. 

Weak  in  draw- 
Lng. 


Disproportion. 


with  faint  yellows  and  browns,  and  almost  no  perspective  of 
distance.  “Snow  in  Spring”  represents  a  group  of  young 
girls  in  a  wood.  Primroses  are  on  the  ground,  and  flakes 
of  snow  are  falling.  The  theme  is  rather  a  quaint  conceit, 
with  little  realism,  but  pleasing  in  arrangement  of  colors  and 
refined  in  sentiment.  Indeed,  there  is  something  agreeable 
and  attractive  in  all  Mr.  Boughton’s  work,  when  one  has 
ceased  to  look  for  solidity  and  truth,  and  is  content  to  accept 
sentiment  and  delicate  tones  in  their  stead. 

Here  it  maybe  observed  that  the  phrases  so  constantly  used 
in  the  new  school  of  England,  such  as  harmonies  and  ar¬ 
rangement  in  this  and  that  color,  nocturnes,  symphonies,  etc,, 
indicate  clearly  a  notion  that  a  pleasing  combination  of  tints 
and  colors  constitutes  “color.”  It  cannot,  however,  be  too 
strongly  insisted  upon  that  no  arrangement  of  tints  and 
colors  constitutes,  in  its  proper  sense,  “color.”  The  term 
“color”  has  a  far  larger  and  deeper  significance,  and  em¬ 
braces  not  so  much  mere  arrangement  of  flat  tints  (which 
might  equally  well  be  made  in  a  cretonne  pattern)  as  unity 
and  harmony  of  tone,  depth  of  quality,  values  of  colors  in 
chiaro-oscuroj  and  solidity  of  representation.  When  it  is  said 
that  Titian  and  Giorgone  are  great  colorists,  it  is  not  meant 
only  that  the  tints  superficially  laid  on  are  agreeable  in  ar¬ 
rangement,  but  that  the  qualities  of  the  things  are  rendered ; 
that  there  is  a  just  relation  of  parts  in  effect  ;  that  all  is  in 
its  proper  place  as  value ;  that  the  flesh  is  deep,  rich,  and 
luminous  $  that  the  gradations  are  subtle $  that  light  and 
shade  balance  and  give  value  to  each  other  ;  and  that  there 
is  an  all-pervading  presence  of  tone  throughout  every  part. 
And  this  is  exactly  what  is  not  seen  nor  apparently  sought 
for  in  most  modern  English  works.  They  rather  seek  for 
agreeable  combinations  of  mere  tints.  But,  besides,  they  are 
extremely  weak  in  their  drawing,  which  is  generally  without 
style  and  decision .  It  always  seems  tentative,  approximative, 
and  uncertain,  and  often  ignorant,  as  if  the  artist  had  not  been 
properly  trained  to  draw  before  he  began  to  paint.  But  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  good  drawing  is  the  very  foundation 
of  good  art  5  and,  in  drawing,  the  English  school  is  far  be¬ 
hind  the  chief  schools  of  the  Continent.  Take,  for  instance, 
the  drawing  in  the  figures  of  “Merlin  and  Vivian,”  by  Mr. 
Burne  Jones.  They  are  about  ten  heads  high,  while  the 
highest  ideal  standard  is  eight,  and  the  practical  standard 
less.  It  may  safely  be  said  that  no  figure  can  be  found  in 
nature,  and  none  in  the  antique,  which  clearly  measures 
eight  heads.  But  it  is  not  only  in  the  lengths  of  parts,  but 
in  the  unintelligent  rendering  of  them,  that  the  drawing 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


59 


fails.  The  hips  are  almost  impossible.  The  neck  is  de¬ 
formed;  the  proportions  and  balance  and  movement  all 
incorrect.*  Look,  too,  at  the  “Love”  of  Mr.  Watts,  where 
not  only  the  color  but  the  drawing  and  anatomy  are  ex¬ 
ceedingly  unsatisfactory.  I  mention  these  two  names  only 
because  they  enjoy  so  high  a  reputation,  and  therefore  fitly 
should  be  among  the  best  draftsmen. 

Similar  defects  are  to  be  found  in  the  pictures  of  Mr.  G. 
I).  Leslie,  but  they  need  not  be  more  insisted  on.  They  are 
very  flat  and  weak  in  color,  are  without  contrast  of  light 
and  dark,  and  have  a  thinness  of  body  as  if  they  were  aqua¬ 
relles ;  but  a  charming  and  refined  sentiment  animates  them 
all,  and  they  have  a  naive  grace  and  simplicity  which  is  very 
attractive.  The  “School  Revisited”  is  in  especial  to  be  no¬ 
ticed.  The  time  and  costumes  are  of  the  last  century,  and 
the  picture  represents  an  old  schoolfellow,  who  sits  on  a 
bench  with  her  former  playmates,  younger  than  herself,  tell¬ 
ing  them,  probably,  of  the  outer  world  and  its  delights,  and 
talking  over  old  times.  His  pictures  “  Lavinia,”  “  Fortunes,” 
“  Celia’s  Arbor,”  and  “  Potpourri”  are  all  most  pleasing. 

The  same  faults  may  be  found  also  Avith  Mr.  Briton  Ri¬ 
viere’s  pictures.  He  sent  three,  “  Daniel  in  the  Lions’  Den,” 
“Charity,”  and  “The  Last  of  the  Garrison.”  This  last, 
which  represents  a  wounded  dog,  has  a  good  deal  of  pathos. 
The  first,  “  Daniel,”  is,  however,  his  most  important  work. 
It  is  spirited  in  conception  and  original  in  treatment.  Daniel, 
with  his  arms  tied  behind  him,  and  his  back  turned  to  the 
spectator,  confronts  a  group  of  lions.  His  figure  is  striking 
in  its  severe  simplicity.  The  character  of  the  lions,  too,  is 
well  given.  What  one  regrets  is  the  monotone  of  color  and 
the  want  of  technical  strength  in  the  execution,  but  the 
picture  shows  much  talent  and  originality. 

Mr.  C.  W.  Cope’s  picture,  “  Selecting  Pictures  for  the 
Royal  Academy  Exhibition,”  is  very  clever  and  Avell  com¬ 
posed.  The  likenesses  are  good,  and  the  groups  happily 
arranged. 

“Trawlers  waiting  for  Darkness,”  by  Mr.  Colin  Hunter, 
is  a  strong  and  well-conceiA7ed  work.  The  coming  on  of  the 
dark  is  well  expressed,  and  the  contrasts  of  light  and  dark 
are  good.  Altogether  it  is  a  serious  and  striking  picture. 

*  Professor  Colvin  is  of  a  different  opinion.  In  tlie  article  already  cited 
from  tlie  “Fortnightly  Review,” after  stating  that  in  this  picture  “the 
countenances  are  passion  incarnate,  the  profile  of  Nimiane  never  to  he 
forgotten,”  etc.,  he  adds  that  “the  drawing  of  Nimaine’s  figure,  hands, 
and  feet — the  numb  and  slackened  hands  of  Merlin — these,  for  instance, 
are  mere  masterpieces.” 


ENGLAND. 


Leslie. 


Eevi^re 


Cope. 


Hunter. 


60 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1*78. 


eng:  and. 
Morgan . 


Landseer. 


Mason. 


Phillip. 


Armstrong. 


Croft. 


The  “  Haymakers,”  by  Mr.  F.  Morgan,  represents  a  group 
returning  home  along  the  road  in.  the  glow  of  a  summer’s 
evening.  This  picture  is  admirable  in  composition,  color, 
and  chiaro-oscuro.  The  sentiment  is  welf  expressed  and  the 
character  of  the  figures  well  rendered.  One  cannot  but  ask, 
however,  why  the  faces,  though  turned  away  from  the  sun¬ 
set,  are  self- illuminating,  and  why,  since  the  sky  is  so  bright, 
no  shadows  are  cast. 

Of  deceased  artists,  Sir  Edwin  Landseer  was  represented 
by  six  of  his  well-known  pictures — “  The  Indian  Tent,” 
“The  Connoisseurs,”  “Swannery  Invaded  by  Eagles,” 
“Man  Proposes,  and  God  Disposes,”  The  Ptarmigan  Hill,” 
and  “The  Sick  Monkey.”  The  last  is  the  only  one  that 
merits  attention,  and  here  Sir  Edwin  is  seen  at  his  best. 
The  remainder  are  weak  and  washy  in  execution,  and  very 
poor  in  color,  and  without  strength  of  design  or  character. 
In  fact,  it  must  be  admitted  that  these  pictures  do  not  at  all 
sustain  his  great  reputation,  and  have  materially  diminished 
the  estimation  in  which  he  has  been  held. 

Seven  of  the  late  Mr.  George  H.  Mason’s  pictures  were  ex¬ 
hibited,  all  of  them  good  in  color  and  impasto ,  and  pleasing 
in  sentiment.  Particuarly  are  to  be  mentioned  the  “  Even¬ 
song,”  “Children  Fishing,”  and  “The  Cast  Shoe,”  all  of 
them  characterized  by  a  low  tone  of  color,  a  good  feeling  for 
light  and  dark,  and  a  pure  simplicity  of  treatment. 

Four  of  the  late  John  Phillip’s  works  were  also  here,  of 
which  the  principal  one  was  “  Round  the  Brasero,”  represent¬ 
ing  a  group  of  Spaniards  gathered  around  the  fire  in  the 
brasero.  These  are  all  a  little  coarse  in  color  and  charac¬ 
ter,  but  are  clever  and  spirited. 

Mr.  T.  Armstrong’s  “Music  Piece”  is  graceful,  pretty 
in  sentiment,  and  pleasing  in  its  arrangement  of  colors, 
though  it  is  perfectly  aquarelle  in  quality.  Two  half  figures 
of  girls  in  front  are  listening  to  a  young  priest  who  is  play¬ 
ing  the  piano-forte  in  the  background,  or  rather  what  is 
meant  for  the  background ;  but  in  reality  the  picture  is  so 
totally  without  perspective,  and  all  the  parts  are  so  much  on 
the  same  plane,  that  the  girls  look  like  giantesses  and  the 
priest  like  a  pigmy. 

Mr.  E.  Crofts’  “  Morning  of  the  Battle,”  with  day  breaking 
over  a  weary  and  wounded  group  of  soldiers,  some  on  the 
ground,  some  preparing  to  move  at  the  summons  of  the 
trumpet,  has  much  character,  expression,  and  spirit,  and 
shows  very  decided  talent. 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


61 


Among  the  portraits  are  to  be  noted  Mr.  Lehmann’s  excel¬ 
lent  likeness  of  “  Mr.  Browning.”  He  is  also  represented  by 
his  well-known  and  often-repeated  “La  Lavandaja”  and 
“  The  Convent  Dole,”  which  is  one  of  his  best  works.”  Of 
the  late  Sir  Francis  Grant’s  three  portraits,  “His  Royal 
Highness  the  Duke  of  Cambridge  at  the  Battle  of  the  Alma  ” 
is  the  most  ambitious,  but  the  portrait  of  “  Lord  Gough  ”  is 
far  the  best,  and  this  is  spirited  and  clever.  Mr.  W.  B.  Rich¬ 
mond  sent  a  portrait  of  “  Lady  Frederick  Cavendish,”  which 
is  delicate  in  color  and  highly  finished ;  Mr.  Ouless  sent  por¬ 
traits  of  the  “  Rt.  Hon.  Russel  Gurney,”  “  Mr.  H.  D.  Pochin,” 
and  “  Mr.  William  Sale,”  all  strong  and  vigorous  works ;  and 
Mr.  J.  Sant  had  a  group  of  three  portrait  figures,  called  “  The 
Early  Post,”  all  in  white  morning  dresses,  opening  the 
letter  bag,  which  is  very  fresh  and  English  in  character. 
Mr.  Sant’s  “Adversity,”  which  represents  a  poor  girl  lean¬ 
ing  against  a  wall,  with  flowers  for  sale,  has  a  good  deal  of 
expression  and  grace  of  attitude. 

Among  other  pictures  to  be  noted  are  “  At  the  Prison  Win¬ 
dow”  in  southern  Italy,  by  Henry  Wallis,  where  a  girl  is 
playing  a  violin  outside  a  prison  grating  through  which  a 
group  of  prisoners  is  looking,  which  is  pleasing  and  well 
painted ;  and  here  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  girl  casts  a 
shadow;  “  Ouft  in  the  Cold,”  by  Mr.  J.  MacWhirter,  repre¬ 
senting  a  donkey  standing  in  the  snow  outside  a  shanty ; 
“Christmas  Eve,”  by  Hay  wood  Hardy,  a  man  with  horse 
and  dogcart  in  the  cold,  bleak,  wintry  evening ;  “  Shearing 
Wraick  in  the  Sound  of  Harris,”  by  Mr.  H.  Macallum,  a  very 
clever  picture  with  a  good  deal  of  careful  study  of  nature ; 
“  French  Savants  in  Egypt,”  by  Mr.  Eyre  Crowe,  showing 
considerable  humor  and  character;  and  “The  Lament  of 
Ariadne,”  by  Mr.  Richmond.  “What  is  it?,”  the  “  Apothe¬ 
cary,”  and  “  St.  Francis  and  the  Birds,”  all  very  carefully 
painted,  and  particularly  in  the  still  life  and  the  birds.  But 
perhaps  the  cleverest  of  all  in  humoristic  perception  and 
treatment  is  “  Only  been  with  a  few  Friends,”  by  Mr.  J.  D. 
Watson,  where  the  confused  drunkenness  of  the  careless 
home-returning  drinker  is  admirably  rendered  in  contrast 
with  the  rigid  figure  of  his  severe  spouse. 


ENGLAND. 

Lehmann. 


Sir  Franci 
Grant. 


Richmond. 


Ouless. 


Sant. 


Wallis. 


MacWliirter. 


Hardy. 


Macallum. 


Crowe. 


Kichmond. 


Watson. 


s 


Among  the  humorous  subjects  are  to  be  mentioned  those  Humorous 
of  Mr.  G.  A.  Storey  of  the  “Old  Soldier”  asking  alms  and  storey. 

v  Green 

“Scandal”;  also  “Old  Neighbors,”  by  C.  Green  ;  and  prob-  Gregory, 
ably  under  this  title  should  be  ranked  the  extraordinary  pic¬ 
ture  by  Mr.  E.  J.  Gregory  called  “  Dawn,”  which  is  a  scene  in 


62  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

englakd.  a  ball-room,  where  the  early  light  comes  in  and  the  lamps  are 
still  lighted,  and  a  man  and  woman  stand  by  a  piano  forte. 
Whether  it  was  meant  to  be  humorous  or  not,  its  peculiari¬ 
ties  are  certainly  amusing,  both  in  color  and  drawing. 

Frith  The  two  large  pictures  by  Mr.  Frith  of  the  “  Derby  Day” 

and  u  Charles  II  ’s  last  Sunday  in  Whitehall,”  and  “The 
Salon  d’Or  at  Hombourg,”  are  too  well  known  to  need  de¬ 
scription,  and  have  been  already  so  much  lauded  and  criti¬ 
cised  that  it  is  almost  useless  here  to  say  anything  more 
about  them.  They  represent  common  incidents  of  life  and 
character  with  undoubted  talent,  and  some  of  the  groups  are 
strongly  dramatic  in  character,  well  expressed,  and  well 
drawn.  They  will  always  appeal  to  a  certain  class  of  minds, 
to  whom  the  poetic  and  ideal  is  comparatively  a  closed  book, 
and  who  prefer  the  accurate  representation  of  incidents  of 
every-day  life  and  character.  Of  the  ability  of  Mr.  Frith 
to  represent  these  there*  can  be  but  little  doubt.  Such  inci¬ 
dents  as  the  arrested  felon  as  he  is  entering  the  railway  car¬ 
riage,  while  his  wife  looks  out  through  the  open  door,  is  not 
only  highly  dramatic  but  rendered  with  great  talent.  So, 
too,  in  the  “  Derby  Day” :  the  various  groups  are  faithfully 
drawn  from  nature,  and  there  is  something  touching  in  the 
poor  little  tumbler  who  looks  askance  with  hungry  eyes  at 
the  tempting  lunch,  and  loathsome  in  the  half  drunken  faces 
near.  Whether  the  representation  of  such  subjects  is  the 
highest  function  of  art  is  quite  another  question,  which  there 
is  no  need  to  discuss. 

Sentimental.  In  this  connection  a  certain  class  of  sentimental  pictures 
of  every-day  life  may  be  spoken  of,  which  are  often  fairly 
well  rendered,  but  are  commonplace  in  ideas,  and  can 
scarcely  awaken  any  great  interest  with  those  who  crave 
high  or  ideal  subjects  in  art  and  a  lift  above  the  ordinary. 

^Keepsake”  The  “ Keepsake”  style  has  little  true  root  in  art,  and  one 
was  pleased  to  see  so  comparatively  little  of  it  in  this  Exposi¬ 
tion.  The  “  Mother’s  Darling,”  “  The  First  Shoe,” “The  First 
Prayer,”  the  “First  Step,”  and,  in  general,  baby  pictures  have 
been  omitted. 

Scenes  of  ordi-  Among  the  scenes  of  ordinary  life  and  family  interiors, 

Wynfieid.  may  be  mentioned  “The  New  Curate,”  by  Mr.  D.  W.  Wyn- 
field,  which  is  an  elaborate  representation  of  a  very  common¬ 
place  subject,  painted  with  extreme  clearness  and  precision, 
but  with  a  certain  quiet  sense  of  humor  and  character. 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


63 


We  have  left  to  the  last  Mr.  L.  Alma-Tadema,  for,  although 
he  exhibited  in  the  English  department,  and  his  pictures 
almost  covered  one  of  the  walls,  his  style,  subjects,  and  exe¬ 
cution  are  so  completely  foreign  that  he  can  scarcely  be  con¬ 
sidered  as  an  English  artist.  These  pictures,  ten  in  num¬ 
ber,  are  interesting  in  character,  clever  in  composition,  and 
remarkable  for  their  technical  qualities  of  drawing,  method, 
and  color,  as  well  as  for  the  archaeological  study  which 
they  display.  The  still  life,  the  texture  and  anatomy  of  the 
dresses,  the  imitations  of  stuffs,  and  especially  of  mar¬ 
bles,  which  abound  in  his  pictures,  are  rendered  with  great 
fidelity  and  truth,  and  vigorously  painted.  Most  of  them 
are  representations  of  so-called  classic  scenes  of  ancient 
Eoine  or  Greece,  as  will  be  seen  from  their  titles :  “  A  Boman 
Emperor,”  “The  Sculpture  Gallery,”  “  The  Picture  Gallery,” 
(in  ancient  Borne),  “An  Audience  at  Agrippa’s,”  “A  Boman 
Garden”  (very  brilliant  in  color),  “A  Pyrrhic  Dance,”  “After 
the  Dance”  (a  naked  Bacchante  reposing,  not  among  his 
happiest  efforts),  “  The  Vintage  Festival,”  “  Vne  Fete  Intime ,” 
and  “Death  of  the  First  Born”.  One  of  the  most  striking  is 
“An  Audience  at  Agrippa’s,”  where  a  group  of  Boinans  are 
coming  down  marble  stairs,  at  the  foot  of  which  is  a  statue. 
There  is  generally  no  strong  theme  in  these  paintings.  They, 
for  the  most  part,  represent  ordinary  scenes  of  ancient  life, 
and  derive  their  chief  interest  from  the  ability  with  which 
the  artist  reproduces  the  costumes,  furniture,  manners,  bric- 
a-brac,  sculpture,  marbles  of  the  antique  world;  and  in 
doing  this  no  one  can  doubt  that  he  shows  the  accomplish¬ 
ments  of  a  master  and  a  student.  There  are  at  times  a 
little  want  of  perspective  and  a  little  too  equal  values  of 
parts,  blit  their  general  excellence  is  indisputable,  and  it  cer¬ 
tainly  is  to  be  wished  that  his  methods  and  skill  in  painting 
could  find  followers  among  the  English  artists.  Though 
among  them,  he  is  not  of  them,  but  essentially  a  foreigner 
in  his  art. 

Black  and  White. 

Among  the  drawings  in  black  and  white,  some  were  to  be 
found  which  are  quite  equal  if  not  superior  in  character  and 
ehiaro-oscuro  to  the  more  elaborated  oil  pictures  in  the  Eng¬ 
lish  department.  Particularly  may  be  mentioned  as  admi¬ 
rable  several  by  Mr.  0.  Green,  as  “The  Irish  Patera,  or  Pil¬ 
grimage,”  “  Holiday  Time  Afloat,”  “  Cripps  the  Carrier,”  and 
several  by  Mr.  Gregory,  whose  “Among  the  Brigands”  is 
capital  in  its  effect  of  light  and  dark ;  “  The  Funeral  at  Sea,” 
by  Mr.  J.  Nash,  which  is  simple  and  striking.  The  orig¬ 
inal  drawings  of  correspondents,  and  the  wood-cuts  from 


ENGLAND. 

Alma-Tadema. 


Blackand  White. 


Green. 


Gregory. 


Nash. 


64 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


ENGLAND. 


Artists  of 
London  “Graph¬ 
ic.” 


SPAIN. 


Fortuny. 


them  exposed  by  “The  Graphic”  Company  are  spirited,  and 
executed  with  vigor  and  character.  Many  are  without  the 
names  of  the  authors,  but  among  those  which  are  signed 
may  be  noted  as  very  clever  those  by  Messrs.  C.  Green,  L 
L.  Fildes,  L.  J.  Gregory,  Fr.  Holl,  H.  Herkomer,  T.  E.  Hodg¬ 
son,  J.  Nash,  E.  Hopkins,  and  M.  D.  Mauris. 

SPAIN. 

We  now  come  to  the  Spanish  school,  and,  as  it  were,  into 
a  totally  different  world,  animated  by  different  ideas,  ex¬ 
pressing  itself  in  a  different  manner,  and  having  a  different 
purpose  and  aim.  This  school,  within  the  last  few  years, 
has  exerted  upon  modern  art,  and  particularly  upon  that  of 
Italy,  a  strong  influence,  but  whether,  on  the  whole,  a  bene¬ 
ficial  one  is  a  question.  The  leader  of  the  modern  Spanish 
school,  which  is  now  so  greatly  in  vogue,  is  Sen.  Mariano 
Fortuny.  To  him  the  place  of  honor  was  given  in  the 
Spanish  department.  His  various  works  covered  one  whole 
side- wall,  and  over  these  was  placed  his  bust.  He  was 
represented  by  29  works,  among  which  were  some  of  the 
most  important,  for  size  and  subject,  ever  painted  by  him,  as 
well  as  many  smaller  ones,  and  a  number  of  finished  studies. 
Fortuny’s  pictures  early  took  the  public  by  surprise,  and 
captivated  its  judgment  by  their  eclat  of  color,  by  a  certain 
exactness  and  brilliancy  of  execution,  and  by  their  novelty 
of  subject  and  treatment ;  and  the  place  he  took  almost  at 
first  he  maintained  to  the  end  of  his  not  long  life.  Their 
great  popularity,  and  the  extraordinary  prices  which  they 
brought,  drew  after  him  a  host  of  imitators,  and  already  the 
manner  as  well  as  the  matter  of  this  school  begins  to  pall. 
The  question  is  whether  these  pictures  were  and  are  entitled 
to  the  great  praise  that  has  been  given  to  them.  As  they 
stood  together  on  the  wall,  the  first  impression  was  that  they 
had  paled  in  color  and  lack  the  vividness  which  so  struck  us 
at  first.  Their  sparkling  brilliancy  seemed  to  be  going ;  and 
when  it  is  gone,  what  will  remain  to  justify  their  great  repu¬ 
tation  ?  Little,  it  is  to  be  feared.  They  had  only  caprices 
of  color,  brilliancy  of  execution,  and  sparkle.  All  the  great 
qualities  which  make  works  lasting  and  “a  joy  forever”  are 
lacking.  The  imagination  has  had  no  play.  There  are  no 
great  conceptions,  no  poetic  utterances,  no  inspirations  of 
genius.  They  are  the  apotheosis  of  the  palette.  It  is  the 
“preciousness”  of  the  doing,  the  minuteness  of  the  execu¬ 
tion,  the  touches  of  the  brush,  the  multiplicity  and  finesse 
of  details  which  captivate  the  attention ;  but  they  have  no 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


65 


soul.  They  never  touch  the  heart  nor  stimulate  the  imagina¬ 
tion.  They  are,  in  a  word,  the  bric-a-brac  of  art,  to  delight 
collectors  and  what  are  called  amateurs  and  connoisseurs, 
apparently  because  the  former  love  so  little  and  because 
the  latter  know  so  little.  Among  the  principal  subjects  rep¬ 
resented  are  “  The  Academy  of  Saint  Luke,”  “  The  Court  of 
Justice  in  the  Alhambra,”  “  Serpent  Charmers,”  “Amateurs,7' 
“  The  Sword  Sharpener,”  “  The  Poet’s  Garden,”  the  “  Dance 
of  Arabs,”  “  The  Turkish  Butcher’s  Shop,”  “  Prisoners  at  the 
Gate  of  the  Mosque,”  etc.  Of  these,  perhaps  the  best  in  color 
is  “  Serpent  Charmers.”  It  is  freer  in  its  rendering  and 
larger  in  its  execution  than  most  of  the  others,  and  as  mere 
color  is  certainly  a  striking  picture.  But  the  subject  is  not 
expressed.  It  is  only  with  the  most  careful  examination 
that  one  can  detect  the  meaning  of  the  composition,  and 
there  is  no  interest  beyond  the  mere  technique.  “  The  Poet’s 
Garden  ”  is  equally  without  character  or  expression.  Its 
total  effect  is  of  a  mass  of  crude  and  disagreeable  greens, 
spotted  here  and  there  with  thin,  ill-drawn,  and  character¬ 
less  figures,  so  confused  with  the  background  as  scarcely  to 
be  intelligible,  and  the  whole  producing  the  general  effect 
of  bright  patches  of  color  on  a  palette.  It  is  not  a  picture 
at  all  in  any  true  sense.  There  is  no  dramatic  purpose ;  no 
story ;  and  whqjb  character  there  is  in  the  figures  is  forced  and 
unnatural.  In  fact,  they  are  but  pegs  to  hang  costumes  on, 
and  the  costumes  themselves  are  tin.  The  “Academy  of 
Saint  Luke”  represents  a  naked  woman  standing  on  a  buhl 
table  against  a  richly-ornamented  pink  wall,  on  which  hangs 
a  great  mirror,  while  a  group  of  old  men,  in  last-century  cos¬ 
tumes,  are  examining  her.  Everything  here  is  confused,  and 
without  relation  of  parts  or  perspective.  There  are  pictures 
and  statues  and  painted  glass,  and  bronzes  and  elaborate 
columns,  and  busts  and  marbles,  and  an  infinite  deal  of 
minute  bric-a-brac ,  and  all  the  figures  in  costume  are,  as  it 
were,  veneered  upon  them  and  into  them,  with  no  relief. 
The  idea  of  the  picture  is  essentially  vulgar,  and  what  char¬ 
acter  there  is  in  the  faces  and  figures  is  offensive.  There  is 
undoubtedly  great  dexterity  and  finesse  of  touch  in  the  de¬ 
tails,  and  the  nude  figure  is  painted  with  great  skill. 

“The  Butcher’s  Shop”  is  so  confused  in  color  and  compo¬ 
sition  as  to  be  scarcely  intelligible.  It  is  a  conundrum  in 
blood.  The  picture  representing  Arabs  leaping  over  a 
grave  and  firing  guns  into  it  has  a  similar  confusion,  but 
here,  at  least,  there  is  an  attempt  to  represent  a  character¬ 
istic  incident  of  manners. 

5  p  R 


SPAIX. 


Fortuny. 


66 


SPALX. 


F  ortuny. 


Madrazo. 


Rico. 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

But  without  particularizing  more,  it  may  he  said  that  here 
are  a  number  of  pictures  without  any  soul  to  animate  them, 
exceedingly  clever  in  touch  and  finesse  of  details,  brilliant, 
but  spotty  and  confused  in  color,  without  sobriety  and  tone, 
and  manifesting  great  manipulative  dexterity  with  no  imag¬ 
ination. 

Much  of  the  same  quality,  with  similar  excellence  and  sim¬ 
ilar  deficiency,  may  be  obsei  ved  in  the  works  of  his  followers. 
Among  them,  of  Sen.  Madrazo  stands  prominently  forward. 
He  has  much  of  the  dexterity  of  Fortuny,  but  everything  is 
sacrificed  to  brilliancy.  The  colors  are  very  voyant.  the  tone 
of  his  picture  very  high,  and  the  combinations  of  tints  often 
clashing  and  inharmonious.  They  are  all  vividly  painted, 
in  fact  too  vividly.  There  is  more  noise  than  tone,  more 
brush-work  than  feeling,  more  emphasis  than  truth.  He 
sent  several  portraits  which  are  broad  in  their  manner  and 
firm  in  their  drawing,  but  they  all  want  sobriety  and  quiet. 
One,  full  length,  is  of  a  lady  in  a  dress  with  a  violet  waist, 
white  skirt,  and  black  round  her  hips,  relieved  against  a 
glaring  blue  wall-paper,  and  with  a  yellow  rose  in  her  fichu. 
Another  figure  is  a  pierrette  in  a  pink  and  blue  domino,  white 
peaked  felt  hat,  and  a  black  mask  in  her  hand.  It  is  totally 
pink  in  tone,  if  it  can  be  said  to  have  any  tone,  and  thin  and 
bright  in  tints  as  a  picture  on  a  prune  box.  There  were  also 
two  portraits  of  children,  glaring  in  color,  all  over-bright  and 
loud.  His  most  elaborate  picture  represents  early  morning, 
with  the  guests  just  leaving  the  house  after  a  ball.  There 
is  very  great  painstaking  in  the  drawing,  considerable  truth 
of  action  and  character  in  these  figures,  patient  exactness  of 
detail,  and  minuteness  of  execution.  The  dresses  specially 
are  touched  with  great  spirit;  but  the  tone  is  not  pleasant, 
the  general  effect  is  spotty,  and,  despite  the  chic  with  which  it 
is  executed,  one  cannot  but  be  vexed  to  see  so  much  talent 
wasted  on  such  a  subject.  He  also  sends  several  small  pic¬ 
tures,  the  chief  distinction  of  which  is  that  they  are  very 
small,  and  finished  with  extreme  precision;  but  as  to  color, 
sentiment,  or  feeling,  they  have  not  much  to  recommend 
them. 

Indeed,  the  effort  of  this  school  seems  to  be  to  startle  and 
provoke  admiration  by  technical  tours  de  force ,  over-empha¬ 
sized  light  and  tints,  and  violent  effects.  They  are  the  fashion 
now ;  how  long  they  will  please  the  public  after  their  novelty 
is  gone  remains  to  be  seen. 

Sen.  Bico  sent  a  considerable  number  of  pictures,  all 
small,  and  all  studied  with  minute  attention  to  detail.  Four 
of  these  are  about  14  inches  by  7,  and  three  of  them  repre 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY 


67 


sent  buildings  with  figures  from  J  an  inch  to  an  inch  in 
height.  One  of  these  represents  a  market  with  about  30 
figures,  with  horses,  market-carts,  and  a  strip  of  houses  be¬ 
hind  them.  Another  is  of  Eienzi’s  house  at  Eome,  with 
some  10  little  figures.  Another  of  Venice,  with  houses  on  a 
canal.  As  wholes  these  pictures  are  hard  and  spotty  in 
color,  but  as  specimens  of  minute  work  remarkable.  In 
quality  and  color  they  are  hard.  They  look  as  if  they 
had  been  painted  from  photographs,  and  have  the  merits 
and  defects  of  photographs.  Another  of  his  pictures  repre¬ 
sents  boats  on  the  lagunes  at  Venice,  which  is  hard  and 
glittering  in  its  quality.  By  far  the  best  of  all  is  an  interior 
of  a  Moorish  court.  The  tone  of  this  is  pleasant,  the  color 
subdued,  and  there  is  air  and  feeling  in  it. 

Sen.  Eibera  also  sends  some  very  clever  pictures  of  the 
extreme  realistic  school.  They  are  well  composed  and  have 
a  purpose.  The  drawing  is  good,  though  sharp  and  edgy  in 
outline,  and  the  figures  have  a  little  the  effect  of  the  tin  Nu¬ 
remberg  figures,  but  they  show  a  great  deal  of  talent  and 
strong  perception  of  character.  Specially  clever  is  the  pic¬ 
ture  representing  an  actor  in  red,  standing  on  the  stage  be¬ 
fore  the  curtain  with  the  orchestra  below.  The  heads  are 
characteristic  and  the  execution  exceedingly  careful.  The 
street  sceneis  also  spirited  and  clever. 

Sen.  T.  E.  Sala?s  u  Guillen  de  Vinatea  devant  Alfonso  IV” 
represents  a  figure  in  red  addressing  the  king  and  courtiers 
ranged  along  a  wall.  There  is  a  combination  of  brilliant 
tints  of  white,  red,  yellow,  and  blue,  vivid  in  effect,  but  each 
so  evenly  insisted  on  as  to  create  a  confusion  of  colors.  The 
only  way  to  enjoy  such  pictures  is  to  examine  them  in  detail 
part  by  part.  At  a  distance  they  affect  one  like  palettes. 

Sen.  E.  Santa  Cruz  sent  a  picture  representing  a  catafalque 
draped  in  black  and  surrounded  with  tall  candles  in  a  hall 
hung  with  tapestries  and  rich  in  ornament.  Four  servants 
are  in  service  there.  Two  are  inlaying  cards,  one  lighting  a 
paper  for  his  pipe  at  one  of  the  tall  candles,  and  one  is 
stretched  on  a  red  embroidered  divan.  The  theme  of  this 
picture  is  striking,  and  it  is  executed  with  skill  and  care 
even  to  the  minutest  detail.  The  utter  reckless  heartless¬ 
ness  of  the  attendants,  who  are  simply  bored  by  their  serv¬ 
ice  and  care  nothing  for  the  corpse,  is  well  executed,  and  all 
the  details  are  painted  with  delicacy,  truth,  and  spirit.  The 
great  defect  of  the  picture  is  that  the  parts  are  too  evenly 
insisted  upon  and  the  interest  dispersed,  so  that  the  total 
effect  is  a  little  flat. 


SPATS 


Rico. 


Ribera. 


Sala. 


Santa  Cruz. 


68 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


SPAIN. 


Groczalez. 

Casada. 


Carbonaro. 


Zamacois. 


Sen.  Gonzalez  sent  seven  pictures,  all  of  the  modern 
Spanish  school,  all  exhibiting;  talent  and  technical  skill,  and 
all  having  the  defects  of  this  school. 

Sen.  Casado’s  uZaida  la  Favorite  ”  represents  a  half  nude 
female  figure  reclining  on  a  carpet  and  surrounded  with 
flowers,  rich  draperies,  and  jewels.  The  subject,  of  course, 
is  the  hackneyed  one  of  the  favorite  in  the  harem.  There 
is  scarcely  any  motive  which  could  give  play  to  the  imag¬ 
ination,  but  there  is  brilliancy  of  execution  and  a  strong 
feeling  for  color  both  in  the  flesh  tints  and  in  the  textures 
and  draperies  and  still  life,  and  the  work  is  free  in  its  hand¬ 
ling.  All  the  parts,  as  is  usual  in  this  school,  are  equally 
emphasized  and  equally  brilliant,  and  all  equally  call  upon 
the  eye  and  insist  on  being  noticed. 

Sen.  Oarbonaro  sent  a  picture  of  the  impressionist  school, 
representing  Don  Quixote  and  Sancho  Panza  in  the  blaze 
of  noon  on  a  hillside.  The  key  is  so  high,  the  light  so  in¬ 
tense,  the  sky  so  blue  ( morbleu !  parbleu  /),  the  figures  so 
dark,  and  everything  so  forced  as  almost  to  be  painful. 
The  picture  is  exceedingly  odd  and  fantastic ;  as  it  is,  how¬ 
ever,  it  shows  talent,  and  if  the  artist’s  object  was  to  startle 
the  spectator  he  has  certainly  succeeded.  But,  how  thor¬ 
oughly  in  all  such  attempts  as  this  the  high  romantic  spirit 
of  Cervantes’  hero  disappears,  leaving  only  behind  the  gro¬ 
tesque  and  ridiculous  figure  for  the  vulgar  world  to  sneer  at! 
How  one  would  like  to  see  a  true  representation  of  that  high 
ideal  gentleman,  with  his  perfect  chivalry,  and  his  honest 
faith  in  a  world  of  dreams !  All  that  we  seem  to  understand 
is  Sancho  Panza,  the  shrewd  and  practical  knave,  and  we 
look  at  his  master  with  his  eyes  only. 

)Of  all  the  pictures  of  this  school,  those  of  Sen.  Zamacois 
are  the  strongest  and  most  agreeable.  They  are  rich  and 
deep  in  color,  low  in  tone,  and  full  of  spirit  and  character. 
After  the  glare  and  glitter  of  some  of  the  other  pictures  we 
have  named,  those  of  Zamacois  are  grateful  as  twilight  after 
a  burning  day.  Particularly  fine  is  the  “  Checkmate,”  in 
which  a  jester  is  mated  by  a  dwarf,  who  is  seated  on  the  table 
before  him,  while  another  dwarf  crouches  beside  him,  both 
highly  delighted  at  the  total  discomfiture  of  the  other  player. 
In  tone,  richness,  depth  of  color,  expression,  and  composi¬ 
tion,  this  is  so  masterly,  that  it  leaves  little  to  be  desired. 
The  reds  are  subdued  yet  brilliant  5  the  tapestry  and  acces¬ 
sories  keep  their  place  and  are  subordinated  to  the  rest  5  the 
light  is  low  and  concentrated  on  the  main  figures ;  the  story 
is  admirably  told.  Altogether  it  is  a  charming  picture. 
Beside  it  hangs  the  well-known  “King’s  Favorite,”  which 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


69 


has  the  same  qualities  and  merits.  The  dwarf -jester  is  de-  bpaik. 
scending  the  staircase  of  a  palace,  accompanied  by  a  great 
dog.  The  courtiers  are  smiling  and  saluting  him  with  pro¬ 
found  respect,  while  he,  with  an  air  of  supreme  importance, 
passes  down  the  stairs  and  scarcely  deigns  to  notice  them.  Zamacois 
Finished  as  this  picture  is  ad  unguem ,  there  is  nothing  ob¬ 
trusive  in  the  details  and  accessories.  The  imitation  is  not 
forced ;  the  humor  is  excellent  ;  the  color  splendid.  This 
work  preceded  by  several  years  and  undoubtedly  sug¬ 
gested  the  “ I? Eminence  Grise ,”  by  M.  Gerome,  but  it  is 
greatly  superior  -to  it  in  all  its  qualities.  I  particularly 
wish  to  dwell  upon  this  picture  as  contrasting  in  general 
characteristics  with  the  other  Spanish  pictures  of  this  class, 
and  showing  how  possible  it  is  to  be  exact  in  drawing, 
minute  even  in  detail,  brilliant  in  color,  without  glare  and 
over-emphasis  of  parts,  or  excess  of  light  and  pigments. 

Here  there  is  no  attempt  at  mere  chic  of  treatment  and 
brush-work.  The  work  is  honest  and  faithful,  and  the  story 
clearly  and  admirably  expressed. 

Landscapes. 

Among  the  landscapes  may  be  particularized  one  by  Sen.  Landscapes. 

0.  Haes,  u  Les.Alentours  de  Vreeland ,  aux  Pays-Bas.”  A  Haes. 
storm  is  coming  on,  the  wind  blowing,  the  sky  is  gray  with 
gleams  of  light  through  broken  clouds  cast  on  the  turbid 
troubled  river,  across  which  a  heron  is  flying.  All  the  reeds 
and  trees  are  bending  to  the  stress  of  the  wind.  This  is  a 
picture  full  of  sentiment  and  simplicity  of  treatment.  The 
artist  is  not  consciously  and  pretentiously  striving  to 
exhibit  his  own  cleverness.  uLes  Lords  du  Wahl”  by  Sen. 

Morera  y  Galicia,  is  also  a  serious  landscape,  with  a  smooth  cVorora  y  Gali* 
river,  down  which  a  boat  is  coming  through  the  wooded 
banks.  Another  landscape  merits  special  notice.  It  is  by 
Seu.  Diaque,  and  is  simple  and  effective  in  light  and  dark.  Diaque. 

The  ground  is  somber,  with  two  trees,  a  pool  in  front  reflect¬ 
ing  the  light  in  the  sky,  and  vague  figures  moving  along  in 
the  gathering  dark.  Mght  is  coming  on,  a  faint  gleam  of 
red  still  lingers  in  the  west,  and  a  yellowish  dying  light  is  in 
the  sky.  Altogether  this  is  a  reserved  and  able  picture. 

There  was  also  a  landscape  by  Sen.  Veyredee,  representing  Veyred6e- 
twilight  on  the  Roman  Campagna,  with  two  great  carts  and 
oxen  silhouetted  against  the  sky,  which  is  effective. 

Sen.  Gonzalvo  y  Perez  sent  a  u  View  of  the  Grand  GonzaivoyPc 
Canal  of  Venice,”  and  several  interiors  of  churches ;  all 
clever.  Two  in  particular,  “San  Marco  at  Venice,”  are  to 
be  noticed;  one  with  the  shadows  of  night  coming  on,  and 


70 

UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878 

SPAIN. 

the  other  more  illuminated,  hut  both  true  to  nature,  and 
with  the  colors  kept  in  reserve,  and  admirably  painted. 

Historical  Paintings. 

Historical. 

Among  the  historical  paintings  were  several  of  decided 

Plascensia. 

merit.  “  The  Death  of  Virginia,  or  the  Origin  of  the  Eoman 
Republic,”  by  Sen.  0.  Plasencia,  is  seriously  designed  and 
shows  much  talent.  The  action  and  grouping  are  good,  and 
there  is  honest  intention  and  simplicity  of  treatment.  The 
color  is  a  little  monotonous,  however.  The  size  of  the  can¬ 
vas  and  space  occupied  by  the  sky  detract  from  the  con¬ 
centration  of  the  scene. 

Kosales. 

aThe  Death  of  Seneca,”  by  Sen.  Rosales,  has  also  qualities 
of  seriousness  and  distinction.  The  four  standing  figures 
who  gaze  at  the  body  of  the  philosopher  as  it  lies  half  out 
of  the  bath  are  quiet  and  without  exaggeration.  The  seated 
figure  which  leans  on  the  bath  weeping  is  well  composed. 
The  principal  light  falls  on  the  dead  body.  The  color  is 
somber,  with  a  reddish-brown  background.  There  is  an 
attempt,  not  without  success,  to  render  a  serious  pathetic 
subject  without  clash  of  colors  and  over-emphasis. 

Ferrari. 

Two  other  historical  pictures,  by  Sen.  Ferrari,  are  also 
to  be  noted  as  forcible  and  cleverly  painted,  particularly 
“The  Burial,”  as  well  as  “The  Education  of  Prince  Juan,” 
by  Sen.  M.  Cabells,  which  has  much  merit  in  parts,  but  is 
rather  confused,  voyant  of  color,  and  less  reserved  in  treat¬ 
ment,  but  with  considerable  character  in  the  heads. 

Pradilla. 

By  far  the  most  interesting  and  impressive  of  this  class  of 
pictures  in  the  Spanish  collection  was  by  Sen.  Pradilla,  en¬ 
titled  “  Dona  Juana  la  Loca.  ”  This  represents  Icanne  or 
Juana,  the  daughter  of  Ferdinand,  and  mother  of  Charles 
V.,  accompanying  the  bier  of  her  husband,  Philip  the 
Handsome,  to  its  final  resting-place.  Twilight  is  deepening 
into  night,  the  sky  is  gray,  the  cortege  has  reached  a 
desolate  spot,  with  no  house  in  sight  save  a  convent, 
which  is  in  the  middle  distance  on  the  right,  and  the  mad 
queen  will  not  allow  the  corpse  to  be  placed  in  a  house 
where  there  are  women.  The  coffin,  covered  with  a  black 
and  gold  pall,  embroidered  with  armorial  bearings,  and  sur¬ 
rounded  with  tall  torches  and  candles,  which  glare  and 
fritter  in  the  wind,  is  placed  upon  the  ground  in  the  middle 
front  plane.  Beside  it,  the  central  figure,  stands  Icanne, 
clad  in  purple  and  black,  her  hands  hanging  at  her  side, 
who  gazes  do\vn  at  the  bier,  watching  for  her  husband  to 
come  to  life.  Her  attendant  and  court  are  gathered  in 
groups,  some  seated  and  some  standing,  and  Weary  of  the 

FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


71 


constantly  repeated  scene,  behind,  the  train  of  followers ;  bpaik. 
bearing  torches,  stretches  into  the  distance  obscured  by  the 
coming  gloom.  Its  dramatic  interest,  truth  of  character, 
quiet  strength  of  color,  and  simplicity  of  treatment,  render 
this  a  remarkable  picture.  It  is  everywhere  thoroughly 
felt  and  rendered,  without  exaggeration  or  attitudinizing, 
and  well  deserves  the  medal  of  honor  which  was  accorded 
to  it.  The  landscape  is  particularly  fine,  in  harmony  with 
the  solemn  character  of  the  scene.  The  sky  is  gleamy  with  Pradnia. 
gray  clouds,  against  which,  on  one  side,  rises  the  convent 
with  its  belfry.  A  fire  is  burning  in  the  front,  near  which 
is  seated  the  main  group  of  attendants,  and  the  heavy 
smoke  rises  and  drifts  away  across  the  picture.  The  figure 
of  Icanne  is  profoundly  dramatic  in  its  simplicity  and 
touching  in  its  expression.  There  is  no  gesticulation.  Her 
body  is  quite  passive.  It  is  only  the  mind  which  is  work¬ 
ing  in  her,  and  that  is  astray.  She  has  gone  out  of  herself, 
forgetful  of  everything  about  her,  and  is  communing  with 
visionary  thoughts  and  vague  phantasies.  One  sees  at 
once  that  she  is  mad,  by  her  utterly  absent,  lost  look.  The 
weariness  of  her  attendants  is  also  very  well  expressed. 

The  scene  has  nothing  new  to  excite  them,  and  they  gaze 
listlessly  at  her.  There  is  great  sobriety  and  earnestness 
in  the  picture.  It  is  solidly  painted,  well  composed  and 
drawn,  animated  throughout  by  a  single  purpose.  It  is — 
what  so  few  pictures  of  the  present  day  are — a  creation  of 
the  imagination,  where  technical  skill  has  been  employed  as 
a  means  to  embody  a  noble  conception,  and  not  primarily 
to  exhibit  itself.  It  is  out  of  a  different  world  of  art  from 
the  brilliant  bric-a-brac  of  colors  without  ideas  that  is  now 
in  vogue,  and  it  is  a  pleasure  to  turn  from  clothes  and  cos¬ 
tumes  and  nudities  and  chic ,  that  have  no  higher  purpose 
than  to  show  the  skill  of  the  painter,  to  such  a  serious  and 
imaginative  work.  It  gives  us  hope  that  art  has  yet  a  poetic 
office  to  fulfill. 

ITALY. 

But  to  turn  from  Spain  to  Italy.  The  modern  Italian  1TALY- _ 

school,  as  exhibited  at  Paris,  seemed  to  have  little  independ¬ 
ence  of  character  or  originality.  It  follows  too  much  of  late 
the  leading  of  Fortuny,  and  many  of  the  cleverest  productions 
of  its  younger  artists  are  after  his  manner  or  bred  of  his  influ¬ 
ence.  Undoubtedly  there  is  much  talent  shown  by  some 
of  its  painters,  but  there  is  little  seriousness  of  purpose  or 
imaginative  force.  The  greater  part  of  the  pictures  ex-  Principally 
hibited  are  of  cabinet  and  genre  subjects,  with  little  that  is 


72 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


italy.  new,  and  almost  nothing  which  is  either  striking  in  char- 
~acter  or  powerful  in  conception.  There  is  scarcely  an  at¬ 
tempt  to  rise  out  of  the  common  every-day  of  life  and  inci¬ 
dent,  and  even  in  the  treatment  of  these  there  is  a  lack  of 
vigorous  feeling.  The  general  want  of  hone  and  sinew  is 
_  .  not  compensated  for  by  spirited  execution.  Out  of  191  oil 

No  great  liis-  A  ^  x 

torieai  subjects,  paintings,  not  one  is  devoted  to  any  great  or  powerful  sub¬ 
ject,  either  of  character  or  history.  The  execution  for  the 
most  part  is  weak,  and  though  there  are  some  striking  ex¬ 
ceptions  to  this  statement,  there  are  none  which  stand  prom¬ 
inently  forth  out  of  the  ordinary  line  of  accomplishment, 
none  that  surprise  by  their  excellence,  none  that  enchant  by 
their  depth  of  feeling.  More  was  to  be  expected  than  this 
from  young  Italy.  How  that  she  has  gained  her  freedom 
and  consolidated  herself  into  a  nation,  we  thought  we  had 
a  right  to  look  for  fresh  germs,  at  least,  of  national  feeling, 
and  an  outburst  of  something  vigorous  and  free  in  her  art. 
But  her  friends  have  been  greatly  disappointed.  There  is 
nothing  new ;  nothing  that  corresponds  to  their  hopes  and 
her  promises;  nothing  that  shows  the  progress  we  had 
looked  for;  and,  as  a  whole,  her  exhibition  was,  to  say  the 
best  one  can,  only  second  class.  She  not  only  did  not  show 
nahty little  origi* oue  single  great  work  with  a  strong  stamp  of  originality  or 
nationality  in  it,  but  some  of  the  most  striking  pictures  in 
her  exhibition  were  inspired  by  foreign  schools,  and  were  the 
work  of  expatriated  Italians.  Undoubtedly  the  public  de¬ 
mand  has  much  to  answer  for  in  all  this,  but  one  could  not 
but  feel  in  looking  at  this  exhibition  by  Italy  that  most  of 
the  pictures  were  made,  not  from  any  true  inspiration  or 
any  lofty  conception  of  the  true  functions  of  art,  but  rather, 
like  Peter  Pindar’s  razors,  “to  sell.”  It  is  sadly  true  that 
those  who  live  to  please  must  please  to  live,  but  to  boil 
one’s  pot  is  not  the  best  office  of  art. 

The  most  striking  of  all  the  pictures  exhibited  were  the 
Pasmi.  series  of  ten  by  Signor  A.  Pasini,  all  of  which  are  oriental 
in  their  subjects.  These  are  carefully  drawn,  and  exhibit 
a  great  deal  of  talent.  They  are  mainly  of  the  school 
of  Gerdme,  though  touched  by  the  influence  of  Fortuny. 
There  is  not  much  theme  in  any  of  them,  nor  any  high 
poetic  intention,  though  they  are  picturesque,  well  com¬ 
posed,  and  carefully  studied.  They  are  a  little  hard  and 
metallic  in  tone,  but  they  exhibit  a  strong  feeling  for  color 
and  composition  of  tints.  The  backgrounds  and  architec¬ 
ture  are  not  forced,  but  kept  subordinate,  and  there  is  cer¬ 
tainly  much  to  praise.  With  all  their  cleverness,  however, 
and  this  is  indisputable,  they  leave  us  cold. 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


73 


Sig.  de  Mttis  sent  twelve  pictures,  representing  actual 
street  scenes,  with  figures  from  London  and  Paris.  One  of 
these,  representing  “The  Eoad  to  Brindisi,”  is  so  totally 
different  in  character  from  all  the  rest,  that  it  is  with  difficulty 
one  can  believe  it  to  be  by  the  same  artist.  It  is  of  the  school 
of  Meissonier,  and  in  all  its  qualities  equal  if  not  superior 
to  the  master’s  work.  Hot  noon  on  a  burning  road,  in  which 
is  a  vettura ,  could  scarcely  be  better  represented.  The  color 
is  bright  and  transparent $  the  finish  is  extremely  minute 
and  careful,  and  the  feeling  of  the  time  and  place  admira¬ 
bly  rendered.  The  technique  has  not  killed  the  spirit,  as  it 
too  often  does  in  such  elaborately  minute  and  accurate  works. 
Altogether  this  is  a  remarkable  picture.  All  his  other  pic¬ 
tures  are  of  the  impressionist  school.  The  color  is  dull  and 
muddy,  the  drawing  suggestive  instead  of  accurate,  and  the 
subjects  prosaic.  Of  all  these  “Westminster”  and  “Can¬ 
non  Street  Bridge”  are  the  best  and  most  characteristic. 
The  former  represents  a  group  of  workmen  leaning  on  the 
parapet  of  the  bridge  in  the  right  corner,  and  all  the  rest  is 
a  vague,  blotted,  dull  gray  representation  of  London  in  the 
distance.  The  figures  are  well  done  as  far  as  they  go,  and 
in  attitude  and  character  are  true  to  common  life.  They  are 
more  or  less  what  anybody  might  possibly  see  there  any 
day.  The  whole  attempt  has  been  to  represent  literally  a 
common-place  scene,  without  any  special  theme ;  and  to  a 
considerable  extent  it  has  been  successful.  Whether  it  was 
worth  doing  is  another  question.  “Cannon  Street ’’represents 
a  scene  beneath  the  railway  bridge,  over  which  a  train  is 
passing  and  pouring  down  its  clouds  of  smoke.  There  is 
something  decidedly  striking  in  this,  and  it  has  a  poetic 
touch  in  it,  despite  the  commonness  of  the  fact.  But  Sig. 
de  Nittis  seems  to  have  a  notion  that  it  is  the  function  of 
art  simply  to  reproduce  facts,  and  to  take  whatever  comes. 
He  scarcely  troubles  himself  even  to  choose,  nor,  when  he 
has  chosen,  to  do  more  than  give  a  general  impression. 
The  utmost  result  to  be  hoped  for  from  such  representations 
of  street  scenes  would  be  that  given  by  an  instantaneous 
photograph,  with  all  the  figures  disposed  by  chance.  If,  in 
addition,  the  lens  of  the  camera  was  not  quite  iu  focus,  so  that 
it  blurred  a  good  deal,  one  would  have  something  not  far 
removed  from  what  Sig.  de  Nittis  apparently  desires. 

uLe  Viatique ”  by  Sig.  J.  Gioli,  is  somewhat  of  the  impres¬ 
sionist  school,  but  is  effective.  It  represents  the  Viaticum 
carried  along  at  twilight,  and  is  serious,  and  simple  in  sen¬ 
timent. 


ITALY. 


De  Nittis. 


Gioli. 


74 


ITALY. 

J.  Induno. 


D.  Induno. 


Jacovacci. 

Favretto. 

Pagliano. 


Meradel. 


Bouvier. 


Mion. 

Joris. 

Yanni. 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

Sig.  J.  Induno  sent  several  pictures  of  considerable  merit. 
uUn  Amateur  d’Antiquites ”  is  well  painted,  and  has  sim¬ 
plicity  and  truth  of  character.  It  represents  an  old  anti¬ 
quary  examining  through  a  loupe  a  coin  which  a  peasant  has 
brought  him.  The  figure  and  expression  of  the  antiquary 
are  particularly  good.  Another  picture  representing  con¬ 
scripts  before  a  church  showed  decided  talent.  It  is  well 
composed,  spirited  in  character,  and  quiet  and  agreeable  in 
tone.  His  picture  of  “ Emigrants”  is  also  specially  to  be 
noticed. 

Sig.  D.  Induno’s  u  Victor  Emmanuel  plagant  la  premiere 
Pierre  de  la  Galerie  de  Milan ”  is  chiefly  interesting  as  con¬ 
taining  the  portraits  of  many  of  the  chief  men  of  modern 
Italy.  There  is  not  much  pictorial  effect  to  be  obtained  out 
of  a  crowd  of  black  coats,  but  the  scene  is  not  without  in¬ 
terest,  and  it  is  carefully  painted. 

Among  the  genre  pictures  by  Sig.  F.  Jacovacci,  the  u  Re¬ 
turn  from  the  Baptism”  and  the  “  Gondola”  may  particu¬ 
larly  be  mentioned  as  well  drawn  and  composed,  and  vivid 
in  color.  “The  Prescription”  by  Sig.  J.  Favretto,  is  also 
vigorous  and  bright  in  color  without  being  excessive,  and  the 
attitudes  are  natural,  and  the  story  is  well  told.  “  La  Revue 
de  V Heritage”  by  Sig.  E.  Pagliano,  has  much  humor  of  char¬ 
acter  and  incident,  and  is  very  freely  and  quietly  painted. 
It  represents  girls  turning  over  and  examining  articles  of 
dress  which  they  have  inherited.  It  is  one  of  the  most  pleas¬ 
ing  in  tone  and  manner  of  all  the  pictures  of  this  class  which 
hang  on  the  Italian  walls.  Sig.  A.  Meradel’s  “  Comment  cela 
finira-t-il  ?  ”  is  rendered  with  much  humor  and  spirit,  and  is 
remarkable  for  the  expression  of  the  heads,  though  the  color 
is  a  little  fade ,  and  perhaps  the  innuendo  is  a  little  broad. 
For  minuteness  of  execution  Sig.  Bouvier’s  UV  Occasion”  sur¬ 
passed  anything  in  the  whole  Exposition.  It  is  only  about 
nine  inches  long,  and  represents  the  interior  of  a  studio,  with 
a  girl  sitting  for  her  portrait  to  a  painter ;  while  he  is  paint¬ 
ing,  the  servant  who  accompanies  her  has  fallen  asleep,  and  he 
seizes  the  moment  to  declare  his  passion.  The  color  is  deli¬ 
cate,  the  textures  and  still  life  admirably  rendered,  the  tone 
agreeable,  and  the  finesse  of  execution  remarkable.  Signor 
L.  Mion’s  uLc  Colm-Maillard”  is  pleasing  and  carefully  done. 
Signor  P.  Joris  also  sent  a  couple  of  pictures,  66  La  Voie 
Elaminienne”  and  “  line  Bapteme  dans  VLle  dJ Ischia”  which 
are  pleasant  and  sunny,  but  rather  too  spotted  with  vivid 
colors.  Signor  P.  Y annf  s  “  Mephistopheles  and  Marguerite  ” 
represents  the  scene  of  Marguerite  in  the  Cathedral,  with  the 
evil  spirit  whispering  to  her.  There  is  a  good  deal  of  talent 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


75 


and  character  in  this  picture,  and  a  higher  attempt  at  seri¬ 
ousness  of  subject  than  usual.  Signor  Michitti’s  two  pictures 
of  “  Pr  intemps  et  Amour”  and  uLe  Baiser ”  are  exceedingly 
eccentric  in  color,  and  seem  a  little  like  insane  Fortunys.  If 
the  intention  of  the  artist  was  to  startle,  he  has  succeeded. 
Here  is  certainly,  as  the  shopmen  say,  u  grande  nouveaute.” 
Bit  by  bit  all  is  picked  out  with  intensity  of  tints,  but  there 
is  no  relation  of  parts  in  “  Spring  and  Love.”  There  are 
naked  salmon-colored  children  lying  on  bright  green  grass, 
with  dazzling  blue  sky  and  sea,  and  straggling  trees  with 
salmon  blossoms,  all  so  vivid  and  violent  that  they  strain  the 
eye.  In  uLe  Baiser”  which  represents  a  peasant  trying  to 
kiss  a  girl,  and  is  not  particularly  happy  in  sentiment,  there 
are  crude  masses  of  cabbages  and  greens,  and  red  turkey 
combs,  and  trees  barely  sketched  in,  and  a  sky  of  terrible 
yellows  and  reds  rumbled  strangely  together.  The  total 
effect  of  these  pictures  is,  so  to  speak,  noisy  and  impertinent, 
and  it  is  a  pity  to  see  talent  so  pretentiously  misapplied. 
There  is  no  reserve,  no  restraint,  but  perpetual  insistance. 

.  Sig.  L.  MarchettPs  “  Avant  le  Tournoi”  has  somewhat  of  the 
same  defect.  It  is  like  a  very  confused  palette  of  colors. 

The  “  Charge  of  Cavalry  at  Monzambano,”  by  Count  Bossi 
Scotti,  is  spirited  in  design,  and  with  much  truth  of  action 
in  both  figures  and  horses.  It  is  drawn  and  painted  with 
great  care,  has  a  great  deal  of  “  go,”  and  is  a  very  honest 
piece  of  work,  though  a  little  hard  in  color  and  tone. 

The  Chev.  BianchPs  “  Regarde  !  Regarde  !  ”  is  a  very  pretty 
theme  well  rendered.  It  represents  some  girls  looking  eagerly 
out  of  a  gateway  at  something  passing  outside  the  picture ; 
and  Sig.  Volpe’s  “ UnPretre  ”  is  quiet  in  tone  and  character¬ 
istic  in  expression. 

Among  the  landscapes  were  particularly  to  be  commended 
two  very  pleasing  pictures  by  Sig.'  G.  Ciardi,  “ Idylle ;  La- 
gune  de  Venise”  and  “  Tor  cello”  In  both  there  is  much  deli¬ 
cacy  and  refinement  of  sentiment  and  simplicity  of  execution. 
uTorcello”  is  bright  andsunny,  and  the  u  Idylle  ”  vaporous  and 
sunny.  It  represents  a  fisher-boy  standing  in  a  boat  fishing 
on  the  broad  lagunes.  The  atmosphere  is  soft  and  silent,  the 
sea  calm,  and  he  stands  in  his  boat  alone,  the  dark  center 
of  a  soft,  luminous  haze.  Other  landscapes  particularly  to 
be  noted  are  four,  by  Chev.  A.  Vertunni,  representing  the 
lonely  “Pontine  Marshes,”  “Psestum,”  “The  Pyramids,” 
and  “  The  Sphinx,”  which  have  the  well-known  character  and 
style  of  this  artist,  though  they  are  not  among  his  happiest 
achievements  ;  a  “  Coucher  de  tSoleil”  by  Chev.  B.  Giuliano, 
with  girls  walking  along  a  pier;  another  “ Coucher  de  Soleil” 


ITALY. 

Michitti. 


Marclietti. 

Rossi  Scotti. 

Bianclii. 

Volpe. 

Ciardi. 


Vertunni. 

Giuliano. 


76 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

by  Sig.  Poma;  and  uAprds  V  Or  age ?  by  Sig.  S.  Allason,  a  very 
effective  picture,  of  a  serious  character  and  strong  theme. 

Among  the  aquarelles  there  were  some  which  are  very  bright 
and  clever.  Particularly  are  to  be  mentioned  uAh!  combien 
je  regrette  le  Temps  que  rVest  plus,”  by  Sigr.  A.  Eotta,  which 
is  freely  and  carefully  finished,  and  with  good  tone,  color, 
and  character.  It  represents  a  group  seated  outside  a  door 
in  Venice  at  work,  with  children  around  them  at  play,  and 
fruits  and  vegetables.  The  “ Bapteme  dans  Vile  $  Ischia”  by 
Sig.  P.  Joris,  previously  mentioned,  representing  a  bright 
landscape  with  a  baptismal  party  coming  down  a  hill,  is  also 
very  pleasing,  and  so  are  the  aquarelles  of  Sig.  J.  Gandi,  uAu 
Gareme  ”  and  u  Sur  la  Table?  which  are  careful  and  character¬ 
istic  studies  of  peasants. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

We  now  come  to  the  Austrian-Hungarian  section,  which 
may  be  taken  together.  Of  the  Hungarian  pictures,  the 
MunMcsy.  most  distinguished  were  those  by  Herr  Michel  Munkacsy, 
representing  u  Milton  dictating  4  Paradise  Lost/”  and  UV Atel¬ 
ier  de  V Artiste.”  For  character,  composition,  expression,  and 
quality  of  color  the  former  picture  was  certainly  among  the 
most  remarkable  of  all  the  pictures  in  the  entire  Ex}josition, 
and  well  deserves  the  medal  of  honor  which  was  accorded 
to  it.  It  is  simple  and  direct  in  character,  with  great  truth 
to  nature  and  to  the  highest  sentiment  in  the  attitudes  and 
expression  of  all  the  figures,  masterly  in  its  free  painting, 
and  striking  in  the  values  of  color.  The  tones  are  a  little 
black,  but  everything  is  relatively  in  its  place.  Nothing 
cries  out  for  notice,  and  the  main  interest  is  concentrated,  as 
it  should  be,  in  the  figures.  Milton  is  seated  in  a  large  chair 
near  a  window,  which  gives  the  light  of  the  whole  picture. 
His  three  daughters  are  grouped  about  a  table,  one  engaged 
in  writing  to  his  dictation,  and  eagerly  reaching  forward,  in¬ 
tent  to  catch  his  words.  The  second  is  sewing.  Her  atten¬ 
tion  is,  for  the  moment,  attracted  by  what  he  is  saying,  and 
she  listens  with  her  hand  and  thread  suspended.  The  third, 
who  is  standing,  is  also  arrested  by  the  poet’s  lines,  and  half 
turns  round  to  listen.  Milton  himself,  buried  in  thought, 
sits  sunken  in  his  chair,  profoundly  immersed  in  his  subject, 
and  utterly  forgetful  of  himself.  There  is  in  all  the  figures 
a  total  unconsciousness  of  any  looker-on,  an  absorption  in 
one  single. interest,  an  absence  of  posing,  and  a  sincerity  and 
earnest  directness  of  sentiment  which  are  entitled  to  great 
praise.  The  story  is  told  with  wonderful  truth  and  sim¬ 
plicity.  The  painting  is  extremely  free,  and  shows  a  thorough 


Poma. 

Allason. 

Aquarelles. 


Eotta. 


Joris. 


Gandi. 


AUSTRIA- 

TTTTNra  AUV 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


77 


understanding  of  values  of  colors,  which* are  rich,  subdued, 
and  solemn.  Nothing  is  improperly  insisted  upon,  and  there 
is  no  over  emphasis  of  parts.  But  above  all  there  is  the 
poetic  and  imaginative  spirit.  We  seem  to  have  had  the 
privilege  of  looking  in  unobserved  upon  a  profoundly  inter¬ 
esting  and  touching  scene,  which  is  so  thoroughly  felt,  that 
it  subdues  the  spectator  to  its  own  emotion.  This  picture, 
we  are  happy  to  know,  was  purchased  by  Mr.  Lennox  for 
the  Lennox  Gallery  in  New  York,  where  all  our  artists  will 
have  an  opportunity  to  study  and  admire  it. 

The  u Atelier  W Artiste  ”  is  also  a  masterly  work,  less  in¬ 
teresting  in  its  subject,  but  equally  admirable  in  its  treat¬ 
ment,  in  its  reserve,  and  quiet.  The  artist,  seated  on  a 
table,  is  asking  the  advice  of  his  wife  as  to  a  canvas  turned 
away  from  us.  Both  are  looking  at  it  attentively,  and  se¬ 
riously  considering  it.  He  is  not  satisfied,  but  doubtful. 
She  is  trying  to  help  him.  Behind  a  screen  which  shuts  oif 
the  left  of  the  picture  is  a  little  model  which  at  first  we 
scarcely  see,  so  perfectly  is  she  in  relation  to  the  rest.  The 
main  interest  is  concentrated  in  the  two  principal  figures, 
who  are  really  and  earnestly  interested  in  what  they  are 
doing.  There  is  no  posing 5  all  is  simply  and  perfectly  ex¬ 
pressed.  The  color  is  very  fine,  the  touch  firm  and  solid, 
the  values  admirable. 

In  eminent  contrast  with  these  two  pictures  is  the  large 
canvas  by  Herr  Makart,  representing  the  u  Entrance  of 
Charles  Y  into  Antwerp.”  Around  this  picture  there  was 
always  a  crowd  of  admirers  and  critics.  This  is  essentially 
a  decorative  picture,  and  treated  in  a  decorative  style.  The 
procession  is  marching  through  the  picture  diagonally.  The 
Emperor  himself,  mounted  on  a  charger  and  clad  in  armor, 
is  the  central  figure.  Accompanying  him  are  several  nude 
or  nearly  nude  female  figures  having  flowers;  others  are 
dressed  richly  and  looking  on,  and  there  is  a  dense  crowd 
of  knights,  soldiers,  burghers,  and  nobles,  some  shouting 
welcome  to  the  Emperor  from  windows  hung  with  tapestries 
and  flowers,  among  whom  may  be  seen  the  figure  of  Albert 
Diirer.  There  is  scarcely  any  attempt  to  render  character 
or  probability  of  scene.  There  is  no  definite  incident  or  cen¬ 
tral  thought ;  in  a  word,  the  work  is  purely  decorative  and 
without  any  concentration  of  interest  or  personality.  The 
groups  are  confused  and  crowded  almost  impossibly,  and 
there  is  little  proportion  observed  in  the  figures,  some  being 
gigantic  in  height  while  others  at  their  side  are  of  life-size. 
Considered,  therefore,  from  the  point  of  view  of  an  imagina¬ 
tive  conception  or  a  powerful  representation  of  a  historical 


AUSTRIA- 

HUNGARY. 


Munk&csy. 


Makart. 


78 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


AUSTRIA- 

HUNGARY. 


Makart. 


Matejko. 


L’Allemand. 


Kurzbauer. 


incident,  there  is  little  to  praise ;  but  for  dexterity  of  brush- 
work,  brilliancy  of  color,  dash  of  execution,  noisiness  and 
“ tintamarres v  of  tints,  it  is  remarkable.  It  is  painted  with 
much  energy,  and  in  every  way  shows  cleverness,  but  it  has 
no  heart  and  soul.  In  color,  though  brilliant,  it  is  monot¬ 
onous,  in  tone  the  various  planes  of  the  picture  are  confused, 
and  the  total  effect  is  rather  that  of  a  tapestry.  Piece  by 
piece  it  is  spiritedly  done,  but  there  is  no  whole.  Each  fig¬ 
ure  seems  to  be  posed  for  itself  and  by  itself,  and  has  little 
relation  to  the  main  purpose. 

Herr  J.  Metejko  also  sent  a  large  historical  piece  repre¬ 
senting  the  u  Union  conclue  a  Lublin  en  1569,  entre  la  Lith- 
uanie  et  la  Pologne ,w  which  has  much  power  and  character. 
It  is  a  far  more  solid  and  real  work  than  that  of  Herr 
Makart,  not  conceived  from  the  merely  decorative  point  of 
view,  but  with  a  true  intention  to  represent  a  real  scene  of 
history.  Many  of  the  heads  and  figures  are  vigorously 
drawn  and  have  great  character.  Particularly  may  be  men¬ 
tioned  the  group  around  the  figure  of  the  aged  Pope,  who 
is  seated  and  holds  up  both  hands  inclosed  in  red  gloves, 
and  the  foreground  figure  in  blue  who  is  rising  from  his 
chair.  But  all  of  the  heads  and  figures  are  carefully  stud¬ 
ied,  rendered  with  life  and  spirit,  and  have  much  individu¬ 
ality.  There  is  a  want  of  massing  of  parts,  and  of  effect  of 
light  and  shade,  so  that  at  first  the  picture,  though  rich  in 
color,  has  a  certain  equality  and  monotony  of  effect ;  but 
here  is  serious  intention,  a  firm  hand,  admirable  drawing, 
and  truth  of  character,  and  the  longer  one  looks  at  it  the 
more  it  pleases.  Herr  Metejko  also  sent  another  picture 
representing  uLa  Cloclie  de  Segismond  a  Cracovie ,w  which 
is  smaller,  and  crowded  with  figures  of  over-brilliant  tints, 
but  is  clever. 

Herr  L’Allemand’s  “Portrait  of  General  Laudon”  is  a 
very  vigorous  work.  It  represents  the  general  mounted  on 
a  dark  bay  horse  in  front  of  his  staff.  Three  attendant  offi¬ 
cers  are  behind  him  on  his  right,  a  dead  soldier  is  on  the 
left,  and  behind  are  other  mounted  men.  The  main  figure 
is  boldly  drawn,  and  painted  in  a  large,  free  style,  and 
takes  proper  prominence  over  all  the  other  subordinate  fig¬ 
ures,  which  fitly  illustrate  the  picture. 

Among  the  pictures  of  genre  may  be  specially  mentioned 
uLa  Maison  mortuaire ,”  by  Herr  E.  Kurzbauer,  which  is 
conceived  with  much  sentiment.  The  face  of  the  widow  is 
full  of  feeling,  and  the  central  group  of  persons  striving  to 
console  her  is  characteristic  and  well  composed.  This  forms 
the  central  light  of  the  picture.  The  second  light  shows 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


79 


some  children  at  a  table  on  the  left,  who,  careless  of  the 
grief  of  the  main  group,  are  amusing  themselves  together. 
Herr  Kurzbauer’s  other  picture,  “Les  Fugitifs ,”  representing 
a  youth  and  a  maiden  who  have  eloped  and  are  discovered 
by  the  family  in  an  inn,  is  also  good  in  character  and  ex¬ 
pression  and  well  painted.  Herr  Defregger’s  “Le  Jeu  du 
Pouce  dans  le  Tyrol”  and  uLc  Joueur  de  Githare are  spirited 
in  action,  and  effective  in  their  composition  of  light  and 
dark.  The  former  represents  two  men  at  a  table,  each  en¬ 
deavoring  to  force  over  the  edge  the  clenched  fist  of  his 
adversary,  while  a  group  of  peasants  look  on  with  eager 
interest.  The  latter  represents  a  young  man  playing  a 
zithern,  while  two  maidens  are  standing  by  him.  He  is 
utterly  absorbed  in  the  music.  Both  these  pictures  show 
clearness  of  ideas  and  strength  of  character.  uLes  Pay- 
sans  Tyr aliens,”  by  Chev.  C.  de  Blaas,  representing  also 
a  somewhat  similar  game,  is  rendered  with  talent.  Herr  C. 
Karger’s  “Tine  Gave  de  Ghemin  de  fer”  is  a  study  somewhat 
after  the  manner  of  Mr.  Frith,  and,  though  prosaic  in  char¬ 
acter,  is  naturalistic  and  clever.  Among  other  pictures  of 
this  class  may  be  specially  noted  Professor  Sclionn’s  “Fete 
Populaire  sur  le  Gote  Genoise” ;  Herr  Fux’s  “Sacrifice  de 
Pigeons,”  which  is  pleasing  in  color,  and  Herr  F.  ^aczka’s  u  Tin 
Accident ,”  &n&uLe  Tambour,”  both  very  clever,  and,  espec¬ 
ially  the  former,  representing  an  old  man  alone  looking  at 
his  violin,  one  string  of  which  has  snapped.  Herr  Agg- 
hazy’s  “  Tireuse  des  Gartes,”  Herr  Brack’s  “Le  Demenage- 
ment,”  and  Herr  Ebner’s  “Les  bons  Amis,”  should  also  be 
mentioned. 

The  late  Herr  Oerinak’s  “  Montenegrin  blesse”  is  a  picture 
of  much  character,  representing  an  old  chieftain  carried  on 
a  litter  down  a  steep,  rocky  path,  and  accompanied  by 
wounded  companions,  while  a  group  of  women  stands  apart 
or  kneels,  as  they  pass.  The  foreshortening  of  the  main  fig¬ 
ure  is  admirable,  and  the  expression  noble.  Herr  Cermak’s 
other  picture,  “Retour  au  Pays,”  is  even  more  tragic  in  sub¬ 
ject.  The  scene  is  a  village  which  has  been  devasted  by 
Turks,  and  a  party  of  old  men,  women,  and  children,  are 
just  returning  to  it,  to  find  their  homes  destroyed  and  the 
heads  of  their  murdered  husbands  and  fathers  stuck  on 
poles.  The  story  is  told  with  much  pathos,  and  both  these 
pictures  show  mastery  of  execution,  and  solidity  of  painting. 

Professor  Muller’s  “Apres  la  Messe  sur  les  Place  de  San- 
Marc  cl  Venise”  is  full  of  vivacity  of  color,  action,  and  cos¬ 
tume,  which  last  is  of  the  time  of  Bellini. 


t  AUSTRIA- 
\  HUNGARY. 


Kurzbauer. 


Defregger. 


De  Blaas. 


Karger. 


Scbonn. 

Dux. 

Paczka. 


Aggbazy. 

Brack. 

Ebner. 

<5ermak. 


Muller. 


80 

UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

C  AUSTKIA* 
l  HUNGARY. 

Landscape. 

Landscape. 

Jettel. 

Von  Thoren. 

This  section  was  not  very  showy  in  landscape,  hut  among 
the  best  may  be  noted  those  of  Herr  Jettel,  which  are  Dutch 
scenes,  cleverly  rendered ;  several  by  Ohev.  von  Thoren,  of 
which  the  most  striking  is  “L’Orage,”  which  represents  a 
thunder  storm  with  wind  and  rain,  which  is  well  drawn  and 

Schaffer. 

gives  the  effect  of  wind  on  trees,  clouds,  and  figures  with 
great  spirit ;  u  Sur  la  Cote  Wlstrief  by  Herr  Schaffer,  which 
is  picturesque  and  striking,  and  a  well-drawn  street  view 

Ribarz. 

by  Herr  Ribarz,  representing  u Architecture  Hollandaise  d 
Dor  tr  edit  ^  as  well  as  other  Dutch  landscapes. 

Portraits. 

Portraits. 

Among  the  portraits  are  two  by  Herr  Makart,  which  are 

Makart. 

clever  and  facile,  but  a  little  too  pinky  and  decorative,  and 
want  interior  character;  a  portait,  u Madame  la  Comtesse 

Canon. 

Schonborn  by  Herr  Canon,  which  is  in  the  style  of  the  older 
masters,  and  is  admirably  painted  with  force  and  good  keep¬ 
ing  of  parts  and  strong  character;  a  portrait  of  the  painter 

Griepenkerl. 

De  Angeli. 

u  Rudolf  Alt,”  by  Herr  Griepenkerl,  and  13  portraits  by 
Herr  H.  de  Angeli,  which  all  show  a  great  talent  for  likeness, 
but  are  generally  rather  literal  and  prosaic ;  one,  however, 
of  u  Madame*  Schwabe”  rises  far  above  this,  and  has  a  good 
deal  of  distinction. 

On  the  whole,  it  is  clear  that  there  is  much  life  and  excel¬ 
lence  in  the  art  of  this  section,  but  it  is  to  be  observed  that 
a  considerable  number  of  the  artists  have  studied  and 
painted  out  of  their  own  country,  and  sought  their  subjects 
and  acquired,  or  at  least  modified,  their  manner  in  foreign 
schools.  For  instance,  of  those  whom  we  have  mentioned, 
Herren  Munkacsy,  Jettel,  Cermak,  Thoren,  live  in  Paris, 
and  have  studied  in  the  French  school,  while  Defregger, 
Gabl,  Karger,  Kurzbauer  are  of  the  Munich  school,  and 
Herr  Ribarz  is  essentially  Dutch.  Herr  Makart,  on  the 
contrary,  and  Herren  Metejko,  L’Allemand,  and  Muller  are 
of  Vienna,  and  perhaps  more  exactly  represent  the  tenden¬ 
cies  of  the  national  art. 

Aquarelles. 

Aquarelles. 

Among  the  aquarelles  and  drawings  in  black  and  white 

Passini. 

Pausinger. 

are  particularly  to  be  noticed  three  by  Herr  Passini,  ex¬ 
tremely  clever,  and  seven  by  Herr  de  Pausinger,  also  show¬ 
ing  great  spirit  and  talent.  The  former  has  studied  in 
Venice,  and  his  subjects  are  Italian ;  the  latter  at  Munich. 

FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


81 


GERMANY.  Germany. 

We  now  come  to  Germany.  Though  late  in  their  decision 
to  take  part  in  this  Exposition,  the  Germans  with  great 
energy  made  up  for  their  tardiness,  and  in  arrangement 
their  hall  was  disposed  with  great  taste,  and  in  its  general 
impression  agreeably  contrasted  with  those  of  all  the  other 
nations.  In  the  center  were  tables  covered  with  engravings 
and  illustrated  books  exhibiting  much  talent  and  invention, 
which  were  open  to  all  to  turn  over.  The  average  of  the  work 
was  good,  and  although  there  were  no  salient  pictures  of  great 
force  of  conception  or  subject,  there  were  many  serious  in 
quality  and  pleasing  of  character.  Of  historic  and  religious 
subjects  there  were  few,  and  these  are  of  not  much  impor¬ 
tance  or  any  striking  merit.  Of  domestic  scenes  there  were 
many,  some  of  great  merit.  It  is  scarcely  a  quarter  of  a  cen¬ 
tury  ago  that  a  revival  of  art  took  place  in  Germany,  and  ar?fn  Germany!* 
some  of  the  chief  artists  of  that  time  endeavored  to  found  a 
great  school,  devoted  to  the  development  of  subjects  of  high 
historic  interest,  of  symbolical,  legendary,  and  religious  char¬ 
acter,  and  of  philosophic  abstractions.  At  the  head  of  this  School  of 
were  Cornelius  and  Overbeck.  The  aim  was  high ;  but,  al-  0vCTbeck.and 
though  the  leaders  of  this  school  brought  to  it  great  earnest¬ 
ness  of  spirit,  t^iey  were  essentially  weak  in  execution  and 
artistic  power,  and  they  failed  to  carry  with  them  the  mind 
of  the  nation.  They  cared  little  for  a  faithful  study  of  na-  Earnest  aim, 

_  .  •  .  v  but  weak  execu- 

ture,  and  strove  to  limit  art  solely  to  a  representation  oftion. 
ideas,  without  regard  to  truth  of  form  and  color.  Overbeck, 
indeed,  during  the  latter  part  of  his  career,  abjured  color, 
declaring  it  to  be  averse  from  the  spirit  of  the  religious  sub¬ 
jects  he  exclusively  treated,  and  devoted  himself  purely  to 
outlines  in  charcoal  or  crayon.  No  one  of  this  energetic 
band  was  a  colorist  or  truly  a  draughtsman.  The  reaction  Reaction  from 
from  this  over-legendary  and  romantic  school  on  the  one  monastic  spirit, 
side,  and  the  limited  and,  so  to  speak,  monastic  spirit  on  the 
other,  showed  itself  soon  among  a  class  of  artists  who  sought 
•their  subjects  in  real  and  common  life.  This  school,  appeal¬ 
ing  as  it  did  to  more  general  sympathies,  soon  displaced  the 
former,  and  in  the  Paris  Exposition  it  was  this  which  took 
the  lead.  The  difficulty  of  the  Germans  in  matters  of  art  is 
that  their  genius  is  more  theoretical,  philosophic,  literary, 
than  practical  and  artistic,  and  their  art  oscillates  between  Oscillation  be- 

i  „  ,,  ,  _  tween  the  com- 

the  common  and  often  even  the  ugly  on  the  one  hand,  and  a  mon  and  academ- 
certain  academic  ideal  on  the  other.  It  was  pleasant,  how- 1C’ 
ever,  in  the  Paris  Exposition,  to  find  a  freer  spirit  manifest¬ 
ing  itself  with  better  drawing  and  color,  and  a  less  hard  and 
literal  treatment.  What  is,  however,  still  lacking  is  style. 

6  p  R 


82 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

Germany.  Every  artist  knows  what  is  meant  by  the  Diisseldorf  school. 

Dasseidorf  Clever  as  it  is  in  many  respects,  it  lacks  the  sympathetic 
quality,  and  has  a  sort  of  mechanical  hardness. 

There  were  in  this  Exposition  a  few  works  of  great  excel¬ 
lence,  and  among  these  we  must  note  an  exquisite  little  pic- 

Kanibach.  ture  by  Fried.  August  Kaulbach  of  Munich,  called  uUne 
jeune  Femme  avec  son  Fils,”  which  for  tone,  simplicity, 
tenderness  of  sentiment,  and  delicacy  of  color  is  remark¬ 
able.  It  is  archaic  in  treatment,  thinly  painted  on  a  gold 
ground,  and  is  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  Holbein, 
but  it  has  a  great  charm.  u  Reverie,  ”  by  the  same  artist, 
is  also  a  very  finished  and  delicate  picture,  representing  a 
girl  in  a  white  satin  dress  seated  on  a  couch  against  a 
background  of  subdued  tapestry,  and  tuning  a  mandoline. 
This  is  very  carefully  studied,  rich  in  color,  and  painted 
with  much  skill,  and  the  textures  well  rendered.  He  also 
sent  two  heads  which  are  characterized  by  the  same  senti¬ 
ment. 

Kuans.  Herr  L.  Knaus,  the  well-known  painter  at  Berlin,  sent 

five  pictures,  each  of  them  a  master-piece  in  its  way. 
uUn  JEleve  plein  dJavenir,  ”  and  uUne  bonne  Affaire ,”  have 
genuine  humor  of  a  rare  quality.  The  first  represents  an 
old  Jew  seated  on  a  rickety  chair  with  a  pipe  in  his  hand, 
in  his  u  ogh-clo  ”  warehouse  filled  with  dingy  old  clothes, 
instructing  a  red-haired  boy,  who  may  be  his  grandson, 
in  the  mysteries  of  bargaining.  This  precocious  pupil 
thoroughly  appreciates  his  lesson,  and  his  teacher’s  face 
beams  with  approbation  at  his  aptness.  It  is  impossible  to 
look  at  this  picture  without  laughter,  so  admirably  given 
are  the  character  and  expression  of  both  faces.  u  Tine 
bonne  Affaire,”  represents  the  same  boy  putting  into  prac¬ 
tice  the  lesson  he  has  received.  He  stands  alone  holding  in 
his  hand  a  piece  of  money,  and  chuckling  to  himself  and 
to  you  over  his  own  dexterity.  The  u  Fete  WFnfants ,” 
which  represents  a  village  festival,  is  full  of  figures  well 
drawn  and  clever,  but  it  is  inferior  in  character  and  expres¬ 
sion  to  the  other  pictures  exhibited  by  Herr  Knaus,  and 
poorer  in  color.  u  TJn  Fnterrement  ”  represents  a  scene  in  a 
court-yard  with  the  roof  and  ground  covered  with  snow. 
A  crowd  is  gathered  there,  principally  women  and  children, 
chanting  a  hymn,  and  down  some  steps  totters  an  old  man 
followed  by  the  attendants  who  are  bringing  the  coffin  out 
at  the  door.  The  figure  of  the  old  man,  who  half  leans 
against  the  house  for  support,  is  admirable  in  drawing  and 
expression.  The  finest  of  the  whole  series  is,  perhaps,  the 
u  Fay  sans  deliberants,”  where  six  peasants  are  gathered  in 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


83 


a  little  room  discussing  some  matter  of  village  importance. 
The  oldest  of  them  is  on  his  feet  speaking  and  the  others 
are  listening.  There  is  great  individuality  in  all  the  heads 
and  figures ;  one  sees  at  once  the  obstinate  pig-headed 
man  who  means  to  disagree,  the  simple  peasant  who  is 
ready  to  agree  to  anything,  the  fluctuating  muddle-head 
who  does  not  quite  understand  and  never  will,  and  the 
open-minded  man  who  is  anxious  to  come  to  a  right  con¬ 
clusion.  The  color  of  the  picture  is  good.  Sunlight  comes 
in  to  illuminate  the  room  from  a  side  window,  a  green-tiled 
stove  stands  in  the  right  corner,  on  which  are  hats  and  a 
blue  umbrella,  and  there  is  a  hen  with  her  chickens  on  the 
floor  in  the  foreground.  The  comedy  is  excellent ;  nothing 
is  overdone. 

“Plus  WEspoir”  by  Herr  Fagerlin,  is  another  picture  of 
domestic  life  treated  with  great  pathos.  It  represents  the 
interior  of  a  cottage,  in  the  background  of  which  a  man  is 
dying  or  dead,  while  his  wife  accompanied  by  an  old  woman 
is  coming  forward  out  of  the  room,  hopeless  and  inconsola¬ 
ble.  The  intensity  of  tragic  feeling  in  her  face  and  attitude, 
and  the  reflected  sympathy  in  her  old  companion,  who  may 
be  the  mother  or  grandmother,  are  portrayed  with  true 
feeling,  and  altogether  the  picture  is  profoundly  interesting 
and  affecting.'  The  painting  is  very  careful  and  studied. 
The  old  brick  floor,  the  green  curtains  against  which  the 
sunlight  falls,  the  textures  of  the  dresses  are  admirably  given. 
There  is  perhaps  a  little  too  much  the  sense  of  painstaking, 
but  the  whole  work  is  earnest  and  skillful  and  full  of  feel¬ 
ing. 

Herr  LeibPs  uDes  Pay  sans though  cold  and  gray  in  color, 
and  with  no  tone,  is  a  most  careful  series  of  studies  from 
nature  of  peasants’  heads.  The  execution  is  hard  and  pre¬ 
cise,  but  there  is  strong  grasp  of  character  and  precision  of 
detail  in  the  heads.  It  represents  five  peasants  crowded 
round  a  table  and  listening  to  one  who  is  reading  a  news¬ 
paper.  Outside  the  window  is  a  sunny  landscape.  The 
heads  are  evidently  careful,  minutely  careful,  portraits, 
eminently  characteristic  and  well  drawn. 

Herr  Menzel  sent  two  oil  pictures  and  four  aquarelles , 
full  of  character  and  showing  much  ability.  The  largest  is 
“V  TJsine which  represents  the  interior  of  an  iron  foundry, 
with  workmen  drawing  out  from  the  furnace  an  iron  shaft 
at  white  heat.  This  forms  the  chief  light  of  the  picture,  and 
against  it  some  of  the  figures  stand  in  dark  relief  and  some 
brilliantly  touched  with  a  lurid  glow.  There  is  vigor  and  char¬ 
acter  in  some  of  the  heads,  and  the  action  is  well  given,  but 


GERMANY. 


Knaus. 


Fagerlin. 


Leibl. 


Menzel. 


84 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


GERMANY. 


PDz. 


Defregger. 


Werner. 


Meyerheim. 


Gierymski. 


Bockelmann. 


as  a  whole  there  is  a  lack  of  quality,  and  a  certain  hardness 
of  execution.  uFntre  deux  Bouses ”  is  a  small  picture  repre¬ 
senting  a  saloon  with  groups  of  men  in  diplomatic  dresses, 
and  ladies  in  full  ball  toilets  which  exhibits  even  a  superior 
power  of  character  drawing.  The  composition  is  good  and 
the  coloring  strong.  Altogether  it  is  a  very  clever  and 
characteristic  painting.  His  aquarelles  of  u Moines  dans  le 
Sacristie ”  and  the  u Repas  interrompu ”  are  also  clever,  but 
rather  cold  and  hard. 

u  La  Legon  de  Gymnastique'’  by  Herr  O.  Pilz,  of  Weimar, 
is  clever  and  well  composed  and  painted.  The  landscape 
and  sky  are  particularly  worthy  of  note.  It  represents  a 
master  standing  before  a  double  row  of  boys  giving  them  a 
lesson  in  gymnastics.  Herr  Defregger’s  uBenedicite”  and 
uLa  Visit e”  are  also  very  clever  representations  of  purely 
dom estic  scenes.  The  lattter  represents  two  peasant  girls  on 
a  visit  to  their  married  sister,  to  whose  baby  they  are  pre¬ 
senting  a  pear ;  all  are  happy  and  pleased.  The  girls  are 
pretty  in  their  quaint  costumes  and  the  baby  is  all  smiles. 
The  uBenedicite  ”  represents  a  woman  who  is  teaching  the 
smallest  of  a  group  of  children  who  are  seated  round  a  table 
to  say  grace.  The  expressions  are  simple  and  natural  and 
the  composition  good,  but  the  execution  though  careful  is 
hard.  Herr  Werner’s  u  TJne  Conversation ”  has  considerable 
humor  of  expression.  It  represents  five  of  Frederic’s  gren¬ 
adiers  standing  on  the  further  side  of  a  railing  and  joking 
with  two  nursery  maids  on  this  side  with  babies;  all  are 
laughing,  and  the  jest  seems  to  find  favor  in  the  ears  of 
those  who  hear  and  those  who  make  it.  The  effect  is 
bright  and  the  execution  precise.  Another  picture  of  a 
humorous  character  is  Herr  Meyerheim’s  uBes  Zoulon ,— 
Caffres  d  la  Foire .”  The  scene  is  in  a  booth  at  a  country 
fair.  On  the  stage  are  a  couple  of  Zulus  executing  a  war 
dance,  while  the  audience  are  divided  between  terror,  aston¬ 
ishment,  and  delight.  There  is  considerable  freedom  in  the 
manner  of  the  iiainting,  and  the  scene  is  amusing. 

The  uChasse  d  courre  au  XVIIIme  Siecle ,”  by  the  late 
Herr  Gierymski,  is  a  very  clever  picture  by  a  young  painter 
who  lately  died.  There  is  capital  drawing,  good  action,  and 
careful  study;  but  it  is  very  voyant  in  color  and  hard  of 
texture. 

uUne  Banque  populaire  en  Faillite ,”  by  Herr  Bockelmann, 
of  Dusseldorf,  represents  a  crowd  in  the  costume  of  to-day 
outside  a  bank  which  has  just  failed.  The  painting  is  lit¬ 
eral,  and  the  color  is  clean,  cold,  and  gray.  There  is  little 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


85 


intensity  of  character  and  no  great  vividness  of  expression, 
but  some  of  the  figures  are  well  done. 

Among  the  other  domestic  scenes  of  this  class  to  be  noted 
are  the  uBapteme  de  VOrphelin”  by  Herr  Hoff,  representing 
a  baptism,  with  costumes  of  the  time  of  Louis  XIY,  which 
is  pleasing  in  sentiment  and  arrangement;  the  uHeure  dAn- 
goissef  by  Herr  Hildebraudt,  where  a  mother  and  father 
are  at  the  bedside  of  their  sick  child,  in  which  there  is  a 
good  deal  of  earnest  feeling;  uLa  Lecture  inter essante ”  by 
Herr  Scheureuberg,  of  Diisseldorf,  which  is  capital  in  ex¬ 
pression  and  well  painted. 

Religious  and  Historical  Paintings. 

Eeligious  and  historical  subjects  were  not  ably  repre- 
sented.  There  were  few  of  them,  and  they  were  not  of  high 
merit.  The  best  pictures  are  those  which  represent  homely 
and  domestic  scenes  of  common  life.  Herr  von  Piloty’s 
“  Wallenstein  se  rendant  d  Eger”  is  one  of  the  largest  history 
pieces,  but  it  is  scarcely  worthy  the  high  reputation  of  the 
artist,  and  is  academic  and  conventional.  Herr  Becker 
sent  two  pictures,  “ Albert  Dilrer  a  Venise”  and  u  Ulrich 
von  Hutton  regoit  de  VEmpereur  Maximilien  la  Couronne  de 
Poete ;”  Herr  0.  Kuille,  uPlato  avecses  Disciples  ;”  and  Herr 
Baur,  uSt.  Paul ,  Prisonnier  a  Rome ,”  which  is  archmologi- 
cally  studied,  but  without  much  vitality.  uLa  Fille  de 
J dir  us”  by  Herr  Gabriel  Max,  is  weak  and  fade ,  and  on 
the  arm  of  the  apparently  dead  child  he  has  painted  with 
care  a  fly,  which  will  indicate  the  spirit  in  which  the  work 
is  conceived.  Herr  von  Gebhardt,  of  Diisseldorf,  sent  a 
“ Crucifixion”  and  a  “Last  Supper,”  the  latter  good  in  color, 
but  without  great  life  in  character.  It  is  treated  somewhat 
in  the  early  German  manner,  and  the  types  of  the  apostles 
are  taken  from  the  lower  classes  of  common  life.  It  may 
be  claimed  that  this  was  the  fact,  but  the  religious  and 
poetic  sense  is  none  the  less  unsatisfied  by  such  a  repre¬ 
sentation.  What  all  these  pictures  lack  is  spontaneity  and 
poetic  character. 

Portraits. 

In  portraiture,  the  heads  of  Herr  Lenbach,  of  Munich, 
though  thinly  painted,  are  full  of  character  and  individu¬ 
ality.  The  portrait  of  the  “Princess  of  Oarolath-Beuthen,” 
by  Herr  Eichter,  also  should  be  noted,  as  well  as  those 
by  Herr  Kaulbach,  which  are  fresh  and  charming,  and  the 
“ Portrait  dune  Vielle  Damef  by  Herr  Gussow,  of  Berlin, 


GERMANY. 


Hoff. 


Hildebraudt. 


Scbeurenberg. 


Religious  and 
Historical. 


Von  Piloty. 


Becker. 


Kuille. 

Baur. 


Max. 


Von  Gebhardt. 


Portraits. 

Lenbach. 

Eichter. 

Kaulbach. 

Gussow. 


86  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

Germany,  the  head  of  which  is  pure  in  color  and  carefully  studied, 
but  the  dress  and  details  very  hard,  bright,  and  absolute. 
Gussow.  Herr  Gussow  had  also  two  pictures  of  still  life  and  figures, 

one  called  UH  Atelier?  and  one  u Nature  Morte?  which  are 
painted  with  wonderful  chic  and  freedom  of  touch.  One  is 
the  interior  of  a  studio,  with  an  old  woman  washing  with  a 
piece  of  wash-leather  a  reduced  cast  of  the  Venus  of  Milo. 
The  other  is  a  study  of  an  interior  with  various  objects — 
half-finished  pictures  on  the  wall,  a  bust  in  the  middle  of  a 
table,  etc.  These  are  a  little  hard  and  voyant  in  colors,  but 
the  imitation  of  still  life  is  very  remarkable. 

Landscapes. 

Landscapes.  There  was  a  considerable  number  of  landscapes,  among  the 
Diicker  best  of  which  are  to  be  noted  those  by  Herr  Diicker,  of  Dus- 
seldorf,  u  Lords  de  la  Mer  Baltique ?  with  the  sun  setting  red 
along  a  tranquil  sea,  and  long  stretch  of  shore,  and  the  uPay- 
sage  du  Harz ,”  both  of  which  are  freer  in  style  than  the  gen- 
Baisch.  eral  run  of  this  school.  Herr  Baisch,  of  Munich,  sent  u  Tine 
grande  Route  en  Hollande?  which  is  a  rainy  scene,  with  a  herd 
of  cows  going  over  the  wet  road,  and  breaks  of  light  through 
a  gray  sky,  and  a  windmill  in  the  distance,  a  river  and  boat, 
and  a  woman  with  an  umbrella.  This  is  decidedly  a  clever 
inner.  picture.  Herr  0.  Irmer’s  uLac  en  Holstein ”  is  a  very  good 
specimen  of  the  Diisseldorf  school,  though  it  has  its  defects 
Kroner.  of  hardness.  Herr  Kroner’s  u tanglier s  dans  la  Neige”  is  a 
well-rendered  winter  landscape  with  wild  boars  huddling 
through  the  snow  in  a  wood.  The  tones  of  the  snow  are  good , 
Lier.  and  the  picture  interesting.  Herr  Adolph  Tier’s  “ Soiree 

dJAutomne  aux  Bords  de  Vlsar ,”  and  UH Inundation?  by  Herr 
Sciierres.  Scherres,  are  also  specially  to  be  noted  as  among  the  best  in 
Oeder.  this  department.  Herr  Oeder’s  u  Pay  sage”  is  also  j)leasing, 
Keubers.  and  we  must  also  note  another  u  Pay  sage”  by  Herr  Neubers, 
of  Munich,  and  uLe  Moulin  a  Vent  dans  la  Prise?  by  Herr 
scbcenieber.  Schoenleber. 

The  two  Herren  Achenbach,  whose  reputation  is  so  well 
established  in  Diisseldorf,  also  sent  a  number  of  landscapes. 
The  best  of  all  is  Herr  A.  Achenbach’s  uVlissingue?  with  a 
batii&  °' Achen'  stormy  sea  breaking  over  a  pier,  a  castle  wall  on  the  right, 
and  a  steamer  laboring  in  the  distance.  This  is  clever,  but 
somewhat  cold  and  conventional  in  character.  His  other 
pictures  are  more  mechanically  felt  and  rendered^  though 
they  all  exhibit  talent.  There  is  cleverness,  but  a  lack  of 
real  feeling. 

On  the  whole,  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  German  school, 
despite  all  the  cleverness  it  exhibited,  manifested  any  very 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


87 


high  tendencies,  or  any  great  achievement  in  the  highest  line  Germany. 
of  art,  nothing  to  correspond  to  the  lofty  purpose  of  its  great 
composers  in  what  is  essentially  its  natural  art — music.  In  Itsmu3icaicom. 
poetry,  sculpture,  and  painting  it  has  no  names  to  be  placed 
beside  the  great  ones  in  that  most  ideal  of  arts.  Eventists£mdP°ets- 
Goethe  is  tame  and  mechanical  beside  Beethoven,  and  for  the 
last  quarter  of  a  century,  poetry  has  had  no  great  exponent 
in  Germany.  Still  there  is  a  good  table-ground  of  excellence 
in  painting,  though  there  are  no  high  peaks. 

RUSSIA. 

The  Russian  department  rather  surprised  us  as  giving  Russia. 
evidence  of  a  distinct  nationality  of  character  and  subject, 
with  considerable  originality  of  treatment.  It  is  not  that 
there  are  any  very  high  flights,  but  there  is  in  many  of  the 
pictures  a  quality  different  from  what  is  seen  elsewhere,  and  0rlsinaliLy- 
a  freedom  from  bondage  to  other  schools  which  is  note¬ 
worthy. 

Landscapes. 

The  landscapes  were  particularly  striking,  and  were  mostly  Landscapes. 
of  natural  scenes.  Among  these  must  be  specially  noted  — 
the  works  of  M.  Kou'indji.  His  u  Pay  sage  en  Finlande ”  noumdji, 
represents  a  sluggish  river  rolling  out  of  a  dark  distance,  with 
two  birds  flying  over  it.  In  the  foreground  are  reeds  on  one 
side,  and  on  the  other  a  shelf  of  sloping  rock,  above  which 
are  three  tall  trees  ;  a  thunder-storm  is  rising  and  covering 
with  its  dark,  threatening  shadow,  the  middle  ground  and 
distance,  while  a  white  metallic  light  gleams  upon  the  trees 
in  the  foreground,  forcing  them  out  with  that  strange  promi¬ 
nence  so  characteristic  of  such  moments.  Here  is  great  sen¬ 
timent  and  truth  to  nature.  The  scene  is  lonely,  desolate, 
silent,  the  sky  heavy,  lowering,  and  slaty — everything  dreary, 
threatening,  and  wild.  His  u  Clair  de  Lune  en  Ukraine”  is 
also  a  most  striking,  original,  and  effective  picture.  Here  is 
a  group  of  lone  houses  on  a  high  plateau  in  the  middle  dis¬ 
tance,  with  a  windmill  and  two  cypresses;  at  its  base  flows 
a  stream  into  the  foreground ;  a  strange,  mysterious  green 
tone  pervades  the  picture.  The  moonlight  gleams  upon  the 
sides  of  the  houses,  and  in  one  window  burns  a  candle,  while 
the  river  catches  a  faint  reflection  of  light  as  it  flows  down 
through  its  dark,  vaguely-shadowed  banks.  The  cypresses 
stand  dark  and  solemn  against  the  sky,  which  is  a  deep  dark 
blue.  The  chiaro ■  oscuro  of  his  picture  is  striking.  The  paint¬ 
ing  is  careful,  and  the  tones  remarkable.  It  is  a  solemn,  seri 
ous,  silent  picture,  very  peculiar,  but  very  interesting  and 


88 


RUSSIA. 

Lindholm. 


Mcchtcherski. 


Dobrovolski. 


Volkoff. 


Klever. 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

original.  u  Pdturage  en  Finlande ?  by  B.  Lindholm,  of  Hel¬ 
singfors,  is  a  charming  study  of  nature.  It  represents  a 
slope  of  rising  ground  stretching  into  the  distance,  and  down 
this  at  intervals  are  coming  groups  of  milk-maids  with  pails, 
while  along  a  road  that  climbs  it  on  one  side  in  the  mid-dis¬ 
tance  a  cart  is  going.  The  tones  and  gradations  of  light 
and  color  are  given  with  great  delicacy  and  truth ;  there  is 
no  over-in sistance  of  anything.  The  foreground  of  broken 
soil  and  plants  is  faithful  and  perfectly  rendered,  and  over 
the  whole  is  a  sentiment  and  refinement  which  is  rare.  The 
space  and  perspective  have  almost  nothing  to  be  desired. 
u  Foret  en  River?  by  M.  Mechtcherski,  is  also  a  charming 
picture,  with  great  sentiment  and  truth  to  nature.  In  the 
middle  and  foreground  of  the  picture  is  a  dark  pool,  out  of 
which  blue  blocks  of  ice  have  been  cut;  around  this  rise 
wooded  banks,  inclosing  it  as  in  an  amphitheater,  with  tall, 
thin,  serried  trees  tipped  with  snow,  and  rising  against  a 
dim,  vague,  gray  sky,  in  which  snow  is  gathering.  The  tone 
is  pale  gray  and  white,  and  there  is  a  hush  of  silence  over 
all.  Altogether  this  is  a  charming  picture. 

No.  35 — which  was  omitted  from  the  catalogues,  and, 
therefore,  I  cannot  give  the  author’s  name — is  also  a  very 
clever  picture.  It  represents  a  sea  scene  from  the  shore,  on 
which  a  stranded  vessel  lies  which  workmen  are  calking. 
On  the  right  is  a  cliff.  The  sky  is  gloomy,  and  flaky,  and 
gray,  with  light  on  the  horizon — the  sea  dark,  except  where 
it  breaks  toward  the  shore.  u  La  grande  Route?  by  M.  Do¬ 
brovolski,  represents  a  grass-grown  road  with  deep  ruts 
filled  with  water,  along  either  side  of  which,  as  it  stretches 
straight  off  into  the  distance  through  the  center  of  the  pic¬ 
ture,  are  sparsely-scattered  trees,  and  in  the  mid-distance  a 
carriage  is  coming  down.  The  pools  and  spots  of  water  re¬ 
flect  the  sky,  and  a  pink  light  is  in  the  edge  of  the  horizon 
and  touches  the  clouds  above.  There  is  admirable  quality 
on  this  picture  and  the  scene  has  much  character.  Yolk  off’s 
u  Foret  a  la  Fonte  des  Neiges ,  effet  du  Soir  ”  is  a  winter 
wood-scene,  with  snow  on  the  ground  and  a  sunset  effect 
through  tall  trees.  The  snow  is  particularly  good  in  tone, 
cold  without  being  painty,  and  the  whole  scene  well  drawn 
and  rendered.  M.  Klever  had  also  a  u  Coucher  du  Soleil  en 
Hirer,”  which,  though  it  has  rather  a  scenic  and  sought 
effect,  also  shows  talent.  His  uParc  abandonne  d  Marien- 
bourg ,  en  Livonie”  is  a  better  picture  and  has  some  charac¬ 
ter.  It  represents  an  old  decaying  park  with  groves  of 
trees,  and  steps  leading  down  into  sluggish  calm  water,  over 
which  a  scum  has  gathered  and  in  which  two  swans  are 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


89 


swimming.  M.  Schichkine’s  four  pictures  are  also  to  be 
noted  for  their  merit.  One  is  a  secluded  wood-scene  with 
a  brook  running  through  it;  another  the  interior  of  a  prime¬ 
val  forest,  with  tall,  slender  trees.  In  both  the  sentiment 
is  admirable  and  the  drawing  and  color  excellent.  They 
are  serious  and  lonely,  and  no  living  person  is  there  to  dis¬ 
turb  their  solitude. 

It  will  be  seen  that  a  certain  silence,  loneliness,  and  seri¬ 
ousness  are  characteristic  of  many  of  these  pictures.  None 
of  these  we  have  mentioned  are  pretentious  or  self-con¬ 
scious,  or  noisy  in  character.  They  do  not  aim  at  showing 
off  the  skill  of  the  artist,  but  have  a  better  object,  to  re¬ 
produce  the  interior  feeling  and  character  of  the  place. 

The  same  remarks  cannot  be  made  of  the  landscapes  by 
M.  Aivazovski,  which  are  ambitious  and  vague.  uNfuit  dans 
VArchipel ,  pres  du  Mont  Athos  ”  represents  a  moonlight-scene 
with  light  misty  blue  sea.  uLa  Tempete  aux  Bords  de  la 
Mer  Noire”  is  of  the  same  character  of  misty  blue  color. 
Both  show  talent,  but  they  miss  their  aim. 

M.  Orlovskies  pictures  show  much  ability.  4 4 Les  Faucheurs  ” 
is  painted  with  great  care ;  the  perspective  of  the  immense 
plain  is  admirably  rendered ;  the  details  are  all  studied,  and 
the  general  effect  bright  and  sunny ;  a  little  more  concen¬ 
tration  and  suppression  of  parts  would  have  made  it  far 
more  effective,  and  taken  from  it  a  certain  monotony  of 
brightness.  Another  landscape  of  much  merit  represents  a 
heavy  sea  rolling  in  to  shore,  with  one  great  green  surf- 
wave  lifting  in  the  foreground  and  on  the  point  of  breaking. 
The  sky  is  gray  with  broken  yellowish  white  clouds  towards 
the  horizon,  and  grayish  white  ducks  are  descending  into 
the  sea. 

Genre. 

Among  the  cabinet  and  genre  pictures  were  several  of  im¬ 
portance.  44  Excavations  at  Rome,”  by  M.  Kovalevski,  is 
an  admirably  drawn  and  carefully  studied  picture,  full  of 
truth  and  nature,  and  fidelity  ol  execution.  The  figured 
horses  are  capital  in  their  action  and  expression,  and  ren¬ 
dered  simply  and  without  affectation.  The  color  is  subdued, 
without  glare  or  spottiness,  the  tone  harmonious,  the  sky 
grey  under  a  clouded  sirocco,  the  composition  and  charac¬ 
ter  excellent.  It  represents  a  group  of  workmen  excavating 
at  the  44  Monte  de  Giustizia ”  at  Rome,  and  carting  away  the 
rubbish  and  debris.  Mr.  Savitzki  also  sent  a  picture  of  the 
same  class,  representing  ‘4  Travaux  de  Terrassement  sur  une 
Ligne  de  Cliemin  de  Fer ,”  which,  though  inferior  to  that  just 
described,  is  full  of  animation  and  nature  and  cleverness 


RUSSIA. 

Schickkino. 


Aivazovski. 


Orlovski. 


Genre. 

Kovalevski. 


Savitski. 


90 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


RUSSIA  . 

W.  G.  Makovski. 


Jouravleff. 

Kramskoi'. 

Meunier. 

C.  G.  Makovski. 


Korzoukhine. 

Maximoff. 

Baron  Klodt. 
Dmitriefi’. 

Paroff. 

Kramskoi  et  al. 


Siemiradski. 


of  drawing.  The  pictures  of  M.  W.  G.  Makovski  are  also 
spirited  in  character  and  simply  and  genially  executed. 
His  u Amateurs  de  Bossignols,”  is  particularly  to  he  noted. 
It  represents  three  old  men  in  a  low  room  lit  by  a  small 
window.  They  are  looking  at  a  bird  in  a  cage  which  hangs 
above  them,  and  endeavoring  to  induce  it  to  sing.  An¬ 
other  is  u  Utile  dulci,”  in  which  an  old  comple  is  engaged  in 
preparing  raspberries  for  preserving.  The  subject  is  sim¬ 
ple,  but  the  spirit  which  is  put  into  it  make  it  noteworthy. 
u  Benediction  de  la  Fiancee ,”  by  M.  Jouravleff,  is  executed 
with  spirit  and  is  dramatic  in  feeling.  The  bride  is  on  her 
knees  covering  her  face.  The  father  stands  erect  looking 
down  on  her  coldly.  There  is  a  good  deal  of  character  in 
the  expressions  of  the  figures,  and  the  still  life  is  painted 
with  skill.  M.  Kramskoi’s  u  Les  Nymphes,  sujet  tire  de  la 
ballade  de  Gogol:  une  Nuit  de  Mai  ”  is  of  the  legendary  type 
and  shows  talent.  M.  Meunier  also  should  be  noted.  His 
u  Mary  Mother  listening  to  the  last  Words  of  her  dying  Child” 
is  the  work  of  a  young  artist  and  has  much  promise.  M. 
C.  G.  Makovski’s  u  Martyres  Bulgares  ,”  and  u  Procession  du 
tapis  du  Prophete  au  Caire are  works  of  more  importance 
of  subject.  They  are  cleverly  painted,  with  much  talent,  but 
they  are  of  a  character  which  simply  repels  us  and  shocks 
us.  Why  select  scenes  which  can  only  cause  horror  and 
pain? 

There  are  also  to  be  mentioned,  as  showing  talent,  M. 
Korzoukhi lie’s  uDevant  le  Confessional” ;  M.  Maximoff’s 
uArrivee  (Tun  Devin  a  une  Noce  Villageoise,”  which  has  great 
vigor  and  naturality  of  character;  u  Le  Banc  Now,”  of  Baron 
Klodt;  u Dix  minutes  d’ arret,”  of  M.  D mi trieff’s,  which  is 
somewhat  of  the  same  manner  as  Mr.  Frith,  and  a  number 
of  excellent  portraits.  Among  the  latter  may  be  particular¬ 
ized  some  striking  portraits  by  M.  Kramskoi,  by  M.  Paroff, 
M.  Frenz,  M.  Lehman,  and  M.  Hartamoff. 

We  have  left  to  the  last  the  largest  and  most  ambitious 
picture  of  the  whole  Kussian  department,  uLes  Torches 
Vivantes  de  Neron ,”  by  M.  Siemiradski.  This  picture  ob¬ 
tained  for  its  author  the  distinction  of  a  medal  of  honor, 
and,  therefore,  deserves  a  careful  consideration.  The  scene 
which  it  attempts  to  represent  is  the  historic  legend  of  the 
burning  of  Christian  martyrs  by  Kero.  On  a  high  terrace 
are  seated,  in  a  golden  palanquin  which  has  just  been  placed 
there  by  negro  bearers,  the  Emperor  and  his  wife  Poppaea. 
Architectural  constructions  cover  two-thirds  of  the  back¬ 
ground  of  the  picture,  and  the  loggie  and  balconies  are  filled 
with  spectators  and  attendants.  The  foreground  is  thronged 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


91 


with  a  crowd  of  figures,  courtesans,  guards,  and  senators, 
gaming,  drinking,  and  lounging,  and  playing  on  musical  in¬ 
struments.  On  the  right,  attached  to  high  stakes  against  a 
background  of  sky,  are  the  figures  of  the  martyrs  envel¬ 
oped  in  combustible  stuffs,  to  which  the  executioners  are 
seating  fire. 

There  is  certainly  something  in  the  selection  of  such  an 
incident  which  shows  an  imaginative  desire  at  least.  It' was 
a  bold  conception,  which  demanded  power  and  a  strong 
dramatic  capacity  fully  to  carry  out.  But  it  is  not  enough 
to  have  selected  a  great  subject ;  the  artist  must  be  pushed 
by  the  imaginative  and  executive  force  which  he  has  brought 
to  its  development.  As  far  as  the  hand  is  concerned  M. 
Siemiradski  has  shown  a  remarkable  talent.  His  touch  is 
bold  and  free,  his  imitation  of  stuffs  and  objects,  his  paint¬ 
ing  of  flesh  and  costumes,  are  masterly.  His  drawing  is  gen¬ 
erally  good.  There  is  nothing  niggled  and  timid  in  his 
handling,  and,  as  mere  painting,  there  are  parts  which  could 
scarcely  be  too  highly  praised.  He  has  all  the  facility  and 
brilliancy  of  Herr  Makart,  with  much  more  solid  qualities  of 
execution.  In  technique  there  is  very  much  to  praise  and 
little  fault  to  find.  It  is  not  here  that  he  fails,  but  in  the 
total  want  of  imaginative  grasp  of  the  scene.  The  picture 
is  full  of  splendid  parts,  but  it  is  nothing  but  parts,  and 
there  is  no  relation  between  them.  There  is  no  whole,  either 
in  composition  or  conception,  no  historic  truth  or  even  prob 
ability.  It  is  a  mass  of  jumbled  archaeology  and  history, 
never  quite  correct,  of  well-drawn  figures  having  nothing 
to  do  with  the  tragedy  which  is  enacting,  of  groups  disen¬ 
gaged  from  all  the  main  interest,  and  often  in  violent  oppo¬ 
sition  to  it.  The  burning  of  the  martyrs  becomes  a  subsid¬ 
iary  and  unimportant  incident  which  scarcely  attracts  the 
observer,  and  which  interests  scarcely  one  of  the  figures  in 
the  picture.  It  is  an  impossible  bacchanalian  scene,  and  is 
without  any  central  dominating  idea. 

The  first  great  and  fatal  fault  is  that  the  two  halves  of 
the  picture  are  totally  different  in  the  time  and  hour.  The 
main  mass  of  the  picture  is  in  the  broad  light  of  noon,  in 
which  all  the  personages  and  details  of  architecture  are 
highly  sparkling.  The  other  half  is  dull,  and  towards 
twilight.  The  burning  torches  of  human  beings  which 
should  have  given  the  chief  light,  as  they  were  the  chief 
protagonists  of  the  scene  responding  to  Nero,  are  feeble, 
ineffective  and  secondary  in  light.  In  the  incidental  groups 
the  main  effect  is  placid ;  they  occupy  all  the  foreground  and 
the  principal  part  of  the  ificture.  Even  Nero  and  Poppma 


KUSSIA. 


Siemiradski. 


92 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


KUSSIA. 


Siemiraski. 


are  insignificant  beside  them.  They  are  far  off  and  small. 
The  others  are  near  and  large.  The  next  fault  is  the  want 
of  proper  perspective.  It  is  difficult  if  not  impossible,  to 
understand  the  planes  or  to  see  how  or  in  what  manner  the 
figures  are  standing.  It  is  equally  a  mystery  how  Nero  and 
Poppsea  were  carried  to  the  positions  they  occupy,  as  there 
seems  to  be  no  clear  way  leading  to  it.  One  above  the  other, 
ihe  heads  and  figures  are  piled  up,  but  what  supports  them 
is  doubtful  at  least. 

In  the  next  place,  historical  truth  and  individual  charac¬ 
ter  are  violated.  Poppsea  never  was  there.  She  opposed 
Nero  in  all  these  violences  and  endeavored  to  dissuade  him 
from  them,  and  in  fact  her  opposition  was  the  cause  of  her 
death.  However,  setting  aside  this,  and  the  artist  may  claim 
that  he  was  not  to  be  bound  by  facts,  how  does  this  feeble, 
bloated,  and  languidly  effeminate  figure  of  Nero  lounging 
uninterested  in  his  litter  correspond  to  the  character  of  the 
mad  emperor,  whose  great  boast  it  was  that  he  was  the 
most  powerful  athlete  in  Eome,  and  who  descended  into  the 
arena  to  try  conclusions  with  trained  gladiators,  and  always 
took  pride  in  exhibiting  himself  as  the  prominent  figure  of  all 
games  and  spectacles.  How  do  this  heavy  and  common 
face  and  figure  of  Poppaea  correspond  to  her’s  who  was  the 
most  beautiful  and  graceful  woman  of  her  day,  who  affected 
reserve  and  modesty  of  bearing,  and  avoided  public  meetings 
and  crowds,  and  how  is  it  that  the  emperor,  at  whose  com¬ 
mand  this  fearful  tragedy  was  enacted,  seems  to  take  so 
total  a  want  of  interest  in  it?  It  seems  rather  as  if  he  were 
going  to  sleep.  And  how,  again,  is  it  that  no  deference  is 
shown  to  him  by  any  of  the  crowd,  who,  careless  both  of  him 
and  of  the  place  of  the  great  scene,  riot  and  revel  in  the  im¬ 
perial  courts? 

But  deeper  than  all  this  is  the  want  of  imaginative  con¬ 
ception  of  the  tragedy.  Conceive  for  a  moment  the  scene, 
and  say  if  this  in  any  way  represents  it.  Conceive  the  dark¬ 
ness  of  night  coming  on  or  already  enshrouding  the  world, 
which  is  to  be  illuminated  by  these  living  torches — the 
excited  crowd  that  have  gathered  as  spectators  of  this 
brutal  scene,  some  indignant,  some  sympathizing  with  the 
wretched  victims,  some  bloodthirsty  and  rejoicing  in  this 
novel  spectacle,  some  loving,  some  hating,  all  fearing  the  em¬ 
peror,  and  all  profoundly  interested  in  the  tragedy  to  be  en¬ 
acted.  Over  the  darkness  and  half-illumination  of  the  crowd 
that  seethes  below  rises  that  of  the  athletic  madman  and 
player  who  has  given  the  signal  for  the  torches  to  be  fired, 
and,  standing  erect  and  prominent  before  his  guards  that 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


93 


attend  him,  catches  the  full  glow  of  the  torches  as  they 
glare  up  against  the  dark  abyss  of  the  sky  and  flicker  over 
the  cornices  and  edges  of  the  architecture  and  leave  vast 
hollows  of  empty  shadow.  The  lurid  glare  of  the  light 
shows  the  great  protagonists  in  opposition  to  each  other — 
the  tyrant  in  this  world  in  his  mad  and  momentary  triumph, 
the  victims  inspired  with  religious  zeal  and  looking  forward 
to  eternal  glory  beyond  the  reach  of  man.  What  a  tre¬ 
mendous  contrast! 

In  the  picture  itself  but  one  or  two  figures  seem  in  the 
least  degree  observant  or  interested  in  the  spectacle.  The 
mass  drink  and  play  at  dice  and  amuse  themselves  as  if  they 
were  there  for  any  other  purpose  than  to  see  the  burning 
of  these  martyrs.  The  emperor  and  the  Christians  who  are 
tied  to  the  stake  are  alike  accessories.  The  palanquin  is 
splendid,  the  mother-of-pearl  veneering  beautifully  ren¬ 
dered,  but  so  massive  and  important  as  to  overwhelm  the 
occupants,  and  in  itself,  arch  geologically  considered,  totally 
without  justification  of  fact.  Some  of  the  spectators  are  in 
furs  and  rich,  heavy  robes,  some  nearly  nude.  There  is  no 
keeping  in  the  feeling  nor  in  the  composition.  It  is  a  work 
of  great  decorative  merit,  showing  much  cleverness  of  hand¬ 
icraft,  but  as  an  imaginative  conception  it  can  only  be  con¬ 
sidered  as  a  complete  failure. 

uLa  Coupe  ou  la  Femme, v  by  the  same  painter,  has  similar 
merit  as  technical  work.  It  represents  an  ancient  voluptu¬ 
ary  and  antiquary  in  a  room  filled  with  objets  de  vertu  and 
bric-a-brac ,  hesitating  between  the  purchase  of  a  nude  slave 
and  a  rich  cup.  The  theme  is  banale  and  scarcely  worthy  of 
so  large  a  canvas.  It  is  a  colossal  piece  of  genre ,  which 
would  be  more  acceptable  on  a  very  much  diminished  scale 
of  size.  M.  Siemiradski  is  a  young  man,  we  believe,  and 
with  such  executive  talent  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  he  will 
brace  his  mind  to  achieve  results  of  deeper  significance  and 
more  earnest  thought  than  these  two  pictures  display,  and 
take  to  heart  those  true  words  of  Goethe,  u  In  der  Besclirank- 
ung  zeiget  sich  erst  der  MeisterP 

M.  Jacoby’s  uNoce  dans  le  Falais  de  Glace  construit  sur  la 
Neva  pendant  V River  de  1741,”  represents  a  chamber  cut  in  the 
ice,  and  on  a  couch  placed  in  an  alcove  are  seated  a  strange, 
half-idiotic  couple  who  have  there  passed  their  bridal  night, 
while  a  crowd  of  revelers  are  entering  the  chamber  and  a 
dwarf  is  presenting  a  fan  to  the  bride.  The  picture  has 
something  strangely  fantastic  and  grotesque  in  its  effect. 
The  sunlight  gleaming  on  the  transparent  ice,  the  cold, 


RUSSIA. 


Siemiradski. 


Jacoby. 


94 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


RUSSIA. 


Jacoby. 


BogolubofF. 


Grerson. 


G-u6. 

Edelfeltlt. 


BELGIUM. 


shivering  glow  of  the  icy  room,  the  boisterous  figures  of  the 
revelers,  and  the  stupid,  vacant  expression  of  the  unhappy 
couple  make  up  a  contrast  which  is  singularly  striking. 
The  incident  of  which  it  is  an  illustration  is  narrated  in  the 
novel  of  Lagechnikoff,  entitled  u  The  Palace  of  Ice,”  and 
represents  the  marriage  of  the  idiot  Galitzun,  the  protege  of 
the  Empress  Anne,  with  another  unfortunate  of  Oalmuck 
origin.  The  picture  displays  as  much  talent  as  oddity  of 
conception,  character,  costume,  and  color.  It  shows  a  great 
deal  of  study,  and  is  drawn  with  spirit. 

Among  other  pictures  which  must  be  noted  are  several 
by  M.  Bogoluboif,  representing  a  u  Combat  naval ,  lime  par 
Pierre  le  Grand ,  pres  de  VIsle  d’Oesel  (a.  1719),”  u  Passage 
des  Galeres  de  Pierre  le  Grand  sur  la  pointe  de  Hangd-  JJdd ,” 
u Vue  de  JSTijni-Novgorod ,”  and  “St.  Peter sbourg,  JVuit  dPEtef 
all  of  which  show  a  decided  ability ;  M.  Gerson’s  u Nicolas 
Copernic  demontrant  le  Systeme  du  Monde  aux  Jlommes  illustres 
de  son  Temps?  M.  Gud’s  “  Pierre  le  Grand  fait  subir  un  In¬ 
terrogators  au  Tzarevitch  Alexis ,  a  Peterhof ;”  and  M.  Edel- 
feldt’s  u  Blanche  de  Namur ,  Peine  de  Suede ,  et  le  Prince  Ha- 
quin .” 

BELGIUM. 

'We  now  come  to  Belgium,  which  sent  no  less  than  300  oil- 
paintings,  among  which  there  were  some  which  were  strik¬ 
ing,  but  on  the  whole  there  was  a  general  lack  of  great  vital 
force  and  individuality,  though  there  was  certainly  a  good 
level  of  fair  work. 


Historical  Paintings. 


Of  the  historical  pictures  there  were  two  by  M.  Wauters, 
which  show  a  great  deal  of  character  and  feeling.  uLa 
Folie  de  Hugues  Van  der  Goes ”  represents  the  mad  painter 
seated  in  the  foreground,  to  whom  a  choir  of  youths  are  sing 
ing.  His  expression  as  he  catches  the  familiar  strain  that 
seems  to  recall  the  past  and  to  clear  up  the  present  is  admir¬ 
able.  So  also  is  that  of  the  black  cowled  monk  who  is  guid¬ 
ing  the  singers  and  looking  over  the  back  of  the  chair  to 
observe  the  effect  of  the  music  on  the  painter,  as  well  as  of 
the  figures  in  shadow  who  are  watching  him  with  the  same 
intent.  The  work  is  serious  and  careful,  the  light  and  dark 
well  disposed,  and  the  composition  good.  There  is  a  com¬ 
mon  center  of  interest,  and  the  story  is  well  told  without 
exaggeration  and  attitudinizing.  It  is  a  pity  that  he  has 
introduced  the  two  players  in  the  left  behind  the  boys  in 
white  who  are  chanting ;  they  add  nothing  to  the  interest, 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


95 


and  detract  from  the  concentration  of  the  group.  11  Marie 
de  Bourgogne  implorant  des  Bchevins  de  Gand  la  Grace  de  ses 
Gonseillers  Hugonet  et  Humber  court'1'1  has  not  the  same  force 
and  individuality,  but  is  interesting,  well  composed,  and 
expressive,  without  affectation.  These  two  pictures  obtained 
for  M.  Wauters  the  medal  of  honor  for  Belgium,  and  they 
justly  deserved  it. 

There  is  also  a  good  deal  of  character  in  M.  Cluysenaar’s 
“  Canossa ,  Van  1077,”  which  represents  Henry  IY  humbling 
himself  before  Gregory  VII.  It  is  boldly  painted  and  well 
drawn  and  composed,  but  a  little  tame  in  general  effect. 
The  figure  of  Henry  is  a  little  too  cringing  to  be  true  to  his 
character.  He  submitted  at  last,  but  reluctantly  and  an¬ 
grily.  Gregory  is  better,  but  hardly  up  to  the  mark  of  that 
imperious  and  overbearing  Pontifex,  and  there  is  a  lack  of 
intensity  in  the  queen  and  the  attendants.  But  the  picture 
is  serious  in  purpose,  and  executed  with  ability.  M.  Cluy- 
senaar  has  also  a  portrait  of  a  little  boy  lounging  in  a  great 
gray  fauteuil,  which  is  admirable  in  character,  expression, 
and  color,  and  full  of  nature.  u  Charles  V  a  Yustef  by  M.  A. 
de  Vriendt,  represents  the  emperor  seated  and  looking  at  a 
picture  held  up  by  two  monks.  It  is  well  painted,  but  a 
little  academic  in  treatment.  All  the  pictures  of  this  artist 
deserve  to  be*  commended,  as  well  as  those  of  M.  J.  de 
Vriendt,  and  particularly  uLa  Justice  de  Baudouin  d  la 
Rachel  by  the  latter. 

M.  Verlatfs  uNous  voulons  Bar  abbas  !n  is  a  striking  and 
also  a  disagreeable  picture.  There  is  a  good  deal  of  force, 
both  of  character  and  impasto ,  in  many  of  the  heads,  but 
they  are  all  vulgar  and  repulsive.  This,  of  course,  he  in¬ 
tends  they  should  be,  but  he  has  carried  this  to  an  extreme, 
and  there  is  nothing  in  the  picture  to  counterbalance  this 
vulgarity.  The  composition  is  not  fortunate,  and  the  color 
is  criarde.  His  other  pictures  of  animal  subjects  are  coarse 
but  clever,  and  certainly  do  not  lack  vigor  and  individuality. 

Among  the  other  historical  pictures  should  be  also  noted 
uMessaline  sortant  de  Rome  et  insueltee  par  la  Populace ,”  by 
M.  Hennebicq;  uLa  Mort  de  Didon”  and  uLe  dernier  Com¬ 
bat  du  Gladiateur”  by  M.  Stallaert;  uBaudoin  V  appelant 
le  Peuple  aux  Armes  pour  le  Defense  de  la  Villef  by  M. 
Oarlier. 

Genre. 

Of  the  cabinet  and  genre  pictures,  there  were  some  which . 
deserve  special  commendation.  uUn  Concours  de  Chant  (le 
Jury)”  by  M.  D.  Col,  is  very  clever,  well  disposed  in  light 
and  dark,  and  carefully  painted,  and  exhibits  much  hu- 


BELGIUM. 


Cluysenaar. 


A.  de  Vriendt. 


J.  de  Vriendt. 

Verlat. 


Hennebicq. 

Stallaert. 

Carlier. 


Genre. 


Col. 


96 

UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

BELGIUM. 

mor.  Hundreds  of  cages  with  canaries  line  the  walls.  The 
judges  sit  on  a  platform  attentively  examining  them  placed 
on  a  table  below  them.  uLa  Sortie  du  Restaurant ,”  by  M. 

Hermann. 

Hermann,  is,  for  size  and  character,  one  of  the  most  impor¬ 
tant.  It  represents  two  men  overcome  by  drink,  and  com¬ 
ing  out  of  a  restaurant  after  an  orgie,  accompanied  by  two 
cocottes.  There  is  certainly  considerable  cleverness  and  ex- 

Yerlat. 

pression  in  this  picture,  but  the  subject  is  unworthy  the 
talent  and  labor  bestowed  upon  it.  uSecours  an  temps”  by 
M.  Yerlat,  represents  a  child  attacked  and  overthrown  by 

J.  Verhas. 

F.  Verb  as. 

a  wolf,  which  in  turn  is  seized  by  a  dog.  The  color  is  hard, 
but  the  attitude  and  expression  of  the  child  are  very  good, 
and  the  story  is  well  told.  The  uInondation ,”  by  M.  J.  Ver¬ 
has,  and  uLa  Fete  de  Papa ,”  by  M.  F.  Yerhas,  are  agreeable 

Verbaert. 

in  color  and  composition.  Among  other  pictures  which 
should  be  mentioned  were  four  small  canvases  by  M.  Ver- 
haert,  UE  Esprit  Vaincu ,”  uLa  S oubrette  Intriguee”  uLa 
Gonvalescente ,”  and  u  La  Bibliotheque ”  which  are  well  paint¬ 
ed  and  good  in  color ;  some  clever  and  original  little  pic¬ 

lmpens. 

Lagye. 

tures  by  M.  lmpens;  several  by  M.  Lagye,  after  the  manner 
of  Leys,  particularly  uLes  Bohe miens  ”  and  u Statuaire” ; 

Robie. 

Madou. 

J.  Stevens. 

some  flowers  and  fruits  by  M.  Bobie ;  several  clever  pictures 
by  the  late  M.  Madou;  uChien  regardant  une  Mouche ,”  by  M. 
J.  Stevens,  which  is  natural  and  amusing;  u Rhetor iciens 

Markeibacii.  d' Anvers,”  by  M.  Markelbach;  and  a  characteristic  figure  of 
i>e Braekeieer.  « The  Geographer”  by  M.  de  Braekeleer,  which  represents  a 


Willems. 

man  in  his  shirt-sleeves  studying  an  atlas. 

M.  Willems  sent  ten  pictures,  all  of  the  same  class  and 
character,  which  is  clearly  indicated  by  the  titles,  uLa ;  Visite ,” 
uLe  Baise-main ,”  uLa  Toilette ,”  UE  Off  re  de  la  Bague”  uLa 
Presentation  du  Futur  ”  etc.  The  still  life,  furniture,  vases, 
stuffs,  and  dresses  are  all  executed  with  great  elaboration 
and  skill.  The  personages  are  mere  models  or  lay  figures 
to  show  off  their  costumes  and  laces  and  silks  and  satins 

A.  Stevens. 

and  velvets.  They  have  little  to  interest  us  in  character. 

M.  Alfred  Stevens  sent  no  less  than  sixteen  pictures, 
and  to  his  admirers  these  form  one  of  the  attractions  of  the 
Belgian  department.  One  regrets  to  find  them,  for  the  most 
part,  inferior  to  his  former  work ;  and  though  they  have  a 
certain  distinction  of  sobriety  in  color,  they  have  little  to 
say  which  interests  or  affects  us.  Among  the  eriarde ,  hard, 
and  noisy  pictures  which  abound,  it  is  grateful  at  least  to 
find  in  these  a  subdued  quality  of  gray  tones  which  soothes 
us  almost  like  silence.  But  they  err  even  in  this  direction, 
and,  seen  together,  have  a  monotony  of  effaced  color  which 
is  not  satisfactory.  There  is  a  good  deal  of  trickery,  too,  of 

FINE  ARTS :  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


97 


half-lights  and  reflected  lights,  and  they  lack  substance  and 
quality.  The  subjects  are  not  striking.  They  represent 
generally  a  lady  in  her  boudoir  alone  or  with  a  friend,  with 
dim  candle-light  or  shrouded  day,  and  it  is  nearly  always  the 
same  lady.  There  is  little  emotion  or  character,  no  force, 
and  scarcely  any  incident.  The  most  striking  of  all  M. 
Stevens’s  pictures  here  was  a  portrait  of  a  boy  in  a  gray  vel¬ 
vet  dress,  and  a  greyhound  at  his  side.  This  is  admirable  in 
quality  and  character  and  delicate  in  tone,  and  altogether 
a  masterly  work  that  justifies  his  high  reputation.  The 
velvet  dress  is  charmingly  painted. 

Landscapes. 

Some  of  the  landscapes  were  clever,  but  there  were  none 
of  any  very  high  rank.  Among  the  best  may  be  mentioned 
three  by  M.  Cooseraans,  and  particularly  one  of  a  dark, 
marshy  ground  filled  with  pools  and  high  grasses,  with  dark, 
pollarded  trees  with  ravens  perched  on  them  and  fluttering 
about  them,  and  a  dull,  slaty  sky,  with  a  gleam  on  the  hori¬ 
zon.  This  is  strongly  painted,  and  is  gloomy,  solitary,  and 
effective.  M.  Van  Luppen’s  uLa  Flandre ”  and  uAvant 
V  Or  age ”  are  also  effective.  M.  Tscharner’s  uApres  V Hirer  ” 
several  by  Mile.  Marie  Collart,  M.  F.  Lamorinikre,  M.  de 
Knyff,  and  M.  Boulenger,  among  others,  must  be  noted. 
M.  Clays  sent  seven  landscapes,  all  representing  seaports 
and  ships  with  brown  and  white  sails  and  blue  and  white 
skies  with  mixed  clouds.  These  are  clever,  but  mannered. 
When  we  have  seen  one  we  have  seen  all.  They  are  repeti¬ 
tions  of  the  same  subject  with  the  same  treatment. 

Among  the  portraits  was  one  by  M.  Winne  which  is  very 
lifelike  in  the  expression  of  the  eyes,  that  seem  to  follow 
one  about.  His  other  portraits  also  are  clever. 

SWITZERLAND. 

Genre. 

In  the  Swiss  department  there  was  little  to  detain  us  of 
distinguished  merit.  One  of  the  largest  was  uLes  Zephyrs  du 
Soir,v  by  M.  L.  P.  Robert,  which  is  legendary  in  theme  and 
represents  a  number  of  nude  and  wild  female  figures  float¬ 
ing  over  a  green  slope  covered  with  low  trees.  This  picture 
received  a  medal  from  the  Salon  in  1877.  Though  well 
drawn,  it  is  feeble  in  tone  and  character.  M.  B.  Yautier’s 
uLe  Diner  de  Gir Constance  ”  represents  a  company  of  bour¬ 
geois  and  functionaries  gathered  around  a  dinner- table. 

7  p  R 


BELGIUM. 


A.  Stevens. 


Landscapes. 


Coosemans. 


Van  Luppen. 


Mile.  Collart. 

Lamoriniere. 
De  Knyff. 
Boulenger. 
Clays. 


Portraits. 


Winne. 


SWITZERLAND. 


Oenre. 

Robert. 


Vautier. 


98 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


SWITZERLAND. 


Durand. 


Sttickelberg. 


Ravel. 

Burnand. 


Landscapes. 


Koller. 

Jeanneret. 

Rudisubli. 

Better. 


sGirardet. 

Pata. 

Castan. 

Robert. 


NETHERLANDS. 


The  color  is  rather  dry  and  monotonous,  but  it  shows  much 
careful  study  of  character,  and  conscientious  work.  The 
heads  are  expressive,  and  are  evidently  portraits,  and  the 
action  and  scene  are  true  to  life.  M.  Durand’s  uLe  Mariage 
a  la  Mairie ,”  u  TJn  bout  de  Conduite ,”  and  uLe  Marche”  are  all 
spirited.  The  first  represents  a  scene  at  the  Mairie,  where 
a  bridal  party  has  been  waiting  with  impatience  for  the 
arrival  of  the  bridegroom.  The  uBout  de  Conduite ”  is  a 
file  of  Bohemians  and  bear-leaders  walking  through  the 
snow  escorted  by  gendarmes.  These  are  brightly  painted 
and  the  comic  element  is  well  expressed.  M.  Stuckelberg’s 
“ -Disease  de  Bonne  Aventure ”  has  much  merit,  and  is  out  of 
the  common.  It  represents  two  girls  with  a  donkey,  and  an 
old  woman  on  a  wall  looking  at  them  to  tell  their  fortune. 
M.  Ravel’s  u Ilpleut ,”  which  is  spirited,  represents  a  party 
of  tourists  detained  in  a  mountain  inn  by  a  storm  of  rain. 
M.  Burnand’s  uFournee  au  Village ”  is  also  clever,  and  re¬ 
alistic  in  the  heads  of  the  peasants. 

Landscapes. 

Of  the  landscapes,  there  were  few  which  were  national, 
and  these  are  not  of  the  best.  The  landscape  painters  seem 
rather  to  have  caught  their  inspiration  in  other  countries. 
Of  those  who  have  been  faithful  1  o  their  own  may  be  noted 
M.  Roller’s  u  Or  age  sur  les  hautes  Alpes M.  Jeanneret’s 
u  Gorge  de  VAreuse ,”  and  M.  Rudisuhli’s  uLa  Source ”  and 
11  La  Solitude .”  Of  those  who  have  devoted  their  talent  to 
foreign  scenes,  M.  A.  Better’s  views  from  Camargue  are 
specially  to  be  noted.  Of  these  the  uEtangs  de  V mares  ( Ca¬ 
margue)  ”  was  the  strongest  and  most  original  in  this  depart¬ 
ment.  It  represents  jutting  points  of  dark  land  pushing 
out  into  flat  Avater.  Heavy  clouds  lower  over  the  scene,  and 
the  sense  of  loneliness  and  desolation  is  well  felt.  M.  Girar- 
det’s  u  Plage  de  T anger”  is  a  bright  and  sunny  sea,  with 
figures  and  donkeys  moving  along  the  shallow  shore,  and 
the  waves  breaking  in  along  its  curve.  M.  Pata  sent  some 
marine  views  on  the  coast  of  Normandy;  and  M.  Castan 
uL>Interieur  de  Bois  dans  le  Berri”  and  uLes  Bords  de  la 
Creuse  a  Gargilesse.”  Fifteen  drawings  of  birds,  by  M. 
Robert,  are  executed  with  great  delicacy  and  elaboration, 
and  should  also  be  noticed. 

NETHERLANDS. 

The  Netherlands  did  not  sustain  the  great  reputation  of 
their  olden  days  when  their  art  was  illustrated  by  great 
names,  and  in  the  light  of  these  great  works  the  modern 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY 


99 


products  of  tlieir  school  strike  one  with  disappointment.  Netherlands. 
Clever  as  some  of  their  artists  show  themselves  to  he,  they 
do  not  strongly  impress  one,  overshadowed  as  they  are  by 
our  memories  of  Rembrandt,  Van  Dyck,  Cuyp,  Hobbema, 

Ostade,  Metzu,  Wouvermans,  Paul  Potter,  Berghem,  Ruys- 
dael ,  and  V an  der  V elde.  The  passion  for  light  and  dark,  the 
hurry,  spirit,  the  finesse,  the  sharp  originality  which  charac¬ 
terized  the  early  school  are  wanting  in  the  present  day, 
and  the  Netherlands,  like  Italy,  suffers  by  comparison  with 
its  great  ancestry  in  art. 

In  place  of  this  vivacity  and  pungent  sense  of  reality  wesJ;mjfessional 
have  a  school  of  Impressionists.  Unable  to  reproduce  the 
vivid  character  of  the  early  school,  they  have  sought  to 
create  an  effect  by  loose  and  vague,  though  often  vigorous, 
brush-work.  There  is  as  much  affectation  in  over-sketchi-  over-sketckmess 
ness  as  in  over- elaboration,  but  the  modern  over-done  and  over-eSoration. 
over-elaborated  schools  of  genre  have  provoked  a  reaction 
in  quite  the  other  direction.  The  Impressionist  school  is  a 
protest  against  our  finish  of  parts,  and  though  there  is  jus¬ 
tice  in  its  aim,  it  is  at  times  carried  so  far  as  to  be  equally 
false  on  the  other  side.  If  this  tendency  is  to  be  observed 
in  the  schools  of  other  nations  it  is  specially  to  be  seen  here. 

Undoubtedly  what  is  needed  in  art  more  than  stuffs, 
however  cleverly  imitated,  is  stuff  of  the  mind  and  imagina¬ 
tion,  and  the  overstudy  of  technique  has  tended  to  degrade 
the  higher  spirit  of  art.  We  have  fine  words  and  phrases, 
not  poems.  We  have  too  much  of  Euphues  and  the  Ar¬ 
cadia,  too  little  Hamlet  and  Lear.  Of  this  school  of  Impress¬ 
ionists  there  are  some  eminent  masters  in  landscape,  such 
as  Messrs.  Jovels,  Mesdag,  Maris,  Verveer,  Artz,  and  Bak- 
huyzen.  All  of  these  have,  despite  their  individual  differ¬ 
ences,  a  similarity  of  treatment.  Their  pictures  are  loosely 
pain  ted,  suggested  rather  than  finished,  and  seek  for  scarcely 
anything  beyond  general  effect.  There  are,  however,  great 
vigor  and  character  in  some  of  their  works,  and  often  bold 
ness  of  execution,  and  sentiment. 

Landscapes. 

Two  of  the  most  remarkable  and  poetic  landscapes  Were  Landscape ». 
by  M.  Mesdag,  u  Bateau  de  Sauvetage  de  Scheveningue  sor-  Mesdag. 
taut  pour  porter  Assistance  d  V Equipage  du  Bdtiment  Anglais 
le  Hopewell  11  Novembre ,  1809,  ”  and  “  Retour  de  ce  Bateau.v 
These  are  coarse  and  carelessly  free  in  execution,  painted 
with  a  heavy  brush,  and  merely  dashed  in  upon  the  canvas 
without  detail  or  finish $  but  they  are  eminently  dramatic, 
spirited,  and  affecting.  The  soul  of  the  incident  is  seized, 


100 

NETHERLANDS. 


Mesdag. 


Bakhuyzen. 


Bilders. 


Maris. 


Israels. 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

and  the  work  has  been  done  in  the  fervor  of  feeling.  The 
first  represents  the  launching  of  the  life-boat.  The  horses 
and  carriage,  which  have  brought  it,  stand  there  with  a 
flagstaff  and  a  flag  blown  out  by  the. gale.  It  is  a  wild  day, 
toward  sundown.  Gray  whitening  clouds  cover  the  sky, 
the  boat  is  laboring  in  the  mid-distance  on  the  turbulent 
waves  that  break  heavily  in  turbid  and  confused  masses  of 
billows,  and  a  crowd  is  on  the  shore  massed  together 
darkly  and  watching  its  progress.  One  or  two  dark  birds 
hover  in  the  wild  sky.  The  vessel  that  is  to  be  succored 
lies  far  off  in  the  horizon.  The  second  picture  represents 
the  return  of  the  same  boat.  There  is  the  same  gray,  tur¬ 
bulent,  rolling  sea.  The  sky  is  broken  and  wild,  and  a  red 
gleam  breaks  cut  along  the  horizon,  against  which  the 
wreck  is  seen;  The  dark  crowd  is  still  there  on  the  shore 
bringing  in  the  crew  that  has  been  rescued.  Altogether 
both  of  these  pictures  are  gloomy,  wild,  and  impressive  in 
their  character.  The  grouping  of  the  figures  is  well  man¬ 
aged,  and  all  that  one  regrets  is  that  they  are  such  mere 
sketches  which  can  only  be  seen  at  a  distance  and  to 
a  certain  extent  with  the  eve  of  faith.  Nothing  is  really 
completed.  It  is  as  if  they  had  been  dashed  hurriedly  in 
on  the  spot  under  the  influence  of  a  powerful  emotion,  and 
then  left.  u  La  Levee  de  VAncre ?  by  the  same  artist,  is  in 
the  same  style.  The  sky  is  blue,  the  water  wild,  the  wind 
blowing. 

M.  Bakhuy  zen’s  u  Pay  sage  pres  de  Leide  ”  is  also  of  the 
Impressionist  school,  but  very  clever,  vigorous  in  its  draw¬ 
ing,  and  full  of  life  and  color.  The  town  with  red-tiled 
roofs,  and  a  windmill  beyond  the  river,  rises  against  a  blue 
sky  with  great  gray  clouds.  The  river  is  gray,  with  bluish 
reflections.  The  composition  is  good ;  there  is  a  great  deal 
of  air  and  light  in  the  picture,  and  the  painting  is  free  and 
strong.  It  is  made  out  solely  in  masses  and  values,  with  no 
details,  and  must  be  seen  at  a  distance. 

Again,  in  uPaysage  en  Gueldre?  by  M.  Bilders,  there  is  the 
same  treatment,  and  much  vigor.  It  represents  a  meadow 
of  broken  sandy  soil  with  large  trees,  under  which  cows  are 
feeding. 

M.  Maris’s  uSur  la  Plage v  and  a  Pay  sage  Holland  ais”  have 
similar  characteristics.  The  flrst  represents  a  cold,  gray  sea, 
which  is  merely  scratched  in,  and  a  sloop  riding  on  it,  darkly 
against  the  sea  and  sky. 

M.  Israels  sent  four  pictures,  u  Seal  an  Monde?  u  Les 
Pauvres  du  Village ?  uLe  Diner  des  Savetiers?  and  uL>Anni- 
versaire.v  All  of  these  are  of  a  gray,  effaced,  and  somber  tone. 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


101 


with  no  vivacity  of  color,  as  if  the  artist  had  desired  to  accent¬ 
uate  the  seriousness  of  the  subject  by  the  dreariness  of  his 
color.  They  are  all  scenes  of  humble  life,  and  all  have  an 
accent  of  sincerity  in  feeling  and  intention.  In  texture,  they 
are  wooly,  in  execution  they  are  intentionally  sketchy  and 
impressionist.  But  the  values  are  well  kept,  there  is  no 
exaggeration,  and  they  interest  from  their  depth  of  feeling 
and  simplicity.  The  mind  has  been  at  work.  If  he  does  not 
perfectly  achieve,  he  has  ideas  and  sentiment,  and  does  not 
pin  his  faith  on  to  the  mere  technique  and  mechanics  of  his 
art. 

M.  Poggenbeck’s  “  Pay  sage  Hollandais ”  represents  a  land¬ 
scape  with  a  smooth  river  running  diagonally  through  the 
picture  through  deep  green  banks  on  which  willows  are  grow¬ 
ing,  while  cows  are  standing  in  the  still  water.  The  sky  is 
gray,  the  effect  clear  and  sunny,  and  there  is  a  good  deal  of 
life  and  feeling  for  nature.  In  execution  it  is  far  more  fin¬ 
ished  than  those  which  have  been  mentioned. 

M,  Mauve’s  u  Pay  sage  avec  des  Moutons  ”  represents  sheep 
in  a  snowy,  wide,  flat  landscape,  with  a  man  in  the  center, 
who  is  the  only  dark  spot  in  the  picture.  This  is  rough,  but 
clever. 

M.  Artz  sentAwo  pictures,  u  Sur  les  Dunes”  and  u  Contre 
Vent.”  The  latter  represents  three  peasants,  a  mother  and 
two  children,  returning  home  through  a  gray,  dull  coun¬ 
try,  and  with  an  overcast  sky.  It  is  a  little  in  the  manner 
of  Millet,  and  not  without  sentiment. 

M.  Boelofs’s  three  landscapes  are  all  worthy  of  special  note, 
“Paysage  pres  Vreeland ,”  “Foret  en  Automne ,”  “  Vue  pres 
Abcoude”  One  of  these  represents  a  pool  of  water  with  scum 
on  the  surface,  reedy  grass  on  both  sides,  and  trees  beyond, 
reflecting  darkly  in  the  water.  It  is  bold,  effective,  and  full 
of  light. 

M.  Burger’s  u Pendant  la  Guerre”  is  clever  and  vigorous. 
All  the  able-bodied  men  of  the  place  have  gone  to  the  war, 
and  two  young  girls  and  a  boy  have  taken  upon  themselves 
the  duties  of  plowing.  It  is  a  broad  field  with  a  gray  sky, 
through  which  dark  birds  are  flying  zigzag.  Among  the 
other  landscapes  which  should  be  noticed,  are  “ Paysage  pres 
dhme  Ville  de  Hollande”  and  “En  plaine ,”  by  M.  Apol ; 
u Foret”  and  u Paysage  stir  les  bords  de  V Yssel”  by  M.  Bor- 
selen 5  “La  Matinee  dans  les  Polders  de  la  Hollande”  and 
u  TJn  temps  de  Bourrasque”  by  M.  Gabriel,  rich  in  color ; 
u Dans  le  bois ,”  of  M.  Bock;  and  “Le  Coin  de  Ferme by  M. 
Kuyper. 


.NETHERLANDS. 


Poggenbeck. 


Mauve. 


Artz. 


Roelofs. 


Burger. 


Apol. 

Borselen. 

Gabriel. 

Bock. 

Kuyper. 


102 


NETHERLANDS. 


Genre. 


Haanen. 


Boks. 


Dame  Konner. 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  painters  in  the  Netherlands  have 
drawn  their  subjects  chiefly  from  their  own  country  and 
national  life,  and  not  from  foreign  lands.  There  wms,  in  con¬ 
sequence,  a  certain  character  of  nationality  in  their  work 
which  was  attractive,  and  in  their  landscapes  especially  they 
showed  vigor  and  originality. 

Genre. 

Among  the  cabinet  and  genre  pictures  there  were  some 
which  were  striking.  Particularly  are  to  be  noticed  the  ex¬ 
tremely  clever  pictures  by  M.  Haanen,  uOuvrieres  en  Perles 
a  Venise ”  and  u Meneghina,  type  Venitien .”  The  first  is  a 
very  spirited  picture,  representing  a  number  of  girls  and 
women  in  a  factory-room  stringing  and  sorting  the  pearls 
of  Venice.  They  are  chiefly  young  girls,  who  are  seated 
and  ranged  along  a  wall,  with  an  old  woman  in  the  center, 
who  is  superintending  their  labors  and  working  herself. 
The  girls  are  extremely  pretty,  and  their  heads  and  action 
are  very  easy,  characteristic,  and  natural.  The  painting  is 
good,  the  spirit  lively,  the  color  gay  without  being  excessive, 
the  composition  and  attitudes  excellent.  One  would  like  to 
hear  what  they  are  talking  about,  they  are  so  simple  and 
bright  and  pleasant  to  look  at.  There  is  a  remarkable 
sense  of  grace  and  couleur  locale  in  all  the  figures. 

There  is  great  humor  of  character  and  incident  in  the 
u Corpus  Delicti ,”  of  M.  Boks.  The  u  corpus  delictiv  is  a 
soldier’s  cap  which  has  been  discovered,  and  the  maid  has 
been  called  on  to  account  for  it  to  the  family.  The  old  gen¬ 
tleman,  who  is  seated,  points  impressively  to  the  cap,  and  the 
maid,  who  stands  before  him,  shrugs  her  shoulders  and  pre¬ 
tends  to  know  nothing  about  it.  Three  other  servants  are 
in  the  room  who  have  been  summoned  for  explanation,  and 
the  wife  is  just  about  to  ring  the  bell.  There  is  a  great  deal 
of  spirit  in  the  rendering  of  this  scene.  The  characters  are 
well  portrayed  and  the  touches  are  humorous  without  cari¬ 
cature. 

uL>Dcole  dePeinture ,”  by  Dame  H.  Konner,  is  also  spirited 
and  cleverly  rendered.  It  represents  an  old  cat  with  her 
four  kittens,  which  are  rummaging  about  in  a  painter’s 
studio.  The  old  mother  quietly  reposes  on  the  top  of  the 
frame  of  a  picture,  while  her  kittens  are  in  all  sorts  of  mis¬ 
chief,  one  staining; her  paws  with  the  paint  on  the  palette, 
one  peeping  over  a  canvas.  The  character  of  the  animals 
is  very  well  given.  They  are  painted  with  great  truth  to 
nature,  and  the  humor  is  quiet  and  amusing. 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


103 


uHiver  en  FriseJ ’  by  M.  Bisscliop,  lias  a  good  deal  that 
is  interesting  in  subject  and  is  well  painted.  It  represents 
the  interior  of  a  hut  of  fishermen,  where  a  young  lady  is 
having  her  skates  sharpened  by  another  girl.  The  costumes 
are  pleasing,  and  the  details  all  carefully  rendered,  and 
with  taste. 

M.  Metis’s  uSois  Sage! ”  which  is  of  the  same  school  as  M. 
Israel’s,  is  worthy  of  special  notice,  as  are  also  the  two 
pleasing  compositions  by  M.  Ten  Kate,  uLes  Maratideurs ” 
and  uLa  Boule  inattendue ,”  and  M.  Verveer’s  two  pictures, 
u  Deux  Meres ,  ( poissardes  de  Scheveningue ”)  and  uLa  Veuve 
etsa  Consolation .”  All  of  these  are  of  the  same  school,  and 
all  subjects  of  humble  life  in  the  Netherlands. 

DENMARK. 

Passing  from  the  Netherlands  into  Denmark,  we  find  lit¬ 
tle  that  is  very  striking  or  original.  The  style  is  generally 
that  of  smooth,  flat  elaboration.  The  landscapes  are  thin 
and  without  much  character,  but  a  few  have  a  pleasant  dis¬ 
tribution  of  parts  and  of  lights.  Among  the  best  may  be 
noted  the  uBevage  de  Vile  Moen ,”  by  M.  0.  A.  Koelle, 
which  represents  a  yellow  sand  bank  with  weeds  and 
shrubs  sloping  diagonally  down  the  picture,  and  a  fresh 
blue  sea  rolling  in  on  a  pebbly  beach,  which  is  pleasing. 
uPaysage  des  Landes ,”  by  M.  Y.  Groth,  is  in  some  respects 
an  effective  picture.  It  represents  the  Landes  in  mid-day 
in  summer.  The  marsh,  flecked  with  spots  of  light,  is  well 
rendered,  the  water  is  transparent,  and  the  distance  good. 
The  sky,  which  is  poor  and  map-like,  detracts  from  the 
value  of  the  picture.  M.  Kyhn’s  uAu  Coucher  du  Soleilv 
is  a  winter  sunset  in  Denmark.  The  sky  is  lowering  and 
slaty,  with  a  lurid  red  break  on  tbc  horizon  seen  across  a 
stretch  of  overshadowed  snow.  There  is  considerable  feel¬ 
ing  in  this.  M.  Aagaard’s  uBuisseau  dans  tin  Bois  de  Hetres  ” 
is  an  exceedingly  elaborate  river  running  through  green 
banks  in  a  forest  of  trees.  It  is  rather  weak,  but  is  pleas¬ 
ant  in  its  distribution  of  light,  and  the  water  is  transparent. 

The  historic  and  religious  pictures  were  tame,  and  had 
no  special  qualities  to  call  for  extended  examination. 

Cabinet  Pictures. 

Of  cabinet  pictures,  the  most  effective  was  the  Ulnterieur 
dVun  Forge ,”  by  M.  Kroeyer,  which  shows  strength  and 
talent.  It  represents  figures  beating  a  hot  bar  of  iron,  the 
reflected  light  all  coming  from  the  forge.  M.  Bosenstand’s 


NETHERLANDS. 

Bisscliop. 

Melis. 

Ten  Kate. 
Verveer. 

DENMARK. 


Koelle. 

Groth. 

Kyhn. 

Aagaard. 


Cabinet. 

Kroeyer. 

Eosenstand. 


104 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


DENMARK. 

Bache. 


J  emdorf. 


Dalsgaard. 


NORWAY. 


Gude. 


Thulow. 

Normann. 


u  Italicns  jouant  a  la  Morra ”  is  spirited  in  action  and  de¬ 
sign.  M.  O.  Baclie  sent  four  pictures,  u  Apr  es  la  Chasse 
au  Sanglierf  Sur  Knippelsbro ,”  u  Elans  Tuesf  uDans  la 
Cour  fflun  Moulin  a  EauP  uSur  Knippelsbro ”  represents  a 
dray  with  two  horses  coming  breast  forward  into  the  foot 
plane  of  the  picture.  uDans  la  Cour  d?un  Moulin ”  is  also  a 
picture  of  horses  and  figures,  and  in  both  these  pictures 
these  are  well  drawn  and  good  in  action. 

The  portrait  of  “M.  Mattkison-Hansen,”  playing  on  the 
organ,  by  M.  Jerndorf,  though  hard  and  clean  in  texture, 
is  drawn  and  painted  with  great  fidelity,  and  is  evidently  a 
good  likeness  $  uLa  jeune  Fille  qui  ecrit  une  Lettre ,”  by  M. 
Dalsgaard,  has  also  a  good  deal  of  sentiment  and  gentle 
character. 

NORWAY. 

The  Norwegian  department  was,  with  some  exceptions,  ex¬ 
clusively  composed  of  landscapes,  and  these  show  remark¬ 
able  originality,  verve ,  and  strength.  They  are  peculiarly 
national,  not  only  in  their  subjects,  but  in  their  character 
and  sentiment,  and  their  manner  is  quite  different  from  that 
which  is  elsewhere  seen.  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
landscapes  in  the  whole  Exposition  was  to  be  found  here. 
It  is  the  u  Pay  sage  Ecossais  ”  of  M.  Gude.  It  is  painted  with 
a  masterly  freedom  and  truth.  The  water  gushes,  and  daz¬ 
zles,  and  dances,  in  the  broad  sunlit  path  of  light  that 
flashes  across  it,  and  in  the  light  fresh  breeze  the  little  sail¬ 
boat  seems  almost  to  move  along  the  waves.  A  transparent 
shadow  envelops  a  dark  ridge  of  land  that  thrusts  forward 
in  the  mid-distance,  rich  with  verdure.  The  manner  in 
which  the  water  is  painted  is  quite  peculiar.  Seen  very 
near,  it  seems  composed  of  accidental  spots  and  dabs  of 
singular  color,  but  at  its  proper  point  of  sight  it  is  full  of 
motion  and  life;  and  here  it  may  be  observed  that,  through¬ 
out  all  this  section  great  skill  is  shown  in  the  rendering  of 
Avater,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  u Plage  de  Lister ,”  by  M. 
Thulow,  the  u Crepuscule ,”  by  M.  Nielsen,  and  the  u  Fjord 
Korwegien ,”  by  M.  Normann,  Avhich  is  a  dead-still  oily  sea, 
with  no  reflections,  that  just  feels  the  swell,  and  is  glassed 
over  with  a  misty  smoothness.  M.  Noun  ami’s  uMinuit  a 
Lofoten ”  is  also  a  striking,  poetic,  and  peculiar  picture,  rep¬ 
resenting  the  midnight  sun  in  Nonvay.  A  tall  cliff  stands  out 
into  the  sea,  catching  the  full  glow  of  the  light,  which  is 
repeated  on  a  sail  in  the  mid-distance.  The  low  purple-blue 
sea  rolls  in  upon  the  beach,  where  lies  the  wreck  of  an  old 
hulk.  M.  Nielsen’s  u  Crepuscule,  Vue  de  Cote ”  is  very  tran- 


Nielsen. 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


105 


quil  and  pleasing  in  color  and  composition.  In  the  gray 
embayed  sea  that  washes  along  the  curved  coast  is  a  large 
dark  sloop  rising  against  the  sky,  and  along  the  shore 
stands  a  cottage,  with  nets  hung  out  to  dry.  Men  are  row¬ 
ing  along  a  dark  boat  with  furled  sails ;  a  ship  lies  motion¬ 
less  in  the  offing 5  above  is  a  misty  gray  sky  with  breaks  of 
thunderous  light.  M.  Schanche’s  U8ur  le  Cote  ouest  de  la 
Norwege ;  clair  le  Lunev  is  also  a  very  clever  landscape,  as 
are  also  the  two  u  Fay  sages?  by  M.  Jacobson,  one  of  which 
represents  a  path  through  woods  with  tall,  dark  trunks,  with 
gleams  of  sunshine  seen  behind  them.  uLe  Soir  d’Automne 
( interieur  d?un  Village) ,”  by  M.  Grimeland,  has  also  much 
merit.  It  represents  a  road  leading  oft*  from  the  foreground 
straight  through  the  picture  and  passing  under  a  mid¬ 
distance  arch  flanked  by  houses,  over  which  a  cool,  trans¬ 
parent  shadow  is  cast.  M.  Sinding’s  uPerdu !n  represents 
a  heavy  sea  breaking  in  at  the  base  of  a  tall,  black,  iron- 
rusted  cliff*,  where  the  dead  body  of  a  sailor  is  lying.  There 
is  a  great  deal  of  truth  in  the  movement  of  the  greenish 
water  that  wallows  in,  and  altogether  the  picture  shows 
power.  M.  Smith-Hald’s  uDe  la,  Cote  meridionale  de  la  Nor¬ 
te  eg  ev  is  remarkable  for  its  truth  and  realism.  It  represents 
a  pier,  on  which  is  a  house  v/ith  snow-covered  roof,  and  at 
the  farther  end  a  steamer  is  pouring  forth  a  column  of  dark 
smoke,  while  a  crowd  of  passengers  is  landing  and  coming 
down  the  snow-covered  road,  already  trampled  in  places  into 
mud.  Along  one  side  of  the  pier  is  ice  and  snow,  adhering 
to  the  beams  and  posts,  and  encumbering  the  water.  M. 
Bennetter’s  “  Vikings  en  Mer  ,”  though  a  little  hard,  has  a 
good  poetic  sentiment.  There  is  also  something  striking  in 
M.  Baade’s  uNuit  orageuse  stir  la  Cote  de  Nomvege ,”  and  “I? lie 
de  Hestmand  ( Soleil  de  Minuit.”)  M.  Muntke’s  u  Pay sage 
d?Hiverv  represents  a  snow-covered  fishing  village  011  the 
borders  of  the  sea.  Nothing  could  be  sadder  than  the  leaden, 
sombre  sky,  the  wretched  huts  huddled  together,  the  unpity¬ 
ing  snow,  the  bleak  despair  of  everything  in  this  striking 
and  pathetic  landscape. 

But  to  turn  to  a  totally  different  scene,  M.  Dahl  in  his 
u  Trop  tard ,”  which  is  a  landscape  and  figures,  gives  us  a 
bright  sunny  day  and  flashing  green  water,  all  gay  and  bril¬ 
liant.  A  couple  of  peasants  are  in  a  boat,  which  has  just 
put  off  from  shore,  and  are  laughing  at  their  companion,  who 
has  arrived  just  too  late.  There  is  a  good  deal  of  bris  in  this 
pictilre,  and,  though  it  is  crude  and  voyant  in  color,  it  is 
amusing.  The  green  reflections  of  the  sunny  water  under 
the  boat,  though  a  little  showy,  are  well  given. 


NORWAY. 


Schanche. 


Jacobson. 


Grimeland. 


Sinding. 


Smitli-Hald. 


Bennetter. 


Baade. 

Muntbe. 


Dahl. 


106 


NORWAY. 

Askevold. 


Arbo. 


Lerche. 


Portraits. 


Kusten. 

Patterson. 


Heyerdahl. 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1876. 

M.  Askevold’s  uEn  route  pour  le  Chalet ”  represents  a  great 
barge  laden  with  cattle,  which  is  pushing  off  from  shore, 
with  another  barge  farther  away.  This  is  well  drawn,  and 
spirited  in  movement  and  composition,  and  the  cattle  are 
excellent.  The  sky  and  distance  are  scarcely  up  to  the  mark 
of  the  rest.  It  is  of  the  Diisseldorf  school,  and,  though  a 
little  over-accentuated,  shows  much  talent.  UE  Asgaar  dried 
(Legende  Norwegienne )”  by  M.  Arbo,  illustrates  a  Norwegian 
legend  that  the  Asgaardried  (a  troop  of  Norsemen  on  their 
way  to  the  dwelling  of  Ases,  in  the  Walhalla)  is  composed 
of  the  dead  who  have  not  done  sufficient  good  on  earth  to 
deserve  heaven,  nor  sufficient  evil  to  merit  hell,  and  their 
punishment  is  to  gallop  continually  through  the  air  to  the 
end  of  the  world.  As  long  as  order  reigns  they  are  quiet,  but 
whenever  there  is  war,  their  laughter  and  the  dashing  of 
their  arms  is  heard  overhead.  M.  Arbo  in  his  picture  rep¬ 
resents  a  crowd  of  these  wild  and  visionary  horsemen  with 
flashing  eyes,  that  rush  through  the  sky,  and  he  has  made  a 
powerful  and  effective  picture.  M.  Lerche’s  uLa  Befectoire” 
and  uChronique  Scandaleusev  must  also  be  noted  for  their 
cleverness. 

Portraits. 

Among  the  portraits  may  be  mentioned  that  by  M.  Eusten, 
which  is  clever  and  photographic,  and  one,  by  M.  Patterson, 
of  a  woman  with  folded  arms  seated  at  a  table  covered  with 
a  red  cloth,  on  which  there  are  flowers.  This  has  considera¬ 
ble  originality  of  treatment  and  tranquility  of  character. 

There  is  something  very  peculiar  in  M.  Heyerdahl’s  “Adam 
et  Eve  chasses  du  Paradis .”  He  has  not  sought  for  beauty 
or  charm.  The  figures  are  on  the  contrary  ugly  and  grace¬ 
less,  and  the  types  of  form  and  face  low,  but  he  has  managed 
to  put  a  certain  savage  character  into  their  expression  and 
attitudes  as  of  aborigines,  and  there  is  something  striking 
and  uncommon  in  the  motive  which  he  has  sought  to  work 
out.  They  are  not  our  original  parents  in  the  perfection  of 
humanity,  but  rather  naked  gypsies  passionately  rebelling 
against  their  decree  of  expulsion.  The  idea  is  certainly 
novel,  but  it  is  not  without  force.  There  is  another  16  Adam 
and  Eve” — not  in  the  catalogue,  in  the  Scandanavian  section, 
and  therefore  I  cannot  give  the  name  of  the  painter — which 
is  wholly  from  another  point  of  view.  M.  Heyerdahl’s  is 
gloomy  and  rebellious ;  this  is  sunny  and  indolent — a  fruit- 
loving  Southern  couple  in  a  bower. 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


107 


SWEDEN.  SWEDEN. 

.  There  was  not  much  very  characteristic  in  the  Swedish 
section,  or  of  any  high  achievement.  An  exception  must 
be  made,  however,  to  this  statement  in  favor  of  the  strik¬ 
ing  historical  picture  by  Baron  Cederstrom,  representing  ^Bar on  ceder- 
uLe  Corps  de  Charles  XII  porte  par  ses  Officiers  a  travers 
la  Frontier e  Xorwegienne  (1718).”  This  is  a  serious  work, 
exhibiting  a  good  deal  of  character  and  originality.  It  is 
winter ;  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow ;  the  sad  proces¬ 
sion  winds  solemnly  down  a  steep  declivity  around  a  pro¬ 
jecting  turn  in  the  cliff  that  hangs  over  the  way.  The  sol¬ 
diers  in  blue  and  drab  march  sternly  on  in  serried  ranks, 
bearing  on  a  litter  the  exposed  body  of  the  dead  king.  The 
group  forms  the  right  side  of  the  picture,  the  left  is  open 
country,  and  a  peasant,  dragging  at  his  side  a  dead  eagle, 
stands  uncovered  and  watches  the  procession  as  it  files  along. 

The  character  of  the  heads  is  earnest  and  strong,  and  the 
whole  effective.  There  is  nothing  common  about  it  in  treat¬ 
ment,  composition,  or  feeling. 

uLes  Saltimbanques ;  avant  la  loi  Tallon ,”  by  M.  N.  Forsberg,  Forsberg. 
is  a  distressing  episode  of  human  life  and  heartlessness. 

It  represents  a  master  saltimbanque  privately  exhibiting 
his  pupils  and  their  dexterity  to  a  debauched  looking  man, 
apparently  an  impresario ,  who  is  seated  and  languidly  look¬ 
ing  on  at  the  exhibition  with  a  cigar  in  his  mouth.  Two  or 
three  thin  children  clothed  in  the  tumbler’s  dress  are  stand¬ 
ing  by,  waiting  their  turn,  while  one  is  thrown  backwards 
on  his  hands  and  feet  with  his  poor  little  body  strained  into 
a  curve.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  character  and  truth  in 
this  scene.  The  figures  are  well  drawn  and  expressive,  and 
altogether,  distressing  as  it  is,  it  shows  power. 

M.  Hagborg’s  UL> Attente”  represents  a  woman  with  un-  Hagborg. 
covered  head,  a  child  in  her  arms,  who  is  standing  on  a  pier 
which  juts  out  into  the  sea.  It  is  fresh  in  color,  well  drawn, 
and  has  a  good  deal  of  nature,  sentiment,  and  unconscious¬ 
ness.  The  cool  breeze  blows  her  hair  and  garments,  and 
she  stands  looking  out  on  the  sea  in  expectation. 

M.  Hellqvist’s  u Marguerite”  is  a  large  picture  representing  Heiiqvist. 
the  interior  of  a  Swedish  house  in  Avhich  Gretchen  is  seated 
with  her  spinning-wheel.  Her  figure  is  rather  cold  and 
thin  in  character,  but  the  still  life  is  well  given.  The  can¬ 
vas  is,  however,  too  large  for  the  subject,  which  has  little 
dramatic  interest,  and  could  better  be  represented  in  a  far 
smaller  size. 


108 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


SWEDEN. 
Mile.  Borjesson. 
Borg  et  al. 


Wablberg. 


Gegerfelt. 


Among  the  other  noteworthy  pictures  of  genre  were  u Moines 
jouant  a  la  Boccia 77  by  Mile.  A.  Borjesson,  uI?j $tat  d7 Inno¬ 
cence”  by  M.  Borg,  and  u  Souvenir  de  la  Bicar  die77  by  M. 
Salmson,  u Genre77  by  M.  Fagerlin,  and  the  pictures  by  M. 
Jernberg. 

M.  Wahlberg  sent  a  number  of  landscapes,  two  of  which 
are  night  scenes.  Of  these  the  best  are  “Mare  sous  Bois  a 
Smoland77  and  uMois  de  Mai,77  which  show  a  deal  of  talent. 
They  are  bright  in  effect  and  picturesque.  In  the  moon¬ 
light  scenes  the  skies  have  an  extraordinary  effect  as  of 
colored  marbles.  There  should  also  be  noted,  as  worthy  of 
praise,  the  interesting  landscapes  by  M.  de  Gegerfelt,  and 


skiinberg.  M.  Skanberg. 


PORTUGAL. 


Portugal.  Portugal  need  not  detain  us  a  moment.  She  sent  but  sev¬ 
enteen  pictures  and  these  were  of  no  peculiar  importance. 


GREECE. 


GREECE. 

Itallis. 


Gyzis. 

Nikiforos. 

Pantazis. 

Altaniura. 

Mile.  Genodios. 


Greece  sent  forty-four  pictures  in  oil,  among  which  are 
to  be  noted  specially  the  three  by  M.  Ballis,  of  “Soubrette, 
sous  Louis  XIV,  arrosant  des  Fleurs,77  “Ayres  VFnterrement — 
souvenir  de  Megare,77  and  “Fsclave  jouant  de  la  Guitar e, 77 
and  three  by  M.  Gyzis  u Fiangailles  en  Grece ,77  u Fete  d7Arabe,77 
“F  Art  jouant77  The  first  of  these  by  M.  Gyzis,  in  jiarticular, 
has  much  that  is  characteristic  and  pleasing  and  national. 
Nikiforos’  u Ganaris 77  is  also  to  be  noted,  as  are  some  of  the 
works  of  M.  Pericles  Pantazis,  and  two  canvases  by  M.  Alta- 
rnura,  u Flncendie  de  la  premiere  Fregate  Ottomane  a  Erissos77' 
and  u  Un  Combat  naval,77  and  some  portraits  by  Mile.  Geno¬ 
dios,  in  aquarelle.  Unfortunately  neither  Xeuxis,  Apelles, 
nor  Polygnotos,  have  contributed  anything. 


UNITED  STATES. 


united  states.  We  have  thus  far  given  precedence  to  the  foreign  schools 
“of  painting,  for  such  is  naturally  the  rule  of  politeness  to 
strangers,  and  we  now  come  to  the  consideration  of  our  own 
paintings.  We  regret  to  say  that,  with  all  the  talent  here 
exhibited,  there  is  no  nationality  of  style,  purpose,  or  senti- 
webavenona- ment.  We  have  no  American  school,  distinguished  in  its 

tionality  of  style.  .  .  .  _ 

Our  artists  foi-  characteristics  irom  those  ot  foreign  nations.  Our  artists, 
lowtoreign metb-  ^nt  rare  exceptions,  have  followed  in  the  train  of  for¬ 
eign  masters,  adopted  their  methods,  studied  in  their  studios, 
and  thought  after  them.  We  have  some  from  Munich,  some 
from  Diisseldorf,  some  from  Paris,  some  from  Borne;  and 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


109 


one’s 'first  impression  on  entering  our  department  was  that  UXTTRP  states. 
we  were  in  a  cosmopolitan  society,  where  many  manners 
and  peoples  are  represented,  and  where  we  look  in  vain  for 
America.  Here  and  there  on  examination  we  found  a  national 
subject,  inspired  by  the  life  of  our  country;  but  they  were 
few  and  far  between.  When  I  speak  of  nationality  of  sub¬ 
ject  and  style,  I  do  not  mean  that  the  perpetual  Indian— the 
Monsieur  Tonson  of  our  art,  the  Marquis  de  Carabas  of 
popular  ideas — should  reappear.  We  have  already  been 
sufficiently  bored  by  him  and  all  connected  with  him.  But  Our  artistic 

.  .  .  sense  not  up  to 

there  is  nothing  m  our  art  which  answers  to  the  new  life  our  originality  in 
and  thought,  the  freshness  and  vigor,  the  refined  speculation, 
the  hearty  self-reliance,  independence,  and  originality  that 
is  seen  and  felt  in  onr  country.  No  matter  what  the  subject 
is,  a  nation  should  be  able  to  stamp  on  its  work  the  impress 
of  its  own  originality,  to  distinguish  itself  by  national  char¬ 
acteristics.  It  is  not,  for  instance,  because  the  subjects  of 
Emerson’s,  Longfellow’s,  and  Lowell’s  poems  are  drawn  from 
American  life  that  we  feel  they  are  truly  American  poets,  or 
because  the  works  of  Alston  are  illustrations  of  our  own  his-  Alston  an  ex- 
tory,  that  we  recognize  him  as  the  greatest  painter  ourceptlon‘ 
country  ever  produced.  It  is  because,  whatever  be  the  sub¬ 
ject,  there  is  som: thing  peculiar  in  the  style,  character,  and 
thought  that  we  recognize  as  born  and  bred  out  of  that  which 
is  eminently  American.  The  refinement,  the  grace,  the  sub¬ 
tlety,  the  incisive  penetration  are  different  from  what  is  seen 
in  the  literature  of  other  nations.  Is  Hawthorne  less  Haw-  Literature.  • 
thorne  because  he  writes  “The  Romance  of  Monte  Boni,” 
and  wanders  through  the  gardens  and  amid  the  ruins  of 
Italy  ?  Can  lie  not  throw  over  Rome  the  same  enchantment 
of  mystery  and  subtlety  that  envelops  the  scenes  of  early 
Puritan  life  in  New  England  ?  Does  it  matter  whether  Long¬ 
fellow  writes  of  the  “Belfry  of  Bruges”  or  the  “Village  Poetry. 
Blacksmith”  at  Cambridge?  Is  he  not  equally  Longfel¬ 
low?  Are  not  Mr.  James  and  Mr.  Howells  as  much  Ameri¬ 
cans  in  Paris  and  Venice  as  in  Boston?  Is  not  Mr.  Mark 
Twain  the  same  humorist  abroad  that  he  is  at  home  ?  In  numor. 
our  literature  we  have  already  reached  nationality.  The 
peculiar  flavor  of  our  life  and  thought  is  there  exhibited. 

But  in  art  we  are  what  we  were  three-quarters  of  a  century 
ago — essentially  imitative;  and  this  is  not  because  we  have 
not  originality,  talent,  even  genius,  if  you  will ;  but  we  are 
like  pupils  that  follow  the  beck  of  their  masters,  and  dare 
not  trust  our  own  inspirations. 

Undoubtedly  what  we  want  is  training  of  the  strictest  Need  of  traia. 
kind.  Every  youth  that  can  daub  a  canvas  or  scratch  to-  in=- 


110 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Need  of  govern¬ 
mental  recogni¬ 
tion. 


tjnitkd  states,  gether  a  bust  is  lauded  to  the  skies  and  told  he  is  a  genius. 

Common  people  love  the  common.  Uneducated  people  love 
the  literal  and  uneducated,  and  the  mass  of  our  people  are 
uneducated  in  art.  To  be  able  to  discriminate  truly  requires 
knowledge  as  well  as  natural  feeling.  We  have  the  last. 
We  have  not  the  first.  The  artist  is  seduced  and  flattered 
at  first  to  his  injury,  and  then  he  is  dropped  and  neglected. 

But  how  should  there  be  any  great  national  development 
in  art  when  the  nation  does  nothing  to  foster  it;  when  we 
are  wanting  in  national  schools,  academies,  and  galleries ; 
when  there  are  no  prizes  for  high  achievement,  no  honors 
to  bestow,  no  fit  recognition  of  excellence,  no  proper  means 
TheartistiOver-  of  study ;  when  the  artist  is,  to  a  certain  extent,  considered 
of  politics.  a  trifler,  outside  the  great  current  of  serious  life,  the  main 
course  of  which  sets  strongly  along  the  great  bed  of  politics 
and  business,  while  art  is  but  a  side  pool  of  dead  water  for 
holiday  loungers  ?  Out  of  such  elements  as  this  where  did 
In  the  best  days  of  Greece  the  artist  was 
In  the  Renaissance  he  was  a 


In  ancient  art  ever  flourish  ? 

Greece  the  artist 

was  in  front,  in  the  front  of  its  civilization. 

And  in  the  Re-  . 

naissance.  glory  and  a  power,  recognized  by  the  nation,  honored  by  the 

Embassies  were  confided 


Rubens,  the  am-  him . 
bassador. 


Our  artists  ex¬ 
patriated. 


world,  and  courted  by  the  great. 

Honors  were  poured  upon  him.  WThen  Kubens  was 
selected  out  of  all  the  world  to  be  sent  to  England  on  his 
embassy,  one  of  the  foreign  ambassadors,  entering  his  room, 
found  him  engaged  at  his  easel.  “Ah ! ”  he  exclaimed,  “  your 
excellence,  I  see,  amuses  yourself  with  painting.”  u  No,”  an¬ 
swered  Bubens,  “  I  amuse  myself  with  diplomacy.” 

In  consequence  of  the  present  state  of  things  in  America 
the  artist,  as  I  have  already  said — but  it  will  bear  repeating— 
is  forced  to  expatriate  himself  in  order  to  find  the  means  of 
No  national  gai-  study  and  the  development  of  his  powers.  We  have  no 

leries  for  study. 

great  national  galleries  for  study.  And  when  he  returns  to 
his  country  he  must  rely  on  private  patronage  in  order  to 
live,  and  on  private  collections  of  pictures  for  study.  And 
what  is  that  patronage  ?  Is  it  calculated  to  foster  in  him  a 
Our  patronage  strong  national  feeling  ?  Unfortunately,  our  connoisseurs  go 

of  foieign  ait.  ^  paris  for  their  pictures,  as  our  ladies  go  there  for  their 
dresses.  They  pay  enormous  prices  for  genre  pictures  of 
mere  temporary  fashion  by  distinguished  names,  while  their 
own  countrymen  in  the  next  street  are  treated  with  neglect 
and  indifference.  True,  there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule,  but 
To  what  kind  of  there  are  always  exceptions  to  all  rules.  As  for  the  nation, 

artists  are  gov-  . 

ernment  commis-  when  it  lias  commissions  to  give,  can  it  be  pretended  that 
they  are  given  as  they  should  be;  that  the  ablest  of  our 


artists  ordinarily  obtain  them ;  that  a 


high  and  educated 


FINE  ARTS:  'COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


Ill 


judgment,  founded  on  knowledge,  is  exercised  in  their  dis-  united  states. 
tributiou,  and  that  fair  play  is  given  to  the  artist? 

I  glance  at  these  considerations  as  accounting  for  the  un¬ 
doubted  want  of  national  character  seen  at  our  exhibition 
in  Paris.  I  think  I  am  safe  in  saying  that  this  absence  of  A  Foreign  tone  of 

.  American  pic- 

nationality  was  universally  felt  by  all  persons  who  visited  tures. 
our  department,  and  was  commented  upon  largely.  Our 
painters,  for  the  most  part,  paint — as  they  speak, — the  lan¬ 
guages  of  the  countries  where  they  study,  some  badly, 
some  well,  some  even  very  well,  but  always  with  a  foreign 
accent.  It  is  unpleasant  to  say  this,  but  the  truth  must  be 
told. 

In  landscape,  where  one  would  naturally  expect  to  find  Landscapes. 
many  characteristic  reports  of  our  country,  there  were  Limited  Tange 
scarcely  a  dozen  American  scenes ;  and  there  were  but  few  of  subject8' 
attempts  at  anything  historical,  religious,  powerful,  or  of 
the  highest  class  of  subject.  The  great  proportion  of  the 
pictures  were  of  genre  subjects,  with  a  considerable  number 
of  landscapes  of  foreign  countries,  and  a  few  portraits. 

Mr.  Dana,  to  whom  a  third-class  medal  was  awarded,  ex-  Dana, 
hibited  three  pictures  uLa  Plage  de  Dinar $,”  u  Solitude,”  and 
“A  Gale  of  Wind.”  All  these  pictures  are  strong  and  em¬ 
phatic,  and  executed  with  vigor  and  freedom.  The  gale  of 
wind  on  the  shore  with  a  group  of  men,  horses,  and  carts, 
hurrying  before  a  rising  storm,  is  spiritedly  rendered  and 
good  in  color.  The  u  Shore  at  Dinard,”  with  men  gathering 
sea- weed,  is  also  clever.  But  the  most  important  of  his 
pictures  is  u  Solitude,”  which  is  a  view  of  mid-ocean  at 
night,  with  heavy  warring  blue  billows,  and  a  broken  stormy 
sky  through  which  the  struggling  moon  casts  its  flash  upon 
the  dark  and  turbulent  waters ;  not  a  sail  or  boat  or  vestige 
of  humanity  is  there.  It  is  the  lonely,  desolate,  hungry 
solitude  of  ocean.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  simple  strong 
feeling  in  this  dreary  scene,  and  it  is  rendered  with  masterly 
and  poetic  sensibility. 

On  the  opposite  wall  hung  a  striking  picture,  bjT  Mr.  Bridgman. 
Bridgman,  representing  the  u  Funeral  of  a  Mummy.”  The 
center  of  the  composition  is  occupied  by  a  barge  on  which 
is  carried  a  catafalque  bearing  a  mummy  case,  at  the  side 
of  which  are  figures  of  mourners.  In  the  prow  of  the 
barge  is  an  altar  with  priests  and  musicians,  and  at  the 
stern  a  group  of  women  lamenting.  The  barge  is  towed 
by  a  boat  with  rowers,  and  another  barge  beyond  heads  the 
procession.  These  are  seen  dark  against  a  clear  sunset  sky 
and  rocky  hills  on  which  the  red  reflection  of  the  light  is 


112 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878, 


united  states,  cast,  glowing.  This  was  one  of  the  most  serious  and  impor¬ 
tant  pictures  in  the  American  section,  and  obtained  for  its 
author  a  medal  of  the  second  class.  It  is  carefully  painted 
with  much  study  in  all  its  details.  The  composition  is  good 
and  the  sentiment  well  felt.  Particularly  are  to  be  com- 

Bridgman.  mended  the  clear  translucent  sky,  the  sun-tinged  hills,  and 
the  pure  reflections  of  the  water.  It  is  entirely  of  the 
school  of  M.  Gerome.  Interesting  and  full  of  merit  as  it  is 
one  cannot  but  help  wishing  that  it  had  more  of  Mr.  Bridg¬ 
man’s  own  individuality  and  less  of  M.  Gerome’s.  When 
Mr.  Bridgman  shall  have  emancipated  himself  completely 
from  the  over-influence  of  his  master,  there  is  evidence  in 
this  picture  that  he  has  ability  to  achieve  even  more  admi¬ 
rable  results.  The  only  fault  that  we  find  in  it  is  that,  spirited 
and  clever  as  it  is,  it  has  not  yet  brokei)  free  from  the  tram¬ 
mels  of  its  school. 

shiriaw.  Mr.  W.  Shirlaw’s  u  Sheep  Shearing  in  Bavaria”  is  a  clever 

picture  of  the  Munich  school  representing  the  interior  of  a 
barn  with  men  and  women  shearing  sheep.  The  execution 
is  entirely  of  the  character  of  the  school  in  which  he  has 
studied  and  has  its  merits  and  its  deficiencies.  The  faces 
are  well  studied,  and  there  is  considerable  vigor  of  touch 
and  brush  work,  but  the  composition  is  confused,  and  there 
is  a  little  too  much  attempt  at  bravura  of  style,  without  the 
previous  study  to  justify  it. 

Lafarge.  Mr.  Lafarge’s  u  Valley  of  Paradise  at  Newport”  is  some¬ 

what  in  the  style  of  some  of  the  English  landscapes.  It 
represents  a  long  stretch  of  simple  unaccentuated  plain 
reaching  out  to  the  distant  and  dimly  seen  sea.  The  grada¬ 
tions  are  very  delicately  rendered,  and  the  wrork  is  simple, 
almost  native,  and  without  trickery  or  pretence  of  execution. 
With  a  lower  horizon  it  would  be  more  effective,  for  there 
is  scarcely  interest  enough  to  sustain  the  long  perspective 
of  grassy  plain,  but  the  picture  is  pleasing  and  honestly 
rendered,  and  has  much  that  is  attractive. 

Hamilton.  Mr.  Hamilton’s  “  Cerise ”  as  mere  technique  is  eminently 
clever — one  of  the  cleverest  in  all  this  section.  It  is  of  the 
French  school  of  execution,  and  of  the  worst  French  school 
in  sentiment.  It  is  irredeemably  vulgar.  It  represents  a 
cocotte  lolling  back  in  her  chair,  with  her  legs  exposed, 
laughing  with  a  dreadful  leer,  showing  her  teeth  and  play¬ 
ing  with  a  green  parrot.  On  the  floor  at  her  feet  lies  a  copy 
of  the  u  Journal  pour  rire ,”  admirably  imitated  with  a  half- 
colored  caricature,  and  champagne  bottles.  There  was  noth¬ 
ing  in  the  whole  Exhibition  so  daringly  low  and  vulgar  as 
this,  and  which  ventured  so  far  in  innuendo.  It  is  to  be 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


113 


hoped  that  the  talent  displayed  in  this  picture  will  be  for  UKITED  STATES- 
the  future  devoted  to  better  purpose. 

Mr.  Yedder  sent  three  pictures.  “The  Ancient  Ma-  vedder. 
donna”  representing  a  lady  looking  at  an  early  Italian 
panel,  which  is  carefully  finished,  rich  in  color,  and  pleasing. 

“Young  Marsyas”  is  represented  seated  on  the  ground, 
which  is  covered  with  snow,  and  playing  his  pipes,  while  a 
group  of  rabbits  is  gathered  round  him  and  listening.* 

This  picture  is  idyllic  in  sentiment  and  agreeably  composed, 
but  as  yet  it  is  only  finished  in  parts  and  deserves  to  be 
carefully  worked  out.  His  third  picture,  of  the  “Cumaean 
Sibyl,”  is  original  in  conception  and  striking  in  character. 

The  Sibyl,  a  brown  wild  figure  of  a  gypsy  character,  with 
her  hair  and  garments  blown  by  the  wind  is  seen  striding 
across  the  campagna  clasping  her  book  to  her  breast.  A 
fire  burns  behind  her,  the  smoke  of  w  hich  streams  across 
the  picture,  and  hills  with  snow  peaks  stretch  off  in  the  dis¬ 
tance,  flecked  with  spits  of  sunshine  and  rising  into  the  sky, 
that  is  strewn  with  massive  clouds. 

Mr.  Bacon’s  “Land !  Land !”  represents  a  scene  on  board  Bacon, 
a  steamer  when  land  is  descried,  and  the  passengers,  among 
whom  is  a  pretty  girl,  are  starting  up  to  catch  a  glimpse  of 
it.  The  incidents  are  well  given,  and  the  scene  is  natural. 

It  is  somewhat  of  the  character  of  subject  and  execution  of 
the  English  pictures  of  the  same  class. 

Among  the  few  pictures  representing  American  life  and 
character,  were  those  of  Mr.  Winslow  Homer,  which  from  Winslow  Hom 

'  0P 

this  very  circumstance  had  an  attraction.  They  were  “The 
Country  School  House,”  “The  Visit  of  the  Old  Mistress,” 

“Snapping  the  Whip,”  and  “Sunday  Morning  in  Virginia.” 

The  last  represents  a  group  of  little  negroes  reading  the 
bible.  “Snapping  the  Whip”  is  a  game  of  school  boys 
on  the  green.  The  other  titles  explain  themselves.  These 
are  all  small,  and  though  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  char¬ 
acter,  they  have  much  to  be  desired  in  execution. 

Mr.  Church’s  two  pictures,  “The Parthenon”  and  “Morn-  Church, 
ing  in  the  Tropics,”  are  not  good  specimens  of  his  talent, 
and  one  cannot  but  regret  that  he  should  not  have  been 
better  represented.  Those  who  remember  his  striking  rep¬ 
resentations  of  “Niagara”  and  of  the  “Northern  Seas”  will 
be  disappointed.  His  “Morning  in  the  Tropics”  is  luxuri¬ 
ant  but  feeble  in  its  idealism,  and  the  “Parthenon”  some- 

*  An  admirable  wood  engraving  of  this  picture  may  be  found  in 
“Scribner’s  Magazine”  for  June,  1879,  which  gives  the  true  quality  and 
feeling  of  this  picture,  and  is  in  itself  an  ample  answer  to  the  criticism 
on  it  in  “L’Art.” 

8  P  R 


114  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

united  states.  what  dry  and  thin.  Neither  has  the  vigor  that  we  should 


Richards. 

expect  from  Mr.  Church’s  brush. 

Mr.  W.  T.  Richards’s  landscapes  were  “In  the  Woods,” 
“The  Forest,”  and  “  Spring.”  The  first  shows  talent  and  is 
carefully  studied,  with  almost  painful  care  in  all  its  de¬ 
tails.  It  has  a  good  deal  of  merit,  but  the  feeling  as  well 
as  the  execution  is  a  little  dry  and  mechanical. 

Johnson. 

Mr.  Johnson’s  “Corn- Shucking”  has  something  spirited 
and  is  fresh  in  treatment.  It  is  an  American  scene  and  rep¬ 
resents  long  lines  of  laborers  seated  in  a  field  and  husking 
corn. 

Graham. 

Mr.  Graham’s  “View  in  a  Cemetery  in  California”  has  a 
good  deal  of  merit.  It  is  unpretending  in  character  and 
has  good  work  in  it. 

Weir. 

Mr.  Weir’s  “Forging  the  Shaft”  has  a  good  deal  of  force 
and  character  and  is  cleverly  rendered. 

The  “  Scene  on  the  Hudson  ”  is  a  very  clever  study  after 
the  French  school.  Gray  shelving  rocks  topped  with  large 
trees,  with  a  blue  sky  and  white  clouds,  rise  over  a  pool  of 
water  at  their  feet.  The  composition  is  good,  and  there  is 

Jones. 

spirit  in  the  execution.  Mr.  Jones’s  “  Return  of  the  Cows” 
is  also  a  careful  study  from  nature  of  a  landscape  in  Bre¬ 

Colman. 

tagne  with  considerable  vigor  and  truth.  Mr.  C.  G.  Colman’s 
“Ancient  and  Modern  Venice,”  representing  a  black  steamer 
on  the  lagunes  against  a  dim  misty  view  of  Venice,  is  pleas¬ 
ing  in  sentiment  and  tone,  and  his  “Panel  Decorated  with 
Flowers”  very  graceful  in  composition  and  decorative  in 

Bunce. 

color.  The  “  Entrance  to  Venice,”  by  Mr.  Bunce,  is  in  imi¬ 
tation  of  the  manner  of  Turner,  the  color  thickly  laid  on 
and  smoothed  over  as  with  a  palette  knife.  It  represents 
fishing  boats  with  colored  sails  on  a  still  sea  against  a  misty 
sky,  and  though  a  little  vague  and  undecided  in  touch  is 

Baton. 

sunny  and  pleasant  in  tone.  Mr.  W.  Eaton’s  “  Harvesters 
in  Repose”  is  a  reminiscence  in  style  and  intention  of  Jules 
Breton,  and  agreeable  in  composition  and  sentiment.  The 
field  is  half  reaped,  a  man  and  woman  are  under  a  haystack, 

Williams. 

and  the  mother  is  nursing  her  child.  Mr.  F.  D.  Williams’s 

Ward. 

uLa  Marne  ”  is  a  French  landscape  by  a  clever  student  in 
the  manner  of  his  master.  Mr.  E.  M.  Ward’s  “Venetian 

Ye  w  ell. 

Water  Carriers”  is  carefully  studied  and  shows  talent.  It 
is  a  little  too  much,  however,  on  the  same  plane  and  in  the 
same  tone,  and  the  absence  of  shadows  weakens  its  effect. 
His  “ Sabotier  ”  also  has  merit.  Mr.  Yewell  also  sent  some 

*  Quartley. 

careful  and  picturesque  characteristic  Oriental  scenes,  rep¬ 
resenting  the  “Mosque  of  Kait-Bey”  and  the  “Carpet  Ba¬ 
zaar  at  Cairo,”  very  faithfully  executed.  Mr.  Quartley’s 

FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


115 


“  Morning  Effect  in  the  Port  of  New  York7’  is  a  vigorous 
rendering  of  the  actual  scene.  Mr.  Tiffany’s  “  Duane  Street 
in  New  York  ”  represents  a  group  of  old  houses,  shops,  and 
booths  of  the  previous  century,  and  is  a  very  clever  stud}", 
executed  with  vigor  and  feeling. 

Mr.  Wylie’s  “  Mort  dHun  Chef  Vendeen ”  is  of  a  higher  grade 
of  subject,  and  has  strong  character  and  expression,  the 
promise  of  which  unfortunately  has  been  cut  off  by  the  recent 
death  of  the  artist. 

Mr.  Loomis’s  uUn  Delit  de  Chasse  en  1500”  is  also  clever, 
but  has  more  happy  reminiscences  than  originality.  Mr. 
Hovenden’s  “  Interior  in  Brittany  in  1793”  is  spirited,  well 
drawn,  and  carefully  painted.  It  represents  an  old  work¬ 
man  seated  on  a  table,  surrounded  by  his  family,  and  exam¬ 
ining  a  sword  and  glancing  down  along  the  edge  of  the 
blade  to  see  if  it  is  sharp  and  even.  There  is  a  good  deal 
of  character  in  his  head  and  action.  Mr.  Kensett’s  “  White 
Mountains  ”  is  not  a  good  specimen  of  his  work,  and  looked 
poor  and  thin  on  these  walls.  Mr.  Howland’s  uLe  Gue  dans 
la  Valleev  is  vague  and  obliterated,  and  somewhat  of  a 
reminiscence  of  Corot’s  manner.  Mr.  McEntee’s  “ Autumn 
Idyll”  and  “The  Fall  of  the  Leaves”  are  slight  and  sketchy, 
but  pleasing,  and  give  the  sentiment  of  this  season.  “A 
Cat,”  by  Mr.  #G.  B.  Butler,  is  remarkably  well  painted 
and  true  to  nature.  Mr.  Beckwith’s  “  Falconer”  is  bright 
and  good  in  color,  and  recalls  a  similar  subject  by  Couture. 
“  Hasheesh  Smokers,”  by  Mr.  E.  Benson,  is  an  Eastern  room 
with  great  arches  and  pillars,  misty  with  blue  smoke,  through 
which  a  shaft  of  light  piercing  the  roof  is  cast  upon  the  floor, 
while  the  hasheesh  smokers  in  picturesque  costume  are  lying 
about  or  seated  cross-legged  in  groups.  The  dim  smoky 
atmosphere  and  the  Oriental  costume  and  dreamy  luxury  of 
the  scene  are  well  given.  Mr.  S.  Colman’s  “  Train  of  Emi¬ 
grants  crossing  a  Torrent”  is  a  bit  of  Western  life  and 
scenery  which  is  interesting  in  subject  and  characteristic, 
but  a  little  monotonous  in  color  and  hard  in  execution.  Mr. 
Vinton’s  uFete  fflun  Paysan  Breton'1'’  is  fresh  in  color,  and 
though  sketchy,  is  spirited;  and  Mr.  Wilmath’s  “ Ingrati¬ 
tude  ”  is  clever.  Among  other  pictures  must  also  be  specially 
noted  Mr.  S.  B.  Gifford’s  “San  Giorgio  at  Venice;”  “My 
Daily  Visitor”  and  “A  Page,”  by  Mr.  Shade,  which  are  clever 
and  careful;  uAux  Courses ,”  by  Mr.  E.  L.  Henry,  represent¬ 
ing  a  drag  before  an  old  gable-roofed  country  house  in 
England;  Mr.  B.  S.  Gifford’s  “New  England  Cedars”;  Mr. 
Inness’s  “  St.  Peter’s  in  Borne,”  in  which  the  sky  is  particu¬ 
larly  good;  and  “The  Passing  Show,”  by  Mr.  J.  B.  Brown. 


UNITED  STATES. 

Tiffany. 


Wylie. 


Loomis. 

Hovenden. 


Kensett. 

Howland. 

McEntee. 

Butler. 

Beckwith. 

Benson. 


Colman. 


Vinton. 

Wilmath 

S.  R.  Gifford. 

Shade. 

Henry. 

R.  S.  Gifford. 
Inness. 


Brown. 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


116 


UNITED  STATES. 


Brown. 


Boit. 


Portraits. 


Healy. 

Porter. 

May. 

Vinton. 

Le  Clear. 

Schonborn. 

Sargent. 


Aquarelles. 


Abbey. 


Robbins. 

Tiffany. 


G-reenough. 


Richards. 


This  last  has  a  good  deal  of  humor  and  expression.  It  rep¬ 
resents  a  row  of  boys  looking  out  of  the  picture  at  some¬ 
thing  passing  which  excites  their  curiosity  and  merriment. 
The  action  and  expression  of  the  different  faces  is  good,  but 
they  all  seem  studies  from  the  same  boy,  which  is  to  be  re¬ 
gretted.  We  must  not  omit  also  to  mention  a  clever  and 
conscientious  landscape  of  “The  Beach  at  Villiers,”  by  Mr. 
Boit. 

Portraits. 

There  were  a  dozen  portraits,  among  which  are  to  be  noted 
Mr.  Healy’s  “Lord  Lyons,”  which  may  rank  among  his  best 
works,  a  striking  portrait  of  a  lady,  by  Mr.  Porter,  and 
Mr.  May’s  clever  head  of  “General  Tevis,”  and  a  vigorous 
head  by  Mr.  Vinton,  a  portrait  of  “Mr.  Parke  Godwin,”  by 
Mr.  T.  LeOlear,  a  portrait  by  Mr.  Shonborn,  and  a  portrait 
by  Mr.  Sargent,  showing  much  promise. 

Aquarelles . 

Among  the  water  colors  and  drawings  in  black  and  white 
may  be  mentioned  a  very  clever  aquarelle  by  Mr.  Abbey,  of 
a  “  Bureau  des  Diligences ,”  which  is  gray  and  subdued  in  tone, 
and  has  a  good  deal  of  quaintness  and  character.  The  figure 
of  the  woman  in  black,  with  a  large  straw  bonnet  and  brown 
shawl,  is  admirable.  The  “Farm-house  in  New  England,” 
by  Mr.  H.  W.  Robbins,  is  a  capital  rendering  of  a  homely 
country  house.  Mr.  Tiffany’s  two  aquarelles  are  strong  and 
clever,  particularly  that  of  the  “  Steps  of  the  Cathedral  of 
St.  Melaire  on  Market-day  at  Morlaix.”  The  crayon  por¬ 
trait,  by  Mr.  Greenough,  is  also  to  be  noted  as  drawn  with 
care  and  feeling.  The  “  Shore  at  Connecticut,”  by  Mr. 
Richards,  in  aquarelle ,  is  also  a  clever  work. 


SCULPTURE. 

FRANCE. 

sculpture.  Having  concluded  all  that  I  have  to  say  about  the  paintings, 
France.  the  remaining  countries  having  sent  nothing  which  demands 

‘  any  special  consideration,  I  therefore  pass  to  the  consid¬ 

eration  of  sculpture ;  and  in  this  department  of  the  fine  arts, 
the  palm  is  to  be  given  to  France.  Faint  as  the  reflex  is  of 
the  great  schools  of  ancient  sculpture,  there  is  still  a  striving 
here  after  some  at  least  of  their  qualities.  Their  essays  are 
more  serious,  on  the  whole,  than  those  of  other  countries ; 
their  subjects  less  corrupted  by  the  sentiment  of  genre ; 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


117 


there  is  often  careful  modeling  from  nature,  and  although  fk^ce. _ 

there  are  no  works  which  are  great,  there  are  many  re¬ 
spectable — some,  indeed,  which  are  excellent.  It  must  be 
confessed,  however,  that  there  is  a  want  of  dignity  and  careful  modei- 
high  purpose  almost  everywhere  visible,  as  well  in  France  as  iS|h  purpose.*  °f 
in  Italy  and  other  countries.  Attitudinizing,  affectation, 
and  excess  of  action  are  but  too  commonly  confounded  with 
grace  and  power,  and  there  is  a  general  absence  of  that 
repose  which  is  the  great  quality  of  all  the  best  work  of  Excess  0f  ac- 
the  ancients.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  careful  study  of  W£mt  of  re' 
the  model,  and  often  a  good  deal  of  finesse  of  execution.  The 
technique  is  good,  as  a  rule.  It  is  the  higher  excellences  Good  technique. 
which  are  lacking. 

Sculpture  in  the  highest  sense  is  a  serious  art,  and  demands 
simplicity,  concentration,  and  style.  It  is  also  a  limited  art, 
and  abides  in  strict  domains.  It  disdains  the  merely  pic-  t®°emamofsculP 
turesque ;  it  is  degraded  by  the  contact  of  genre .  The  charms 
of  color,  the  illusions  of  life  are  denied  to  it.  Its  province 
is  restricted  to  form,  and  its  dealings  should  be  with  the 
ideal.  No  imitations  of  the  common  and  the  actual,  however 
well  done,  will  satisfy  its  requisitions  ;  no  mere  copying  of  the 
model  will  suffice;  no  mere  excellences  of  execution  will  com¬ 
pensate  for  the* want  of  ideas.  It  cannot  pass  beyond  its 
limits  without  a  loss  of  character.  It  must  accept  its  restric¬ 
tions,  and  by  its  dignity,  its  grace,  its  simplicity,  its  power, 
justify  its  right  to  exist.  The  least  touch  of  affectation  or 
conscious  posing,  the  least  corruption  of  sentiment,  debases 
it.  With  its  feet  planted  on  the  real,  it  must  lift  its  head 
above  the  common  into  the  ideal.  Far  more  restricted  than  More  restricted 
painting  in  its  means,  in  its  demands  it  is  higher,  and  what 
is  often  charming  on  the  canvas  would  be  intolerable  in  the 
marble.  Its  aspect  is  calm  and  serious;  it  is  forbidden  it  to 
laugh,  and  almost  even  to  smile.  Its  spirit  is  tragical  and 
not  comical.  It  has  to  do  with  character,  not  anecdote.  It 
must  bear  itself  with  dignity,  or  it  becomes  contemptible. 

Its  sentiment  must  be  pure,  its  feeling  deep,  and  its  bounda¬ 
ries  are  power  on  the  one  side,  grace  and  beauty  on  the 
other.  This,  at  least,  is  sculpture  in  its  highest  sense.  In 
our  own  day  it  has  been  forced  to  other  service,  and  often  to 
a  humble  sphere,  but  always  with  a  loss  of  character.  It  Triviality 
really  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  trivial  things  of  common 
life,  and  when  it  enters  the  field  of  genre  it  abdicates  its 
highest  office,  and  must  necessarily  certainly  fall  below 
painting. 

In  the  highest  class  of  sculpture  there  was  scarcely  an  at-  Absence  of  high 

clo.&s  sculpture 

tempt  in  the  Paris  Exposition.  There  was  not  one  single 


than  painting. 


and 
inadmissi- 


118 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

work  of  a  great  purpose,  or  a  great  subject,  not  one  salient 
statue  embodying  a  grand  idea,  and  showing  the  high  water 
mark  of  its  powers.  But  again  there  were,  especially  in  the 
French  department,  several  which  are  sincere,  earnest,  clever, 
and  pleasing. 

The  most  serious  fault  to  be  found  with  French  sculpture 
Attitudinizing.  js  almost  invariable  attitudinizing,  consciousness,  and 
ti<mXCess  °f  ac* excess  °f  action.  It  wants  repose,  quiet.  It  is  contrived  and 
not  spontaneous.  It  attempts  to  impress  by  forced  gesticu¬ 
lation  and  contortion,  and  endeavors  to  compensate  for  in¬ 
tensity  by  exaggeration,  for  grace  by  affectation.  There  is 
almost  always  a  little  too  much.  It  cannot  be  calm  and 
serious,  and  self-contained.  It  seeks  to  surprise,  demands 
admiration,  insists  too  strongly,  poses,  and  constantly  over¬ 
steps  the  modesty  of  nature.  In  moments  of  passion  it  tears 
its  passion  to  rags.  It  will  not  be  quiet  and  simple  but 
fatigues  us  by  overstatement.  Its  very  grace  is  tormented, 
its  attitudes  sought  and  strained. 

Repetition  of  In  the  next  place,  it  lacks  what  is  an  essential  requisite  of 
a  great  work  of  sculpture — style.  It  repeats  too  faithfully 
the  model  and  cannot  free  itself  from  the  individual.  In  its 
imitations  the  modeling  is  often  admirable,  but  one  feels 
that  it  is  the  model  which  has  ruled  the  artist.  It  is  com¬ 
mon  to  suppose  that,  given  a  good  model  and  a  good  imita¬ 
tion  of  it,  the  result  will  be  necessarily  nature;  but  this  is 
a  great  mistake.  Nature  is  wider  and  embraces  more  than 
all  the  models  that  live.  Nature  is  not  “Lisette”  nor 
“Antoine,”  however  handsome  and  graceful  they  may  be, 
but  the  Protean  secret  that  is  hidden  unembodied  any¬ 
where  in  perfection  and  glances  through  all  the  possible 
forms  of  all  possible  Lisettes  and  Antoines,  and  it  is  this 
that  the  artist  is  to  seek  and  to  find,  taking  what  is  in  har¬ 
mony  with  his  dominant  idea,  what  comes  fitly  in  to  aid 
him  in  his  expression,  what  rhymes  and  coalesces  and 
Greek  sculp-  unifies  with  his  thought.  In  this  way  he  arrives  at  style, 
butere“reations.s  as  the  great  sculptors  of  Greece  did.  Their  work  was  no 
copy  of  any  particular  model,  but  a  re-creation  out  of  the 
knowledge  derived  from  numberless  models  and  from  a  con¬ 
stant  study  of  life  in  all  its  forms.  In  the  “Venus”  of 
Milo,  in  the  “  Theseus,”  there  is  style,  there  is  no  imita¬ 
tion  of  any  particular  person.  The  truth  is  that  the  model 
to  the  sculptor  should  be  his  dictionary  or  grammar  at  most. 
It  will  help  him  in  his  ignorance  and  keep  him  correct  in 
his  uses  of  form,  but  it  will,  if  he  be  not  careful,  strangle 
his  imagination,  and  seduce  him  out  of  the  ideal  and  true, 
into  the  particular  and  accidental.  It  will  not  do  to  copy 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


119 


any  portefaix,  however  strong,  and  call  liim  “  Hercules  ”  France. 
or  any  gentleman  and  call  him  “Apollo,”  or  any  gamin  from 
the  street  and  label  him  u  David,”  nor  will  any  amount  of 
merely  careful  study  of  any  individual  result  in  an  em- 
bodyment  of  an  idea  or  in  a  noble  style.  There  is  in  Scientific  stand  - 
modern  sculpture  altogether  too  much  of  this.  What  strikes  worttheantique 
one  in  the  antique  work  is  a  certain  scientific  standard  of 
form  and  temperament  and  established  rule  of  proportions, 
a  definite  and  decided  general  character  independent  of  in¬ 
dividual  peculiarities  and  accidents  of  the  model;  and  this 
is  precisely  what  we  lack  in  modern  sculpture — a  clear  and 
educated  style,  in  place  of  mannerism.  Style  is  of  course  a  style, 
difficult  thing  to  define  but  not  difficult  to  feel  when  it  is 
reached.  For  instance,  in  M.  Jules  Breton’s  “  Glaneuse ,” 
though  it  is  a  painting,  one  feels  a  certain  sentiment  of 
nobility  and  breadth  of  character  that  reproduces  a  feel¬ 
ing  akin  to  that  of  Greek  sculpture,  and  removed  from 
all  sense  of  mere  genre ,  while  in  the  statue  of  uLa  Bosee ,” 
by  M.  Captier,  which,  for  delicate  workmanship  and  care¬ 
ful  imitation  of  the  model,  is  one  of  the  most  admirable  of 
all  the  French  works  here  exhibited,  there  is  a  total  want  of 
style.  It  is  the  model  and  an  exceedingly  good  one,  but  it 
is  nothing  more  than  a  capital  study. 

There  is  still  another  particular  in  which  the  French  school  Careless  drap- 
is  very  careless  and  deficient,  and  that  is  in  its  draperies. 

Not  only  are  they  not  well  composed,  but  they  are  often 
quite  without  organization  and  study — mere  masses  without 
distinction  of  form  and  anatomy,  which  might  pass  in  a  pic¬ 
ture,  but  which  are  quite  unsatisfactory  in  marble.  It  is  to 
the  study  of  the  nude  that  they  have  given  their  best  efforts. 

Not  that  one  would  desire  the  kind  of  imitative  work  in 
stuffs  and  textures  which  forms  the  characteristic  feature 
of  the  Milanese  school,  but  there  is  a  happy  mean  which 
neither  holds. 

Let  us  now  leave  these  general  considerations  and  proceed 
to  particulars. 

In  the  three  halls  devoted  to  French  sculpture,  there  were  hails  of 

no  less  that  389  works,  executed  by  189  sculptors.  It  will, 
therefore,  plainly  be  impossible  to  do  more  than  glance  at  a 
few  of  the  principal  ones,  for  the  limits  of  this  paper  are 
necessarily  too  restricted  to  do  more.  This  large  number 
of  works  and  of  sculptors  plainly  indicates,  however,  the 
warm  interest  there  is  in  France  in  this  branch  of  art,  and 
the  large  patronage  that  is  given.  Italy  had  only  180  works 
of  116  sculptors.  One  of  the  most  important  works  in  the 


120 


FRANCE. 

Dubois. 


Ohapu. 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

French  section  was  by  M.  Paul  Dubois,  who  enjoys  in  France 
a  high  reputation,  both  as  a  painter  and  a  sculptor.  It  was 
the  monument  to  “  General  de  Lamoriciere,”  destined  for  the 
cathedral  of  Nantes.  This  represents  the  dead  hero  lying 
extended  on  a  catafalque  under  a  canopy,  at  the  four  corners 
of  which  are  seated  figures  representing  “  Military  Courage,” 
“Charity,”  “Faith,”  and  “Meditation” — a  queer  combina¬ 
tion,  reminding  us  a  little  of  the  figures  in  “  The  Groves  of 
Blarney.”*  The  architectural  parts  are  designed  by  M.  L. 
F.  P.  Boitte.  The  figures  are  by  M.  P.  Dubois.  This  is  a 
serious  work,  showing  talent  and  .deserving  of  much  praise, 
but  it  cannot  be  said  to  be  particularly  original  in  con¬ 
ception  or  careful  in  treatment.  The  statues  are  boldly 
modeled  but  quite  unfinished,  and,  indeed,  generally  very 
sketchy,  and  they  lack  any  high  motive  and  style.  “Char¬ 
ity,”  a  half-draped  figure  holding  two  nude  infants  in  her 
arms,  is  well  composed  and  tender  in  sentiment,  and  is  the 
happiest  of  the  four  in  conception.  But  it  is  not  Charity. 
It  has  nothing  ideal  in  its  character.  It  is  a  Breton  peas¬ 
ant  with  her  two  children,  and  the  coarse  drapery  which 
envelops  her  lower  limbs  is  rustic,  and  altogether  too  care¬ 
less  and  unfinished.  It  would,  indeed,  seem  as  if  the  artist 
had  aimed  at  carelessness  of  treatment  and  surface,  for  the 
figure  is  really  only  a  large  and  clever  sketch.  “  Military 
Courage,”  which  is  a  figure  in  helmet  and  armor,  is  too 
jdainly  a  reminiscence  of  the  “Lorenzo  de  Medici”  by 
Michel  Angelo  called  uIl  Penseroso .”  “  Meditation  ”  is  rep¬ 
resented  by  an  old  man,  nude  to  the  waste,  leaning  on  a 
book.  This,  again,  has  nothing  ideal  in  its  character.  It 
is  cleverly  composed,  has  a  good  deal  of  expression,  and  is 
well  modeled,  but  it  is  an  academic  study  of  the  model,  and 
is  not  spontaneous  in  pose.  It  is  any  old  man.  The  least 
good  of  all  is  “  Faith.”  These  figures  are  none  of  them  in 
the  pure  school  of  sculpture.  Their  inspiration  and  their 
execution  is  rather  pictorial  than  sculptural. 

M.  Chapu’s  “ Jeanne  WArc  a  Domremy ”  represents  her 
in  her  laced  corsage  and  peasant  dress,  kneeling,  with  her 
hands  stretched  down  and  clasped  at  her  knees.  There  is 
great  feeling  in  this  figure.  The  expression  of  the  head 
and  the  modeling  of  the  arms  are  admirable.  There  is  seri¬ 
ousness,  there  is  character,  there  is  sentiment.  The  draper¬ 
ies  and  the  lower  part  of  the  figure  leave  much  to  be  desired, 
but  the  earnestness  and  unaffectedness  of  the  work  are 

*“A11  heathen  gods  And  Nebuchadnezzar, 

And  nymphs  so  fair  ,•  All  standing  naked 

Bold  Neptune,  Csesar,  In  the  open  air!” 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STOR\. 


121 


greatly  to  be  praised.  M.  Chapu’s  statue  of  “De  Berryer” 
is  by  no  means  so  liappy,  either  in  conception  or  in  execu¬ 
tion.  The  gesture  is  theatric,  the  robes  not  well  disposed. 
He  has  one  hand  on  his  heart,  and  the  other  thrown  out  in 
declamation.  The  allegorical  figures  of  “  Eloquence ”  and 
“  Fidelity,”  which  accompany  it,  are  not  worthy  of  his  talent. 
They  are  common  in  their  pose,  coarse  in  their  execution, 
and  strangely  incorrect  in  their  anatomy.  The  figures  for 
the  monument  to  Schneider  are  better  conceived  and  exe¬ 
cuted;  the  female  figure,  seated  on  the  plinth  of  the  monu¬ 
ment,  is  pointing  the  attention  of  a  boy  beside  her  to  the  statue 
above.  Both  are  in  the  costume  of  to-day,  as  worn  by  the 
operatives  and  women  of  the  place  and  the  foundry.  The 
boy  is  nude  to  his  waist,  and  his  feet  are  in  sabots.  The 
woman  is  in  a  simple  peasant’s  dress.  Here  there  is  con¬ 
centration  and  simplicity,  and  the  work  is  eminently  de¬ 
serving  of  praise. 

M.  Mercie’s  “ David”  is  a  clever  statue,  which  had  a  great 
success  when  first  exhibited  and  justifies  his  reputation.  It 
was  his  first  and  perhaps  is  his  best  work.  It  is  a  bronze 
figure  of  a  nude  youth,  with  his  head  swathed  in  a  hand¬ 
kerchief,  who  is  in  the  act  of  sheathing  his  sword  after  kill¬ 
ing  Goliath.  The  head  of  the  giant  is  on  the  base,  and  one 
foot  is  placed  on  it.  The  pose  has  something  a  little  theatric 
(which  we  must  always  expect  in  French  sculpture),  but  there 
is  spirit  and  originality  in  the  design  and  careful  study  in  the 
workmanship.  It  was  decidedly  one  of  the  best  figures  in  the 
section.  We  must,  however,  confess  that  the  gamin  idea  of 
David,  which  seems  to  prevail  everywhere  in  France,  is  not 
only  far  from  satisfactory  in  itself  or  true  to  history,  but  has 
been  utterly  worn-out  by  repetition.  How  many  Davids 
were  in  this  Exposition,  and  not  one  who  was  not  a  gamin  ! 
u  Gloria  Victis ,”  which  is  a  later  and  far  more  ambitious  work, 
is  full  of  flutter,  display,  and  excess  of  action,  and  is  defi¬ 
cient  in  sobriety,  simplicity,  and  that  self-restraint  which 
are  essential  to  a  great  work  in  sculpture.  There  is  talent, 
undoubtedly,  but  not  happily  directed. 

M.  Falguiere  sent  two  works,  “  Tarcisius ,  Martyr  Chre¬ 
tien ,”  and  uUn  Vainqueur  aux  Combats  de  Coqs .”  Both  these 
statues  are  very  clever.  Tarcisius  is  a  youthful  figure,  full 
of  sentiment  and  feeling  in  face  and  attitude.  The  u  Vain¬ 
queur  aux  Combats  de  Coqsv  is  a  naked  youth,  running  along 
with  cocks  on  his  bent  right  arm,  and  with  his  left  arm  ex¬ 
tended,  snapping  his  fingers.  It  is  light  in  figure  and'spirited 
in  action,  but  it  has  nothing  in  common  with  the  Greek 
spirit. 


FRANCE. 


Chapu. 


Mercia. 


Falguiere 


122 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  3878. 


FKANCE. 

Vauthier. 


Ding. 


De  Yasselot. 


Delaplanclie. 


Baujault. 


M.  Moreau  Vauthier  sent  eight  works.  His  u  Petit  Bu- 
veur n  is  simple,  natural,  and  without  affectation.  It  rep¬ 
resents  a  boy  kneeling  and  filling  his  cup  at  a  fountain  to 
drink.  The  theme  is  not  new,  but  it  is  agreeably  rendered. 

There  was  another,  u Enfant  a  la  Source  f  in  bronze,  by  M. 
Ding,  which  was  one  of  the  simplest  and  best  composed  stat¬ 
ues  in  the  whole  Exhibition.  The  modeling  is  good,  the 
action  natural  and  without  affectation,  and  the  composition 
admirable.  It  has  a  good  deal  of  the  antique  spirit  in  it. 

Another  figure,  which  is  attractive  for  its  simplicity  and 
unconsciousness,  is  the  u  Ohloe,”  by  M.  Marquet  de  Vasselot. 
It  is  a  young  girl,  quite  nude,  seated  and  looking  downside- 
ways,  while  she  clasps  one  knee,  which  is  raised.  It  is  quite 
pure  in  sentiment  and  removed  from  the  feeling  of  the 
model,  and  the  action  is  graceful.  It  is  not  (as  so  many 
statues  here  are)  consciously  nude,  nor  does  it  know  we  are 
looking  at  her,  and  in  the  present  state  of  art  this  is  a  rare 
and  exceptional  quality. 

M.  E.  Delaplanche  sent  six  works.  His  u  Sainte  Agnds” 
is  charming  in  sentiment  and  tender  in  feeling.  The  girl 
saint  holds  a  lamb  in  her  crossed  arms  pressed  against  a 
palm  branch  to  her  breast.  The  composition  is  pleasing, 
and  there  is  great  sweetness  of  character,  refinement,  and 
simplicity.  The  least  good  part  of  the  statue  is  the  drapery, 
which  is  a  little  clumsy.  u  Education  Maternellef  by  this 
sculptor,  is  also  simple  and  good  in  action,  save  that  the 
head  of  the  mother  seems  to  turn  the  wrong  way.  He  also 
sent  uLa  Musiquef  statue ,  bronze  argente ,  representing  a 
woman  playing  on  a  violin.  The  upper  part  of  this  statue 
is  expressive,  but  the  execution  is  very  incomplete,  and  the 
draperies  rude.  His  uLe  Message  d? Amour”  is  well  modeled, 
but  the  sentiment  is  fade  and  insipid,  and  the  attitude  con¬ 
scious.  It  represents  a  woman  quite  nude  (a  model)  hold¬ 
ing  a  dove  with  both  hands  up  to  her  ear. 

M.  Baujault’s  uLe  Premier  Miroirf  in  marble,  is  a  thin 
girl,  at  the  half-finished  stage  of  puberty,  looking  down  in 
the  water  and  making  her  toilet.  The  age  is  not  a  spec¬ 
ially  pleasing  one,  \nd  all  the  characteristics  of  it  are  strongly 
dwelt  upon.  In  pose  it  is  rather  stiff  and  over-smooth  in 
surface,  and  what  can  be  more  empty  and  worn-out  than 
such  a  theme.  Still  it  had  a  success  when  first  exhibited  at 
the  Salon.  Of  late  the  unperfected  forms  of  adolescence 
have  been  very  much  repeated  in  French  statuary,  and 
particularly  by  the  Taenger  school,  who  have  affected  some¬ 
what  the  dry,  lean  manner  of  Donatello  and  the  early  Tuscan 
school,  as  the  English  painters  have  the  forms  of  Carpaccio 
<  and  Botticelli.  But  we  have  had  quite  enough  of  this. 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


123 


M.  Aizelin’s  u Orphee  descendant  aux  Enfers ,”  though  it  is 
not  Orpheus,  is  a  quiet  statue,  well  modeled  and  without 
exaggeration,  and  has  something  almost  antique  in  its  in¬ 
tention.  M.  Albert-Lefeuvre’s  u Jeanne  d? Arc ,  Enfant ,  entend 
Lses  Toil v7V  has  much  sentiment  and  speciality  of  thought. 
Jeanne  is  listening,  intently  listening,  to  the  airy  voices  in 
the  void,  forgetful  of  all  else,  and  this  expression  and  char¬ 
acter  is  well  rendered.  M.  Allans  uEnfant  des  Abruzzesf  a 
figure  of  a  boy  lifting  ajar,  is  also  clever.  M.  Hiolle’s  uArion” 
is  well  composed,  and  though  it  is  a  little  frigid  in  sentiment, 
has  much  merit,  and  is  in  a  good  school.  M.  Hoursolle’s 
u  Cette  Age  est  sans  Pitie”  is  modeled  with  great  care,  and  is 
an  admirable  study  from  nature.  It  is  a  nude  boy  lying  on 
his  back,  and  holding  up  in  his  right  hand  a  bird  and  with 
the  other  he  has  an  instrument  to  torture  him.  Mr.  Bec- 
quet’s  u Ismael  ”  is  also  a  nude  boy  on  his  back,  with  his 
mouth  open  and  his  eyes  closed  and  arms  thrown  back, 
while  beside  him  is  his  empty  flask.  This  is  well  modeled, 
but  contorted  in  pose.  M.  Lafrance’s  uSt.  Jean ”  is  a 
queer  lean  boy,  with  a  drum-like  belly,  holding  up  both  his 
hands,  intentionally  awkward,  and  apparently  screaming. 
This  shows  a  determination  at  all  cost  to  be  original,  but 
one  would  be  sorry  to  have  such  an  idea  of  St.  John.  M. 
Montague’s  uMercure  s’ arreted  trancher  la  Teted’  Argus”  has 
considerable  merit  in  its  composition,  but  is  plainly  a  remi¬ 
niscence  of  Thorwaldsen’s  treatment  of  the  same  subject. 
M.  Guglielmo’s  u  Un  Suivant  de  Bacchus which  represents 
a  Faun  dancing,  is  a  clever  and  spirited  bronze,  with  much 
animation  of  movement — perhaps  a  little  too  much.  uLa 
Jeunesse  d’Aristotef  by  M.  Degeorge,  is  clever  in  compo¬ 
sition,  simple  in  its  attitude,  and  well  treated.  It  represents 
a  young  Greek  leaning  back  in  a  chair,  cross-legged,  with 
his  head  propped  against  his  hand,  and  holding  in  his  lap  a 
scroll.  Among  other  statues  to  be  noted  are  “Mercury,” 
by  M.  Delorme ;  u  Jeune  Faune  jouant  avec  un  Chevreauf 
by  M.  Bartlielemy;  “  Meleagref  by  M.  Bey  lard ;  “  Reverie 
d’ Enfant  f  by  M.  Chabrie ;  and  uLe  Bohemien  d  la  Source  f 
by  M.  A.  Boss,  which  has  a  good  deal  of  cleverness; 
UE Amour  Pique  f  by  M.  Idrac,  which,  though  excessive  in 
action  and  not  very  happy  in  theme,  indicates  talent. 

M.  Schcenewerk  sent  four  statues:  uLa  Jeune  Tarentinef 
uJeune Filled  la  Fontaine ,”  u Hesitation ,”  and  uMime  Domp- 
teur .”  The  first  illustrates  these  lines  of  ( )henier  : 

“Elle  a  v6cu,  myrto,  la  jeune  Tarentino! 

Son  beau  corps  a  rou!6  sous  la  vague  marine” — 


FRANCE. 

Aizelin. 

Albert-Lefeuv- 

re. 


Allar. 

Hiolle. 


Hoursolle. 


Becquet. 


Lafrance. 


Montagne. 


Guglielmo. 


Degeorge. 


Delorme. 
Barth61emy 
Beylard  et  al. 


Schcenewerk. 


124 


FRANCE. 


Sehoenewerk. 


Captier. 


Carnbos. 


Chatrousse. 


Delaplanche. 

Amy. 


Cahet. 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

and  is  simply  a  nude  woman,  lying  in  an  extremely  contorted 
attitude,  her  hips  forming  the  highest  point  of  the  statue, 
while  the  head  on  one  side  and  the  legs  on  the  other  are 
thrown  down  in  a  steep  slope.  The  attitude  is  painful,  if 
possible,  and  the  sentiment  cold,  and  the  idea,  if  there  be 
any  idea  beyond  that  of  a  naked  body,  quite  unexpressed. 
uLaJeune  Fille  a  la  Fontaine”  is  far  more  pleasing  in  every 
way.  It  is  a  nude  figure,  with  both  legs  stiffly  together, 
who  is  bending  forward  to  fill  a  cup  at  a  stone  fountain. 
It  is  w;ell  modeled  and  has  a  certain  grace,  but  it  is  the 
movement  of  a  woman  who  has  not  been  used  to  be  without 
her  clothes,  and  feels  her  nakedness.  “ Hesitation”  is  the 
old  theme  of  a  nude  female  figure  dipping  her  foot  into  a 
stream.  Whatever  merits  these  works  of  M.  Sehoenewerk 
may  have — and  they  certainly  have  merits  of  technical  exe¬ 
cution — they  cannot  be  considered  as  very  original  in  sub¬ 
ject.  Of  some  higher  character  and  quality  is  the  uMime 
Bompteur”  which  represents  a  mime  taming  a  leopard,  and 
is  very  clever  and  spirited,  and  alone  deserves  the  medal 
he  received. 

This  overdoing  of  every  action,  which  is  so  prevalent  in 
France,  finds  its  exponent  in  a  remarkable  degree  in  the 
“Tirnon  of  Athens”  and  “Mucins  Scaevola”  of  M.  Captier. 
There  is  no  common  sense  in  them.  Ho  pretense  to  repre¬ 
sent  the  possible  thing.  Every  muscle  is  strained,  the  brows 
are  knitted,  the  toes  clenched,  and  in  a  word  the  whole 
action  is  extravagantly  contorted  and  over-emphasized  and 
exaggerated.  uLa  Femme  Adulter e,”  by  M.  Carnbos,  sins 
also  by  this  excess  of  action,  though  by  no  means  to  the 
same  extent;  the  statue  is,  however,  clever,  and  specially 
to  be  commended  for  its  draperies.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  uLes  Crimes  de  la  Guerre ,”  by  M.  Chatrousse,  which  is 
essentially  pictorial  and  not  sculptural  either  in  subject  or 
in  treatment,  and  as  well  as  of  Fve  apres  le  Peeke”  by  M. 
Delaplanche,  and  uLe  Remords ,”  by  M.  Amy,  in  which  the 
action  is  strained  and  the  passion  external.  It  is  impossible 
to  produce  the  effect  of  power  and  intensity  by  this  means. 
Ho  matter  even  whether  a  pose  is  natural,  it  must  also  seem 
natural,  nay  to  a  certain  extent  even  necessary,  but  never 
sought.  Over-expression  and  over-statement  always  foil 
their  own  purpose. 

u  1871,”  by  M.  Cabet,  is  a  draped  seated  figure,  half  veiled, 
bent  over,  and  leaning  on  her  hand.  Here  much  more  care 
than  is  common  in  French  sculpture  is  paid  to  the  disposi¬ 
tion  and  development  of  the  draperies ;  and  the  intention  of 
the  figure,  which  is  mourning  over  the  sorrows  of  that  year, 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


125 


is  serious  and  good.  It  does  not  quite  reach  the  high  mark 
aimed  at,  but  the  aim  is  good  and  the  work  good. 

Two  painters  by  profession,  M.  Gustave  Dore  and  M. 
Gerdme,  exposed — the  first  an  elaborate  vase  and  the  other  a 
colored  figure  of  a  gladiator.  These  are  both  essentially 
pictorial,  and  not  sculpturesque.  M.  Dord’s  vase,  or  rather 
gigantic  flask,  is  encrusted  over  with  nude  figures  in  every 
variety  of  attitude,  male  and  female  cupids,  nymphs,  and 
Yenuses,  all  in  very  high  relief,  indeed  almost  and  often 
quite  relieved  from  the  ground.  There  is  a  great  deal  of 
device- work  on  this,  and  it  shows  great  facility  of  invention ; 
but  it  is  purely  decorative  in  character  and  has  a  confused 
effect  as  a  whole.  Mr.  Gerome’s  u  Gladiators ”  is  a  group 
of  clumsy  figures,  so  overcharged  with  armor,  helmets,  leg¬ 
gings,  and  accouterments  of  the  arena,  that  little  else  than 
these  is  to  be  seen.  The  action  is  theatric  and  the  propor¬ 
tions  and  composition  unsatisfactory.  They  might  stand 
very  well  for  a  group  in  a  picture  of  a  Roman  arena,  with 
all  the  embellishment  of  color  and  material,  but  as  sculp¬ 
ture  it  is  a  failure.  Why  is  the  principal  figure  cased  in 
chain- mail? 

M.  Guillaume’s  three  works,  uSt.  Louis ”  in  terra  cotta 
and  his  two  terminal  figures  of  “Anacreon”  with  Cupid 
in  his  arms,  and  “  Sappho,”  are  anything  but  happy  illus¬ 
trations  of  his  talent.  Neither  the  conception  nor  the 
modeling  either  of  figure  or  draperies  can  be  commended. 
His  u  Mariage  Romain ”  is  a  work  of  higher  character. 
Two  figures,  entirely  draped,  are  seated  holding  each  other’s 
hands  and  waiting  for  the  priestly  benediction.  There  is 
gravity  and  dignity  here,  and  though  the  modeling  is  not 
what  one  would  wish,  yet  the  subject  is  serious  and  the  con¬ 
ception  simple  and  impressive.  His  “  Orpheus  ”  shows  a 
lack  of  high  ideal  power,  and  has  a  touch  of  sentimentalism 
in  expression  and  of  the  model  in  execution. 

“  Trossulus,  Petit  Maitre  de  la  Decadence  Romaine ,”  by  M. 
Eude,  with  a  little  dog  under  his  arm,  is  spirited  and  has 
humor  of  character,  and  so  has  “  Tin  Secret  dTen  Haut ,”  by 
M.  H.  Moulin,  which  represents  Hermes  with  his  cadu- 
ceus  whispering  into  the  ear  of  Priapus  (a  terminal  figure) 
some  scandalous  jest  or  anecdote.  This  is  indeed  carrying 
sculpture  out  of  its  proper  province.  Both  of  these  works  are 
essentially  French,  and  Trossulus  and  Hermes  both  French¬ 
men  of  the  Directory  period.  They  have  the  affected  and 
fantastic  manner  that  then  was  in  vogue,  and  Mercury 
handles  his  caduceus  as  if  he  understood  u  the  fine  con¬ 
duct  of  a  dandled  cane.”  But  worse  than  this  is  the  low 


FRANCE. 


Dore. 

G6rdme. 


Guillaume. 


Eude. 

Moulin 


126 


FRANCE. 


Marl  Bertaux. 


Noel, 


Croisy. 


Lanson. 

Vasselot. 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

innuendo  of  this  group,  which  is  thoroughly  unfit  for  the 
dignity  of  marble. 

Madame  Bertaux  sent  a  uJeune  Fille  an  Bain?  As  for 
the  most  part  nobody  is  naked  now  unless  one  goes  to  the 
bath,  we  have  a  constant  run  upon  this  subject,  and  when¬ 
ever  an  artist  wishes  to  represent  the  nude,  and  has  no 
special  inspiration  we  are  sure  to  have  either  “Venus  with  a 
Cupid,”  an  “Eve,  ”  or  “  a  woman  at  the  bath,”  coming  out, 
going  in,  dipping  her  foot  or  her  hand  into  the  water,  pre¬ 
paring  for  it,  afraid  of  it,  or  looking  at  herself  reflected  in  it — 
all  these  studies  may  be  classed  together  as  studies  of  the 
nude,  and  commonplace  in  conception,  and  with  little  that 
is  original  or  interesting.  There  are,  of  course,  a  number 
here ;  there  always  are  everywhere.  Madame  Bertaux,  how¬ 
ever,  has  struck  a  theme  which  is  a  little  out  of  the  common. 
Her  uJeune  Fille ”  is  half  lying  down  with  her  legs  gathered 
up  under  her  and  straining  her  head  over  her  shoulder  to 
see  some  queer  animal  that  is  crawling  on  her  back,  and  to 
this  is  appended  in  illustration  these  lines  of  Victor  Hugo : 

“Elle  est  1&,  sons  la  feuill^e, 
fiveill^e 

An  moindre  bruit  de  malheur, 

Et  rouge,  pour  une  mouche 
Qui  la  touche, 

Comme  une  grenade  en  fleur.”  (“ Les  Orientates .”) 

Nothing  can  be  more  French  than  these  lines,  but  they 
seem  rather  to  point  to  a  genre  picture  with  color,  than  to  a 
treatment  in  marble. 

The  large  group  of  “Borneo  and  Juliet,”  by  M.  T.  P 
Noel  represents  Borneo  stretched  out  stiff  and  dead,  and 
Juliet  kneeling  with  her  head  down  to  his,  and  naked  to 
the  waist.  This  subject  is  not  very  happily  treated,  and 
even  if  it  were,  such  dimensions  are  altogether  dispropor¬ 
tionate  to  it.  What  might  be  striking  in  a  small  picture 
becomes  empty  in  a  large  group  in  marble.  The  composi¬ 
tion  seen  from  some  points  of  view,  and  particularly  from 
behind  Juliet,  is  unfortunate.  M.  Croisy  has  also  given  us 
in  life  size  the  incident  of  lLPaul  Malatesta  et  Frangoise  de 
Rimini ,  ”  in  respect  of  which  the  same  remarks  might  be 
made.  It  is  not  a  subject  for  sculpture,  save,  perhaps,  in 
small  dimensions,  and  it  is  more  fitted  for  painting. 

Among  other  works  which  must  be  noted  for  their  merit 
are  the  uPoete ,”  by  M.  Lanson,  and  the  “Dead  Christ,”  by 
M.  de  Vasselot. 

Two  colossal  works  also  demand  attention:  “The  Be- 
public,”  by  M.  Clesinger,  which  is  placed  in  the  open  air  and 


Clesinger. 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


127 


was  inaugurated  after  the  opening  of  the  exhibition  with 
august  ceremonies,  is  a  figure  seated  on  a  square  block, 
clad  in  breastplate  and  helmet,  with  flowing  draperies 
falling  from  the  shoulders  and  covering  the  legs,  and  rest¬ 
ing  the  left  hand  upon  a  tablet,  on  which  is  inscribed  u  Re 
publique  Francaise — Constitution ,  25  Fevrier ,  1875,”  while  the 
right  hand,  extended  to  the  knee,  holds  straight  up  a  sword. 
There  is  nothing  either  new  or  striking  in  this  figure.  Its 
proportions  are  unfortunate.  The  head  is  too  large,  the 
figure  short  and  stumpy,  and  there  is  a  want  of  dignity  and 
spirit  as  well  as  height  of  stature.  The  composition  and  ar¬ 
rangement  of  draperies  is  not  happy,  and  the  total  effect  is 
unsatisfactory. 

Another  colossal  work  is  the  head  of  “Liberty,”  by  M. 
Bartholdi,  which  was  exhibited  in  the  gardens.  This  is  the 
head  of  the  figure  which  it  is  proposed  to  place,  when  com¬ 
pleted,  in  the  harbor  of  Yew  York,  as  a  pharos,  symbol¬ 
izing  Liberty  enlightening  the  world.  Of  course  a  head  of 
such  colossal  proportions  is  seen  to  disadvantage  without 
its  proper  height,  but  seen  as  it  is  now  placed,  it  seemed 
rather  empty  of  character  and  of  modeling.  It  had  the 
stereotyped  frown  of  the  academy.  The  hair,  too,  was 
scarcely  expressed  at  all,  except  as  one  rounded  mass,  and, 
in  a  word,  it  left  much  to  be  desired.  In  another  part  of 
the  exhibition  the  entire  figure  is  shown  in  fairly  large 
proportions,  so  that  one  can  judge  of  it  in  the  whole  as  a 
composition.  The  straightly  thrust  up  arm  is  not  agree¬ 
able,  and  the  action  of  the  figure  is  strained  and  theatrical. 
In  so  colossal  a  statue  one  must  not  seek  for  charms  of  de¬ 
tail.  It  is  the  total  mass  only  which  will  impress,  and 
therefore  it  is  of  greatest  necessity  that  the  silhouette  on 
all  sides  should  be  harmonious  and  well  composed.  If  this 
fails,  all  fails,  and  here  it  is  precisely  that  the  figure  does 
not  answer  what  one  could  wish.  Whether  this  figure, 
made  as  it  is  intended,  will  be  solid  enough  to  resist  the 
force  of  a  violent  gale  when  finally  placed  is  a  question 
upon  which  I  do  not  enter,  but  it  is  one  which  demands  most 
serious  consideration. 

Among  the  figures  and  groups  of  animals  and  men,  there 
are  some  which  are  striking,  and  especially  are  to  be  com¬ 
mended  those  of  M.  Cain,  representing  a  lion  and  lioness 
disputing  for  a  wild  boar,  and  a  combat  of  tigers,  which  show 
great  vigor  and  mastery.  M.  Mene  also  sent  a  number, 
which  exhibit  his  well-known  cleverness  in  the  treatment  of 
animals,  and  there  are  colossal  figures  in  the  gardens.  The 


FRAXCE. 


Clesinger. 


Bartholdi. 


Cain 


M£ne. 


128 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


FRANCE. 

Rouillard. 

Fremiet. 

Jacquemait. 

Portrait-statues. 


Doublemard. 

Houssin. 

Grauthorin. 

Moreau-V  auth- 
ier  et  al. 


Bas-reliefs. 

Medals. 


ITALY. 


11  Ox,”  by  M.  Cain,  the  “ Horse,”  by  M.  Rouillard,  the  “Ele¬ 
phant,”  by  M.  Fremiet,  and  the  “  Rhinoceros,”  by  M.  Jacque¬ 
mait. 

There  was  also  a  considerable  number  of  portraits,  statues, 
and  busts,  many  of  which  are  clever.  The  only  question 
with  many  of  them  is  whether  they  do  not  show  too  strong 
a  determination  on  the  part  of  the  artist  to  be  clever  at  all 
hazards,  and  to  insist  on  your  notice.  The  busts  are  gen¬ 
erally  free  in  their  execution  and  spirited ;  so  free  that  they 
are  often  intentionally  and  pretentiously  careless  of  detail 
and  careful  study,  and  seek  only  to  produce  an  effect — so 
spirited  at  times  that  they  run  into  excess  of  action  and  ex¬ 
pression.  Among  those  which  are  specially  to  be  noted  are, 
a  bust  in  terra  cotta  by  M.  Doublemard  of  UM.  Coquelin ,  Cadet 
de  la  Comedie  Frangaise ,  dans  le  Role  de  Thomas  Diafoirus 
dans  LLe  Malade  Imaginaire\v  which  is  spirited  and  natural; 
uLe  Baron  Zangiacomi ,”  by  M.  Houssin,  which  is  lifelike  and 
clever ;  some  by  M.  Gautherin,  and  especially  a  charmin  g  bust 
in  terra  cotta  of  uMlle.  M.  MP ;  those  by  M.  Moreau- Yauthier 
of  “M.  Gosselin,”  “M.  Laurens,”  and  “M.  Langlois”;  the 
portrait  of  “  General  de  Wimpffen ,”  by  M.  F.  Richard,  and 
“Cardinal  Guibert”  among  others  by  M.  Oliva;  “Georges 
Sand,”  by  M.  Millet;  several  by  M.  Paul  Dubois,  and  M.  G. 
Crank,  and  M.  E.-L.  Barrias,  and  among  those  by  the  last 
artist,  one  in  especial  of  “  Madame  Olivier ,”  with  both  hands 
holding  gloves;  some  by  M.  Guillaume,  and  specially  the 
“Archbishop  of  Paris;”  UM.  Prugneanx ,”  by  M.  Crauk; 
uMadame  Doche ,”  by  M.  Delaplanche;  and  uMlle.  Leblanc ,” 
by  M.  Noel;  several  by  M.  Yasselot;  and  UM.  Lefort  des 
Ylouses ,”  by  M.  Granet. 

There  were  scarcely  any  examples  of  bas-reliefs,  and  those 
which  existed  were  of  no  special  merit.  The  medals  and 
coins  were  generally  excellent  in  workmanship,  but  it  would 
be  impossible  to  particularize  them  here.  America  has  much 
to  learn  by  a  close  examination  of  them.  Our  own  coins  are 
a  disgrace  to  our  nation. 

We  now  leave  the  French  sculpture  and  proceed  to  that 
of  Italy,  which  is  certainly  entitled  to  the  next  place. 

ITALY. 

If  Italy  disappointed  her  friends  and  well-wishers  (and 
that  is  the  world,  for  who  wishes  ill  to  her?)  in  her  paint¬ 
ings,  she  has  still  more  grievously  disappointed  them  in 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


129 


her  sculpture.  Iu  this  exhibition  she  showed  every  kind  of  ITALY- 
talent,  except  a  serious  one.  The  subjects  to  which  she 
seems  almost  exclusively  to  have  devoted  herself  during 
these  late  years  are  of  a  trivial  and  often  a  low  order  of 
genre.  Her  sculpture  is  for  the  most  part  wanting  in  dig- 
nity  of  purpose  and  seriousness  of  style  and  subject.  Her  jects': 
old  traditions  seem  to  have  died  away,  and  the  ruling  school 
of  to-day  is  occupied  with  mere  mechanical  and  literal  ef¬ 
forts  at  imitation,  and  more  belonging  to  the  workman  than 
the  artist.  Here  indeed  is  shown  great  mechanical  dexter¬ 
ity  of  mere  workmanship.  The  marble  is  freely  handled  and  Meckanicaidex- 
forced  to  minute  imitation.  Laces  and  flowers,  silks,  satins,  terity‘ 
and  velvets  are  admirably  rendered  5  common  forms  are  care¬ 
fully  copied  from  casts  or  studied  from  nature }  but  this  is 
all.  Great  conceptions,  purity  of  style,  dignity  of  design, 
are  not  even  aimed  at,  and  the  great  proportion  of  the  works 
exhibited  seem  to  be  the  outcome  of  a  merely  commercial  The  commercial 
spirit,  intent  on  business,  devoted  to  profit  and  anxious  for 
money.  The  great  problem  seems  to  be  how  to  make  some¬ 
thing  that  will  sell,  how  to  catch  the  vulgar  eye,  how  to 
work  for  the  market.  The  consequence  is,  that  the  most 
silly,  tawdry,  trivial,  and  worn-out  themes  are  taken  and  Trivial  therms, 
wrought  out  with  exceeding  attention  to  all  the  minutiae  of 
the  accessories  in  the  hope  to  make  them  attractive.  Statues 
of  little  children  abound,  with  a  dog,  with  a  cat,  with  a  bird, 
with  a  butterfly,  with  a  rabbit,  with  a  rose,  with  a  cock, 
blowing  their  porridge,  learning  to  read,  saying  their  prayers, 
playing  blindman’s  buff,  looking  into  a  mirror,  coquetting, 
peeping  from  behind  their  hands,  some  nearly  nude  with 
a  little  chemise,  some  covered  with  flowers,  some  in  elabo¬ 
rate  frocks  with  frills  and  laces  and  curls  and  sashes,  some 
running,  some  laughing,  some  crying,  some  sleeping,  some 
pouting,  some  smothered  in  flowers,  some  with  open  para¬ 
sols.  These  are  the  mothers’  darlings,  and  their  dresses  are 
wrought  with  the  greatest  attention,  the  little  hern  of  the 
chemise  carefully  copied,  the  lace- work  and  frills  wrought 
a  giorno ,  the  meshes  of  the  stockings  laboriously  imitated, 
the  roses,  the  little  shoes  with  their  bows,  the  buttons,  the 
curls  elaborated  to  the  utmost.  Then  there  are  the  ugly 
boys,  the  gamins ,  shivering  after  their  bath  and  putting  on 
a  damp  shirt,  squabbling,  crying  out  newspapers,  having 
their  faces  washed.  Then  there  are  the  pretty  boys,  the 
young  geniuses  with  pencil  and  book.  After  this  you  have 
the  maternal  element — the  mother  in  combination  with  the 
child,  teaching  him  to  walk  or  to  read  or  to  pray,  combing 
his  hair,  putting  on  his  shoes,  anything  you  like.  Flowers 
9  p  R 


130 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


_ ITALYv _ are  thrust  in  everywhere  to  show  the  dexterity  of  the  work- 

Costume  and  men.  It  is  the  apotheosis  of  dresses.  After  these  come  the 

^mi-costume. 

costume  figures,  with  mask  and  domino  and  hat  and  feather, 
indecently  dressed  with  tight-strained  drawers,  and  nuder 
than  if  they  had  nothing  on,  and  leering  at  you  sideways 
or  smoking  a  cigarette.  Then  we  have  the  everlasting 
girl  at  the  bath,  nude  or  with  close-fitting  maglio ,  about 
to  dive  or  dipping  her  foot  in  the  water,  and  the  espiegle  girl 
half- hiding  and  shrinking  from  sight.  Flowers  and  plants 
Flowers.  play  a  great  role .  One  has  children  and  flowers,  girls  sell¬ 
ing  flowers  and  surrounded  by  them;  “Cupid  and  Psyche” 
emerging  from  masses  of  flowers;  women  with  wreaths  and 
grape  leaves,  and  all  worked  out  in  the  most  elaborate  way. 
All  this  strikes  one  as  very  sad.  If  sculpture  has  no  higher 
function  than  this,  it  seems  scarcely  to  have  a  right  to  exist 
at  all.  However  well  executed,  whatever  mastery  such 
works  show  over  the  material — and  it  must  be  admitted  that 
the  mere  workmanship  is  often  very  skillful  and  the  imita¬ 
tion  admirable — one  only  can  feel  that  they  degrade  art  and 
pander  to  low  and  common  tastes. 

Genre • _ If  we  turn  to  subjects  of  a  higher  class,  the  range  of  ideas 

is  scarcely  higher.  There  is  everywhere  a  want  of  imagina¬ 
tive  conception,  of  true  feeling,  of  serious  purpose.  Genre 
has  tainted  everything;  “the  trail  of  the  serpent  is  over 
it  all.”  The  accessories  are  of  more  importance  than  the 
main  figures;  imitation  has  usurped  the  place  of  creation. 
It  is  not  that  there  is  a  lack  of  talent.  There  is  talent 
enough,  but  there  is  a  lack  of  faith  and  of  feeling;  a  lack 
of  high  aim,  a  lack  of  elevated  thought,  of  poetic  sensibility. 
When  the  work  comes  out  of  the  common  it  falls  into  the 
extravagant,  it  strives  for  the  picturesque,  it  avoids  the 
sensible  and  dignified,  it  affects  the  literal. 

But,  leaving  these  general  statements,  let  us  examine  some 
of  the  most  prominent  works.  There  were  two  extremely 
clever  statues  of  life  size,  but  purely  genre  in  their  treat- 
Camieio.  ment:  one  representing  the  “  Death  of  Mozart,”  by  Sig.  Car- 
nielo,  of  Florence,  and  one,  the  “Suicide  of  Jacques  Ortiz,” 
•Ferrari.  by  Sig.  Ferrari,  of  Borne.  Painful  as  both  of  these  are,  so 
painful  indeed  that  one  cannot  but  wonder  at  such  a  selec¬ 
tion  of  subjects,  they  both  show  great  talent,  and  have 
nothing  ordinary  about  them.  The  accessories  and  draper¬ 
ies  are  copied  literally  from  nature,  with  little  selection,  but 
the  attitudes  are  striking,  the  expression  true,  and  the  exe¬ 
cution  good.  The  feet  and  thin  cadaverous  hands  of  Mozart 
look  like  casts  from  nature.  Dressed  in  a  ruffled  shirt,  with 
n  blanket  over  his  legs,  he  is  lying  back  in  a  great  fauteuil , 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


131 


propped  by  cushions,  in  which  his  head  is  thrown  back  side¬ 
ways,  and  in  his  lap  is  an  open  score  of  music. 

Three  very  spirited  and  cle  ver  genre  groups  were  exhibited 
by  Sig.  Focardi.  “Fm  First,  Sir!”  represents  two  ragged 
newspaper  boys ;  one  with  a  penny  between  his  teeth  is 
planted  on  both  feet  spread  wide  apart  and  pressing  back 
his  companion,  and  each  is  stretching  out  a  newspaper  and 
crying  out  to  a  customer  “I’m  first ,  sir!”  “You  Dirty 
Boy!”  is  an  old  woman  in  a  cap,  with  bare  arms  and  tucked- 
up  sleeves,  who  is  holding  a  boy  by  the  head  and  washing 
him  with  soap  and  a  sponge.  He  has  all  the  upper  part  of 
his  body  naked,  with  a  large  towel  tied  around  his  waist 
and  falling  nearly  to  his  feet.  Both  hands  are  stretched  for¬ 
ward  over  a  tub,  and  he  is  squeezing  his  mouth  and  eyes 
tight  together  to  exclude  the  smother  of  the  lather.  The 
expression  of  both  figures  is  admirable  for  its  truth,  and  the 
humor  is  contagious;  one  cannot  but  laugh,  it  is  so  well 
done.  The  third  represents  a  man  dancing  and  grinning,  to 
lull  a  screaming  baby  to  sleep,  which  he  dandles  in  his  arms. 
These  works  had  a  great  success  in  the  Exposition,  and  in 
their  way  they  deserved  it.  One  could  only  have  wished  to 
see  anything  as  well  done  in  a  higher  sphere  of  art. 

uLa  Chanson  d ’  Amour”  by  Sig.  Barbella,  of  Chieti,  is  very 
much  of  the  same  character,  and  is  modeled  with  much  spirit 
and  truth  to  common  life.  It  represents  a  peasant  trying 
to  kiss  a  peasant  girl.  The  action  is  good  and  natural.  It 
is  in  terra-cotta. 

“  Canaris  at  Scio,”  by  Sig.  Civiletti,  of  Palermo,  was  one  of 
the  most  serious  works  in  this  section,  and  is  modeled  with 
skill  and  truth.  It  represents  two  nude  figures,  only  girt 
about  the  loins,  in  the  prow  of  a  boat.  One  is  seated  with 
an  anchor  in  his  right  hand,  the  other  kneeling,  with  his  left 
hand  on  his  companion’s  shoulder,  and  pointing  out  some¬ 
thing  in  the  distance  at  which  both  are  looking  earnestly 
forward.  The  expression  and  character  of  the  heads  is  good, 
the  grouping  clever,  and  there  is  unity  of  action  and  feeling. 
It  well  deserved  the  medal  of  the  first  class  which  was  con¬ 
ferred  by  the  jury. 

Sig.  Monteverde  exhibited  four  works:  “  Jenner  Vaccinat¬ 
ing  his  Son,”  an  allegorical  figure  of  “Architecture,”  model 
of  the  “  Monument  to  Count  Massari,”  and  “  Boy  with  a 
Cock,”  all  in  marbleexcept  the  model  of  the  monument,  which 
is  in  plaster.  The  “  Jenner  Vaccinating  his  Son,”  which  is 
life  size,  was  the  largest  and  most  remarkable  piece  of  genre 
sculpture  in  the  whole  Exposition.  Careful  study  of  details 
and  precision  of  workmanship  can  scarcely  be  carried  fur- 


ITALY. 


Focardi. 


Barbella. 


Civiletti. 


Monteverde.. 


132 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


ITALY. 


Monteverde. 


ther.  It  represents  Jenner  seated  and  dressed  in  the  cos¬ 
tume  of  his  day,  with  queue,  shorts,  and  high-collared  coat 
and  buckled  shoes,  his  legs  cramped  under  him,  his  feet 
raised  on  their  toes,  and  holding  on  his  knees  his  son,  who 
is  quite  naked  and  stretching  out  in  fright  his  arms  and 
legs.  Jenner  clasps  him,  however,  firmly,  and  holds  his  head 
compressed  under  his  chin,  while  he  bends  forward  crouch¬ 
ing  over  him  in  an  attitude  of  extreme  tension,  imprinting 
the  grasping  fingers  of  one  hand  in  the  boy’s  arm,  and  pinch¬ 
ing  tightly  in  the  other  the  instrument  of  vaccination,  while 
his  attention  is  fixed  with  intensity  upon  the  exact  point 
which  he  is  to  puncture.  Whether  so  simple  an  operation 
required  such  intensity  and  concentration  of  purpose  is 
altogether  another  question.  One  would  naturally  have 
expected  the  father  to  soothe  the  child  and  perform  the 
vaccination  tranquilly,  as  it  is  scarcely  to  be  considered  an 
operation  of  difficulty  5  but  had  he  been  couching  him  for 
cataract,  or  performing  the  most  delicate  operation  involv¬ 
ing  life  and  death,  he  could  not  have  been  more  concen¬ 
trated  and  strained  in  attention  or  fixed  his  child  more 
strongly  as  in  a  vise.  However,  Sig.  Monteverde  has  taken 
another  view.  He  supposes  the  moment  to  be  a  supreme 
one  of  anxiety  and  difficulty,  and  though  to  our  minds  the 
anxiety  and  questioning  were  all  antecedent  necessarily  to 
the  operation,  he  thinks  differently,  and  he  has  striven  to 
give  his  idea.  In  this  he  has  succeeded.  There  is  intensity 
of  attention.  One  also  asks  why,  when  the  father  is  dressed 
to  the  least  minutiae  of  his  costume,  the  child  should  be 
stripped  naked ;  whether  it  would  not  have  been  easier  to 
vaccinate  the  child  by  tranquilizing  him  instead  of  frighten¬ 
ing  him.  The  imaginative  sense  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
strongly  at  work  in  the  conception  of  this  group,  and  as  a 
composition  it  is  singularly  contorted.  Seen  from  behind, 
the  father’s  head  is  not  visible.  There  is  only  a  tall  collar 
visible,  and  he  seems  decapitated,  while  seen  from  the  side 
the  group  is  very  confused  and  straggling.  But  setting 
apart  all  considerations  as  to  the  fitness  of  such  a  subject 
for  sculpture,  and  as  to  the  conception  and  composition  of 
it,  and  confining  ourselves  to  the  workmanship,  careful 
study  of  details,  and  mere  modeling,  this  work  deserves 
great  praise.  The  body  of  the  child  is  admirably  modeled. 
It  is  fleshy  and  delicate  in  its  contours.  The  hands  of  the 
father  are  as  full  of  nature  as  if  they  had  been  copied  from 
a  cast.  The  minute  wrinkles  and  folds  and  texture  of  the 
skin  are  all  given  with  great  fidelity.  Then,  too,  there  is 
patient  labor  in  all  the  details  of  the  dress,  in  the  shoes,  in 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


133 


the  stockings — every  thread  of  which  is  expressed — in  the  ITAI-Y- 

coat — in  a  word,  in  everything.  This  it  is  which  attracts 

the  common  mind ;  and  a  hundred  persons  are  struck  by 

the  stockings  to  one  who  considers  the  meaning  of  the  whole 

group.  It  is  a  work  which  impresses  by  its  parts  and  its 

details.  Here  is  its  merit $  here  is  its  defect  as  a  work  of 

art. 

The  u  Statue  of  Architecture  ”  is  in  a  higher  vein,  but  even  Monteverde. 
here  one  sees  no  ideal  life ;  neither  the  head,  the  arms,  nor 
the  hands  are  those  of  a  muse,  and  there  is  a  certain  strict¬ 
ness,  coldness,  and  academic  character  which  are  scarcely 
compensated  by  care  in  the  execution. 

The  model  of  the  u Monument  to  Count  Massari”  repre¬ 
sents  his  corpse  swaddled  closely  about,  so  as  to  cover  the 
arms,  and  lying  stretched  stiffly  on  a  sort  of  couch,  over  which 
a  winged  angel  bends  from  behind  the  head,  propped  by 
both  hands  against  the  top  of  the  couch.  This  is  only 
sketched  in  execution,  and  in  this  respect,  therefore,  lacks 
the  interest  which  attaches  to  all  his  other  works  here  exhib¬ 
ited.  It  will  probably  be  carefully  finished,  however,  in  the 
marble.  As  it  is,  it  leaves  much  to  be  desired.  The  angel 
has  not  an  angelic  presence.  The  arms  are  of  a  low  type, 
the  head  wants # refinement  and  nobility,  and  the  draperies 
are  not  happily  treated  $  nor  is  it  very  clear  what  the  con¬ 
ception  of  the  artist  is,  or  with  what  intention  the  angel  is 
standing  there. 

The  u  Boy  with  the  Cock”  is  a  piece  of  pure  genre,  excellent 
in  treatment  ot  the  marble,  and  possessing  scarcely  any 
interest  beyond  this. 

All  of  these  works  are  of  the  realistic  school,  so  called,  Tii  e  realistic 
which  being  interpreted  means  generally  the  prosaic  and 
literal  school,  which  studiously  avoids  all  effort  for  ideal 
qualities,  insists  that  the  common  is  the  best  in  nature,  and 
at  all  events  is  good  enough  for  art,  and  endeavors  to  im¬ 
press  us  by  literal  imitation  of  even  the  accidental,  rather 
than  to  make  a  purged  selection  of  the  best.  Sig.  Monte¬ 
verde  is  a  leader  in  this  young  school  in  Italy,  and  exercises, 
young  as  he  is,  a  very  considerable  influence  over  a  certain 
clique,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  I  have  felt  compelled, 
while  acknowledging  his  talent,  to  point  out  in  some  measure 
his  shortcomings,  but  leaving  him  personally  apart,  and 
speaking  generally.  The  doctrines  and  faith  of  this  school 
are  not  those  upon  which  the  greatest  artists  of  the  past 
have  worked ;  they  are  not  the  principles  upon  which  the 
noblest  works,  either  of  antiquity  or  of  the  Renaissance ,  were 
wrought.  They  are  equally  opposed  to  those  that  animated 


134 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


ITALY. 


The  heroic 
dwarfed  to  com¬ 
monplace. 


Ximenes. 


Gomito. 


Butti. 


Phidias  and  Apelles,  or  Raffaelle  and  Titian,  and  they  do  not 
lead  to  the  highest  eminences  of  art.  In  this  school  the 
poetic  nature,  afraid  to  spread  its  wings,  limps  encumbered 
along  the  earth,  and  the  heroic  spirit  is  dwarfed  to  common¬ 
places  of  every  day.  If,  however,  the  function  of  art  is  to 
lift  the  soul,  to  enchant  the  heart,  to  embody  the  beautiful, 
to  gather  the  perfect  flower  of  thought  and  feeling — and 
there  are  still  some  who  have  this  faith — it  is  sadly  for¬ 
getful  of  its  true  office  when  it  descends  in  search  of  mere 
novelty  to  the  common,  low',  and  accidental  ;  mates  itself 
with  mechanical  imitation  in  order  to  delight  the  ignorant 
and  vulgar,  and  laughs  to  scorn  the  inspiration  of  the  muses. 
It  is  pitiable  when  one  sees  an  art  that  used  to  lord  it  in  the 
higher  spheres,  abjuring  its  birthright  by  lurking  in  the  pot 
house  of  mere  genre  to  hob-a-nob  with  mean  companions.  I 
am  well  aware  that  these  are  not  palatable  words,  but  I  am 
quite  sure  that  they  simply  express  the  almost  universal  ver¬ 
dict  of  the  most  enlightened  class  of  those  who  have  an 
earnest  love  and  a  true  knowledge  of  art.  There  is  surely 
something  better  for  sculpture  to  do  than  to  represent  an 
ugly,  shivering  gamin  buttoning  his  shirt-sleeves  after  his 
bath,  or  striving  to  pull  his  wet  shirt  over  his  head ;  better 
than  the  silliness  of  beruffled  and  becurled  children  walking 
out  under  a  parasol,  or  playing  with  a  dog,  or  a  cat,  however 
well  executed.  What  we  want  is  ideas,  poetic  inspirations, 
heroic  thought  and  character,  creations  of  power  and  beauty, 
not  mere  handicraft. 

But,  to  continue  with  our  review  of  the  statues.  Sig. 
Ximenes,  of  Florence,  exposed  a  figure  of  a  youth  in 
circus  dress,  balancing  himself  on  a  globe  (17 Equilibre). 
This  is  cleverly  represented ;  the  adjustment  of  difficult 
equilibrium  admirably  done.  Was  it  worth  doing?  He  also 
had  a  group  of  uLa  Rixe ,v  which  represents  two  boys  quar¬ 
reling.  To  this  the  same  praise  cannot  be  accorded ;  it  is 
full  of  exaggeration  and  grimace.  Sig.  Gomito  had  a  figure 
of  a  fisher-boy  squatting  down,  with  his  cap  between  his 
feet,  and  just  seizing  a  fish  off  his  hook.  It  is  hideously 
ugly  aud  vulgar  in  type,  but  exceedingly  clever  in  expression. 
He  intended  him  to  be  ugly  and  vulgar.  His  object  was  to 
represent  something  literal  and  repulsive,  and  he  has  suc¬ 
ceeded.  But  why  should  a  creature  Avho  is  ugly  and  repul¬ 
sive  in  fact  become  interesting  in  art?  Why  should  an  atti¬ 
tude  which,  however  natural,  is  disagreeable,  awkward,  and 
ungainly,  be  selected  for  the  permanence  of  sculpture? 
Sig.  Butti,  of  Milan,  sent  a  statue  which  he  calls  uLa 
Grimace representing  a  gamin  in  a  torn  straw  hat,  with 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


135 


his  waistcoat  buttoned  over  his  loins  back  side  before,  who 
is  sticking  out  his  tongue  and  looking  at  himself  in  a  mir¬ 
ror.  Sig.  Barzaghi,  of  Milan,  sent  a  “Blindman’s  Buff,” 
u Petite  Coquette ,”  “ Sylvie  se  mirant  dans  la  Glace,”  and 
“  Mo'ise  sauve  des  Eaux”  all  of  which  are  in  the  literal  and 
decorative- dress  school  of  Milan.  But  there  were  scores  of 
similar  subjects  in  this  section  on  which  I  will  not  waste 
time,  but  cite  a  few  of  the  titles,  which  are  all  that  are 
needed  to  show  how  art  is  going  :  uUn  petit  Masque  ;  que 
connais  tut ”  uJoie  enfantine,”  uLa  Rose  des  Amours,” 
UL> Amour  non  aveugle ,”  uLe  premier  Bain,”  uLe  Gamin,” 
uLa  Prisonniere  d?  Amour,”  uIa  Priere  forcee ,”  “Hush  a  bye 
Baby,”  UA  Maman ,”  uEnfants  dansants,”  UE> Innocence,”  uIa 
Promenade ,”  uLa  Rose  candide,”  etc.  In  most,  if  not  all  of 
these,  the  dresses,  the  textures,  and  the  flowers  are  worked 
out  with  great  elaboration.  The  hair  is  deeply  drilled  and 
chiseled,  and  the  mechanical  labor  is  never  shirked.  Sig. 
Tabacchi  sent  three  statues,  a  uBaigneuse,”  a  uPeri  ,”  and 
uHypatie.”  uIa  Baigneuse”  is  a  girl  in  a  close-fitting  maillot 
shirt  which  exposes  all  her  figure  as  if  it  had  been  glued  to 
it,  standing  with  both  feet  close  together,  and  both  hands 
joined  over  her  head,  bending  forward  and  preparing  to 
dive.  This  greatly  attracted  a  certain  class  and  had  a  suc¬ 
cess.  The  maillot  is  carefully  wrought  out  and  the  work¬ 
manship  and  modeling  excellent;  what  of  the  subject? 
what  of  the  pose?  In  the  uPeri”  and  the  uHypatie”  there  is 
a  more  serious  attempt  at  a  higher  class  of  expression,  but 
they  are  exaggerated  in  attitude  and  character,  and  want 
repose  and  dignity  of  design.  The  “Hypatia”  is  far  the 
better  of  the  two,  save  that  her  hands  are  in  excess  of  cris- 
pation  as  well  as  her  feet,  but  it  shows  a  good  deal  of  talent 
and  good  workmanship.  Sig.  P.  Calvi  sends  an  “Ariadne  ” 
in  the  Milanese  school  of  treatment,  and  Sig.  Malfatti  a 
uIiens  (V A mour,”  representing  a  floating,  female  figure,  with 
a  great  deal  of  hair,  and  a  Cupid  at  her  feet,  pulling  about 
her  a  branch  of  leaves — also  in  the  same  school  of  decora¬ 
tion.  There  are  two  “  Berenices,”  one  by  Sig.  Borghi  and 
one  by  Sig.  Peduzzi,  with  outstretched  hands,  both  of  the 
same  school,  with  abundance  of  elaborately  worked  hair, 
and  very  careful  execution  of  textures;  and  also  two  “  Cleo- 
pdtras,”  one  by  Sig.  E.  Braga,  of  Milan,  representing  her 
walking  forward,  nude,  except  that  around  the  loins  some 
drapery  is  tied,  with  the  vulture  head-dress,  armlets,  and 
necklace,  and  a  slave  kneeling  at  her  feet,  on  whose  shoulder 
her  hand  rests ;  and  another,  by  Sig.  Papini,  representing 
her  “  Vetue  en  Venus  ou  en  Isis,  va  a  la  rencontre  d? Antoine, 


ITALY. 


Barzaghi. 


Trivial  titles. 


Tabacchi. 


Calvi. 

Malfatti. 


Borghi. 

Peduzzi. 

Braga. 


Papini. 


136 

UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878.  „ 

ITALY. 

pour  se  justifier  aupres  de  lui  et  le  captiver  par  ses  Charmes.” 
This  statue  out-Herods  Herod.  Cleopatra  is  lying  extended 

Papini. 

almost  nude  on  a  great  couch,  on  which  are  full  draperies, 
and  leering  over  the  pillow  with  an  expression  that  can 
scarcely  be  characterized.  This  is  not  the  Queen  of  Egypt, 
but  a  vulgar,  shameless  courtesan.  God  help  us !  Is  this 
the  wondrous  creature  of  whom  Antony  said :  “Age  cannot 

Rottinelli. 

wither  her  nor  custom  stale  her  infinite  variety.” 

uLa  Modestie ,”  by  Sig.  Bottinelli,  of  Rome,  is  a  figure  of 
a  very  different  character.  She  is  a  young  girl,  completely 
enfolded  in  delicate  and  well-composed  draperies,  looking 
down,  with  her  hands  crossed  before  her  and  holding  a  few 
flowers.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  sweetness,  simplicity,  and 
refinement  in  this  statue.  It  is  quite  without  affectation  or 

Majoli. 

posing,  and  is  carefully  executed. 

Sig.  Majoli  exhibited  a  serious  statue  of  “  Michel  Angelo,” 
which  also  has  the  merit  of  simplicity  of  treatment  and 
composition.  It  represents  the  great  artist  seated  on  a 
square  block,  holding  in  one  hand  the  chisel  and  in  the 

Pozzi. 

Borghi. 

other  the  mallet,  and  looking  up  at  his  work. 

Sig.  Pozzi,  of  Milan,  sent  a  statue  of  “Michel  Angelo” 
as  a  youth;  Sig.  Borghi,  of  Milan,  a  statue  of  uCola  da 

Villa. 

Rienzo ,”  as  a  youth ;  Sig.  Villa,  of  Milan,  a  statue  of  uPic 

Salvini. 

de  la  Mirandole ,”  as  a  youth ;  Sig.  Salvini,  of  Bologna,  a 

Tortone. 

statue  of  “Giotto”  as  a  youth;  Sig.  Tortone,  of  Turin,  a 

Rota. 

figure  of  “  Napoleon  ”  as  a  youth ;  Sig.  Rota,  of  Genoa,  a 
figure  of  “ Salvator  Rosa”  as  a  youth.  All  of  these  show 
a  decided  cleverness  in  the  treatment  of  such  subjects,  and 
all  of  them  are  well  and  carefully  executed  in  all  the  details 
of  costume ;  but,  of  course,  they  are  essentially  costume 
figures.  That  of  “Giotto”  is  particularly  good  and  simple, 
and  so  is  that  of  uPic  de  la  Mirandole .” 

Among  other  statues  of  a  higher  class  of  subject  to  be  men- 
signa. Maraini.  tioned  are  the  “ Sappho”  before  her  fatal  leap,  by  Signora 


Luchetti. 

Maraini ;  the  “  Spartacus,”  by  Sig.  Lucclietti,  and  the 

Dini. 

“  Death  of  Epaminondas,”  by  Sig.  C.  Dini,  of  Turin.  But 
subjects  of  this  class  are  exceedingly  exceptional  in  this 
section,  the  greater  proportion  of  statues  being  purely 
genre  in  their  character,  and  these  almost  stand  alone. 

Riggi. 

Among  the  portrait  statues  was  one  by  Sig.  Riggi,  of  “  Sav¬ 
onarola,”  seated  in  a  chair  with  open  staves,  clad  in  his 

Borghi. 

monkish  robes,  with  a  cowl  on  his  head,  crossed  legs,  and  a 
book  in  his  hand ;  and  one  of  “  Oliver  Cromwell,”  by  Sig. 
Borghi,  of  Milan,  in  plaster,  also  seated,  and  somewhat 
grotesque  and  exaggerated.  There  were  also  a  few  busts, 
among  which  may  be  specially  mentioned  one  of  “Mazzini,” 

FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


137 


by  Sig.  Gangeri ;  two  busts  in  terre-cuite  extremely  well 
modeled  and  full  of  character  and  study,  by  Sig.  Maccag- 
nani,  particularly  the  head  of  an  “African,”  and  one  of 
“Othello,”  in  bronze,  with  marble  draperies,  by  Sig.  Calvi, 
and  one  of  the  uInnomincttov  in  uGliPromessi  Sposi ,”  by  Sig. 
Benvenuti,  and  two  “  Incroy ablest  by  Sig.  Cencetti,  of 
Borne,  busts  in  marble,  extremely  clever  in  character  and 
expression  and  full  of  humor.  Sig.  Giani,  of  Como,  sent 
a  statue  of  “  Balilla  que  je  lajetteF  a  youth  in  the  act  of 
throwing  a  stone,  which  has  considerable  spirit ;  and  Sig. 
Belliazzi,  of  Naples,  a  statue  of  a  “Peasant  Boy,”  in  the 
ciocciare  costume,  asleep,  which  is  admirable  for  its  nature 
and  simplicity.  There  is  nothing  affected,  nothing  over¬ 
stated,  and  the  sentiment  is  very  pleasing.  It  was  one  of  the 
very  best  genre  statues  in  all  this  section,  if  not  the  best. 
The  very  worst,  certainly  as  far  as  taste  and  sentiment  go, 
was  uLe  Masque ,”  by  Sig.  Borghi,  of  Milan.  It  represents 
a  creature  with  skin  tights  on  her  legs,  closely  strained 
drawers,  ruffled  jacket  and  boots,  who  stands  with  one 
hand  on  her  hip,  holding  a  cigarette  in  the  other,  her 
head  turning  at  you  sideways,  and  with  an  immense  bouquet 
and  broken  champagne  bottle  at  her  feet.  Bad  taste  can 
scarcely  go  farther.  There  was  also  another  figure,  in  a  some¬ 
what  similar  dress,  holding  a  mask  in  one  hand,  which  is 
not  quite  so  bad  in  taste. 

We  must  not  leave  the  Italian  sculpture  without  refer¬ 
ring  to  a  most  extraordinary  group  of  Cain  and  his  wife,  by 
Sig.  Amendola,  of  Naples,  in  which  the  intention  of  the 
artist  has  been  to  represent  two  degraded  aborigines  and 
wild  creatures,  ill-organized,  low  in  type,  and  brutal  in  ex¬ 
pression.  Their  hands  and  feet  are  furnished  with  over¬ 
grown  pointed  nails  several  inches  long ;  and  Cain,  standing 
with  his  hands  down  at  his  side,  digs  his  nails  into  his  flesh. 
This  is  certainly  an  original  conception  of  the  subject, 
and  certainly  Sig.  Amendola  has  succeeded  in  represent¬ 
ing  Cain  and  his  wife  as  exceedingly  repulsive  creatures, 
though  they  are  our  ancestors.  Upon  the  whole  one  doubts, 
in  looking  at  these,  whether  one  would  not  at  once  prefer 
the  ancestry  insisted  on  by  Dr.  Darwin. 

I  may,  perhaps,  have  given  too  much  time  to  the  consid¬ 
eration  of  the  sculpture  of  Italy,  but  it  seemed  necessary  to 
particularize  many  works  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a  clear 
idea  of  the  tendency  of  the  late  schools,  and  to  justify  my 
general  remarks. 


ITALY. 

Gangeri. 

Maccagnani. 

Calvi. 

Benvenuti. 

Cencetti. 

Giani. 

Belliazzi. 


Borglii. 


Amendola. 


1?8 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  187S. 

ITALY-  Comparing  tlie  Italian  and  French  schools,  the  defects  of 
Italian  and  the  first  are  triviality  and  poverty  of  ideas,  and  an  over-elab- 
compared.  oration  of  emphasis  on  what  is  merely  accessory — on  dresses, 
flowers,  hair,  textures,  everything  which  can  show  off*  me¬ 
chanical  workmanship.  The  defects  of  the  French  school 
emphasis ^of°ges- are  overemphasis  of  gesture,  tormented  attitudes,  and  a 
sket’chymethod.6  certain  posing  and  uneasy  consciousness.  The  tendency  to 
be  observed  and  lamented  in  much  of  the  French  work,  and 
particularly  in  the  portrait  busts,  is  a  loose  and  pretentiously 
sketchy  manner.  This  is  carried  at  times  so  far  as  to  be 
come  iuqiertinent.  There  is  often  really  no  modeling,  in 
the  just  sense  of  that  term.  Mere  effects  are  sought. 
There  is  no  proper  surface  or  refinement  of  planes,  but  little 
clay  pellets  are  dabbed  on  almost  recklessly  without  being 
leveled,  so  that  they  produce  the  effect  of  an  unhealthy  and 
diseased  skin,  or  of  a  surface  defaced  and  rotted  by  time 
and  exposure.  This  is  particularly  observable  in  the  terra- 
m  ode  is  for  cotta  and  bronze  busts  and  figures.  Ordinarily  it  is  thought 
that  a  figure  to  be  cast  in  bronze  should  be  specially  elab¬ 
orated  in  the  model.  The  opposite  opinion  and  practice  ob¬ 
tains  in  France;  as  for  translating  some  of  these  works  into 
wSncha?Smarble  in  their  present  condition,  it  would  be  quite  impos- 
ease-  sible  without  totally  remodeling  the  surface.  All  this  is 

mere  affectation  of  careless  and  masterly  ease,  caught  from 
the  sister  pictorial  art.  It  is  pure  improvisation,  spirited  at 
times,  but  wholly  incomplete.  In  the  draperies  the  same 
fault  is  seen.  The  character  and  anatomies  of  the  folds  are 
not  given.  They  are  often  mere  unformed  lumps  and  masses 
of  clay  which  stand  for  draperies.  In  these  respects  the 
elaborateness.6 r’  French  are  far  behind  the  Italians,  who  err,  perhaps,  in  the 
opposite  extreme  of  over-preciseness  and  elaborateness 
of  imitation  of  textures  and  individualities.  There  was  noth¬ 
ing,  for  instance,  in  all  the  French  section,  which  for  mere 
accuracy  of  modeling  can  compare  to  the  work  of  M.  Monte- 
verde  in  his  group  of  u  Jenner  and  his  Son.”  Nothing  to 
compare  with  the  extreme  finesse  of  execution,  for  instance, 
of  the  naturalistic  hands  of  the  father,  or  the  nude  flesh  of 
the  child. 

ENGLAND. 

England.  We  now  come  to  the  English  section.  The  art  of  sculp- 
sculpture,  ture  cannot  be  said  to  flourish  in  England.  It  has  never 
—  produced  a  great  sculptor.  The  only  exception  that  possi- 
Fiaxman.  bly  could  be  made  would  be  Flaxman,  but  he,  with  all  his 
genius,  inventive  power,  and  almost  Greek  feeling,  was  es¬ 
sentially  great  as  a  designer  and  not  as  a  sculptor  in  the 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


139 


broadest  sense  of  that  word.  His  outlines  from  the  Greek  hxglakd. 
poets  and  dramatists  are  graceful,  beautiful,  refined,  and, 
at  times,  even  powerful  iu  conception,  but  in  modeling  or 
marble  his  execution,  either  in  bas  relief  or  in  the  round, 
was  inefficient,  and  failed  to  embody  what  his  mind  con 
ceived.  Chantrey  was  essentially  a  portrait  sculptor,  and  in  cbantrey 
the  higher  branches  of  the  art  he  scarcely  attempted  any¬ 
thing.  The  busts  of  Nollekens  are  sometimes  striking  for  Noiiekens 
character,  but  in  his  ideal  figures  he  was  weak.  Gibson,  Gibson- 
with  all  his  talent,  can  scarcely  be  considered  a  great  man, 
nor  can  such  a  title  be  accorded  to  Bacon,  Roubiliac,  or,  in-  Bacon. 

_  _  „  ,  .  ,  ’  .  ^  ’  Roubiliac. 

deed,  any  of  the  chief  names  of  the  past  m  English  sculp¬ 
ture. 

There  is  something,  possibly,  in  climatic  influences  which 
renders  the  English  mind  more  sensitive  to  color  than  to 
form,  but  whatever  be  the  reason  the  fact  can  scarcely  be 
controverted  that  its  greatest  artists  have  been  painters ;  ratter  in  painting 

,  ,  .  ,  .  ...  -■  than  in  sculpture. 

that  it  can  boast  many  an  eminent  name  m  painting,  and 
almost  none  in  sculpture.  Even  in  its  painting  its  weak 
side  has  been  form  and  drawing,  its  strong  side  color  and 
sentiment $  its  weak  side  the  heroic  and  ideal  in  art,  its 
strong  side  domestic  scenes,  landscape,  and  portrait. 

The  works  of  sculpture  exhibited  by  England  were  few. 

Against  474  paintings  in  oil  and  water  color,  it  had  only  46 
pieces  of  sculpture ;  nor  can  it  be  honestly  said  that  these 
are  of  a  very  high  order  of  merit,  or  exhibit  any  salient 
strokes  of  imagination,  or  any  specially  admirable  qualities 
of  execution.  Of  these,  nearly  half  are  portrait  busts  and 
statues,  and  buf  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  remainder 
are  ideal  subjects. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  work,  and  one  that  aims  at  sir r.  Leighton, 
the  highest  style,  is  the  u Athlete  Wrestling  with  a  Python,” 
by  Sir  Prederic  Leighton,  the  accomplished  president  of  the 
Royal  Academy.  In  its  workmanship  and  study  it  does 
high  credit  to  Mr.  Leighton’s  talent.  The  execution  of  it  is 
faithful  and  careful.  Nothing  is  neglected  and  slurred  over. 

On  the  contrary,  if  it  errs,  it  errs  rather  in  the  over-expres¬ 
sion  of  the  muscles  in  their  insertions,  and  the  over-insistance 
on  particulars  which  nature  strives  to  conceal.  The  great 
fault  to  be  found  with  it  is  in  the  pose,  which  is  scarcely 
one  that  any  man  would  take  in  struggling  for  his  life  with 
so  formidable  an  enemy.  He  is  so  planted  that  he  has  no 
leverage  with  which  to  counteract  the  Python.  He  could 
not  exercise  any  power  in  his  present  action.  His  left  arm 
and  leg  are  perfectly  helpless,  as  far  as  any  force  is  required. 

To  bring  his  power  into  play  the  action  of  the  legs  should 


140 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

England.  pe  reversed — the  right  planted  forward  as  the  lever  of  his 

right  arm,  the  left  planted  behind.  This  criticism  proceeds, 
of  course,  on  the  supposition  that.  Sir  Frederic  did  not  intend 
to  represent  the  athlete  as  entirely  in  the  power  of  the  Py¬ 
thon.  If  he  did  it  falls  to  the  ground.  It  would,  however, 
seem  by  the  right  arm  that  the  struggle  at  least  was  meant 
to  be  an  equal  one.  Nor  is  the  action  of  the  athlete’s  head 
what  one  would  expect  at  such  a  moment.  Instead  of  being 
bent  forward  and  on  one  side,  which  gives  it  rather  a  senti¬ 
mental  than  a  determined  look,  it  would  seem  rather  that 
it  should  have  been  erect  and  drawn  back  in  opposition  to 

SirF.  Leighton,  the  head  of  the  Python.  Undoubtedly  Sir  Frederic  Leigh¬ 
ton  has  his  justification  for  this  reversed  action  of  the  lower 
and  upper  parts  of  the  body  in  the  Borghese  “  Gladiator” 
and  in  the  “Apollo,”  but  in  both  these  figures  the  action  is 
momentary  and  even  at  that  a  little  academical.  Ho  man  can 
strike  out  strongly  over  a  leg  bent  and  placed  behind  the 
other,  as  in  the  “  Gladiator,”  nor  can  he  stand  in  the  attitude 
of  the  “Apollo  ”  for  more  than  a  moment  without  falling.  In 
fact,  if  any  one  from  recollection  will  strive  to  assume  the 
pose  of  either  of  these  figures,  he  will  find  that  the  leg  he 
naturally  puts  in  advance  is  in  these  statues  the  leg  that 
is  behind.  The  artist  has  sought  for  variety  at  the  expense 
of  truth.  Sir  Frederic  may  excuse  us,  however,  a  criticism 
which  places  him  in  such  company,  and  may  prefer  to  be 
wrong  with  such  celebrated  statues  rather  than  right  with 
nature.  Undoubtedly,  after  all  criticism,  the  statue  is  an 
honest  and  earnest  work,  worthy  of  such  an  artist. 

Boehm.  Mr.  J.  E.  Boehm  sent  three  statues,  one  of  “  a  Clydes¬ 

dale  Stallion  rearing,”  and  held  by  a  groom  at  his  side  ;  one 
a  portrait  statue  of  “Thomas  Carlyle.”  The  first,  which  is 
quite  life  size,  is  very  spirited  and  shows  a  good  deal  of  force, 
though  in  action  and  composition  it  recalls  the  horses  of 
Marly.  The  horse,  which  is  a  powerful  animal,  is  well 
modeled,  his  action  is  good,  and  well  deserved  the  second- 
class  medal  accorded  to  the  artist.  The  portrait  statue  of 
“Thomas  Carlyle”  is  of  the  naturalistic  school.  He  is  rep¬ 
resented  as  seated  sideways  in  an  arm-chair  with  his  legs 
crossed,  and  clothed  in  a  dressing-gown.  The  head  is  char¬ 
acteristic  and  clever,  and  the  statue  has  a  good  deal  of  nature. 
The  dress  is  more  sketchily  executed. 

Foley.  There  are  six  large  portrait  statues  by  the  late  Mr.  Foley, 

of  “Edmund  Burke,”  “Oliver  Goldsmith,”  a  “Parsee  Mer¬ 
chant,”  “Thomas  Grattan,”  “Lord  Clyde,”  and  “Professor 
Faraday,”  all  of  which  have  the  qualities  of  this  well-known 
artist,  who  excelled  in  statues  of  this  kind.  They  are  well 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


141 


posed  and  fairly  modeled,  but  they  have  no  very  special 
character  and  individuality.  They  are  more  to  be  praised 
for  the  absence  of  great  defects  than  for  the  presence  of  dis¬ 
tinguished  merits ;  but  what  can  be  done  with  a  modern  por¬ 
trait  statue  ? 

Mr.  Fuller’s  “  Castaway”  and  “Peri”  were  also  exhibited. 
They  are  fair  specimens  of  that  lamented  artist’s  work,  and 
exhibit  his  usual  care  of  execution.  Among  other  statues 
must  be  mentioned  Mr.  Joy’s  “Forsaken,”  a  woman  on  her 
knees,  with  her  body  and  head  thrown  back  and  clasped 
behind  by  her  hands,  with  her  dead  infant  lying  head  down 
in  her  lap.  The  action  is  excessive  and  the  hair  strange,  but 
there  is  character.  Mr.  McLean’s  “  lone  ”  is  pleasing  in  com¬ 
position,  has  a  pretty  turn  of  head,  and  the  draperies  are 
well  disposed.  She  is  seated  and  holding  a  tablet  on  her 
knees.  Miss  Grant’s  “St.  Margaret  and  the  Dragon”  must 
also  be  noticed  as  one  of  the  most  important  among  the  ideal 
works,  as  well  as  an  interesting  and  pleasing  genre  figure,  by 
Lord  Ronald  Gower,  of  “Marie  Antoinette,”  which  does  him 
great  credit.  Among  others  must  also  be  mentioned  a 
“Cupid  taming  a  Panther,”  by  Mr.  Simonds,  and  Mr.  W. 
Calder  Marshall’s  “Tali  Players”  and  “Nausicaa.” 

Mr.  Watts,  th£  distinguished  painter,  also  tries  his  hand 
at  sculpture,  and  sent  an  ideal  bust  of  “Clytie,”  which  is 
treated  purely  from  a  painter’s  point  of  view  $  great  insist- 
ance  being  made  upon  surface  treatment  of  the  flesh.  This, 
despite  the  painter’s  hand,  which  is  everywhere  visible,  is  an 
effort  at  the  grandiose  school  of  Michael  Angelo,  in  form,  but 
though  the  aim  and  intention  are  high,  this  cannot  be  said 
to  be  successful.  The  anatomies  are  very  defective ;  the 
shoulders  are  entirely  different  from  those  of  a  woman,  and 
are  evidently  those  of  a  man,  while  the  bosom,  not  only  in 
its  modeling  and  form,  but  in  its  rough  texture  and  curves, 
is  rather  that  of  an  old  woman,  than  of  a  young  maiden,  like 
Clytie,  in  the  fresh  bloom  of  youth  and  enthusiasm.  The 
head  is  turned  back  over  the  right  shoulder  straining  after 
Apollo,  but  this  action  is  carried  far  beyond  the  possibility 
of  nature ;  no  head  can  be  turned  so  far  back  without  break¬ 
ing  the  spinal  column,  and  the  consequence  is  that  the  mas¬ 
toid  and  the  trapezium  muscles  are  not  and  cannot  be  prop¬ 
erly  rendered.  The  back,  too,  is  quite  incomprehensible  in 
its  outline  and  anatomy.  These  defects  are  extremely  to  be 
regretted,  for  there  is  a  large  spirit  in  the  intention,  there  is 
a  feeling  for  the  heroic,  and  the  work  is  anything  but  com¬ 
mon  and  petty.  It  is  not  by  sudden  excursions  out  of  paint¬ 
ing  that  the  successes  of  sculpture  are  to  be  achieved.  Each 


ENGLAND. 


Fuller. 


Joy. 


McLean. 

Miss  Grant. 


Lord  It.  Gower. 

Simonds 

Marshall. 

Watts. 


142 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


England.  art  has  its  own  peculiar  difficulties,  and  continuous,  patient 
study  and  practice  can  alone  give  excellence  in  either.  The 
paSter  o?Upaint  sculpt°r?s  painting  always  has  the  quality  of  his  peculiar  art, 
er-scuiptor.  and  the  painter’s  sculpture  has  always  the  character  of  paint¬ 
ing.  The  modes  of  thought,  the  ideas  of  composition,  are 
different  in  the  two  arts,  and  although  it  is  undoubtedly  a 
great  benefit  to  an  artist  in  either  branch  to  make  attempts 
in  the  other,  and  thus  enlarge  his  experience  and  knowledge, 
the  painter  very  rarely  produces  a  good  work  of  sculpture, 
the  sculptor  very  rarely  a  good  work  in  painting. 
Portrait-statues.  Mr.  D’Epinay  sent  three  portrait  busts,  “Her  Royal 
D’Epmay.  Highness,  the  Princess  of  Wales,”  “Miss  Florence  Hamil¬ 
ton,”  and  “Madame  D’Epinay,”  which  are  of  the  French 
school,  and  one  knew  not  why  they  appeared  in  this  section, 
except  on  account  of  the  persons  represented.  The  portrait  of 
“the  Princess  of  Wales”  is  rather  a  half-length  than  a  bust, 
adorned  with  heavy  draperies  which  shroud  the  pedestal,  and 
is  carefully  and  elaborately  finished.  Most  of  “Madame 
D’Epinay  ”  is  colored,  both  dress  and  head,  in  imitation  of  life, 
and  is  treated  from  a  picturesque  point  of  view,  as  is  also  the 
portrait  of  “  Miss  Florence  Hamilton,”  who  is  represented  in  a 
Erodie.  broad-brimmed  hat  and  ostrich  feather.  Mr.  Brodie  sent  two 
busts  of  “  Her  Majesty  Qneen  Victoria”  and  i  the  Right  Hon. 
count  GMcii- Baroness  Burdett  Coutts;”  Count  Gleiclien,  a  portrait  of 
“Garibaldi,”  and  “King  Alfred  the  Great,”  which  is  ideal; 
Adams-Acton.  Mr.  Adams-Acton,  a  bust  of  “Zenobia,”  and  “Lady  Vic- 
Miss Grant,  toria  Campbell”;  Miss  Grant  two  busts  of  “Sir  Francis 
joy.  Grant”  and  “  Lady  Augusta  Stanley”;  Mr.  A.  Bruce  Joy  a 

bust  of  “Mr.  Max  Muller.” 

RUSSIA. 

11USS1A-  We  now  come  to  the  Russian  sculpture.  There  were  fifty- 
one  works  including  medals,  and  of  these  those  of  the  high- 
AntokoisM.  est  aim  and  importance  are  by  M.  Antokolski.  He  sent 
seven  works.  uIvan  le  Terrible ,”  uLe  Christ  devant  le  Peuple ,” 
“ Pierre  le  Grand'1'1  (marble  bust),  uLa  Mort  de  Soerate ,”  uLe 
dernier  Soupir ,”  “ Portrait  de  W.  Stassoff ’,”  and  “I? Enfant 
mort ”  (bas-relief  cn  marbre).  “Christ  before  the  People,”  to 
which  the  post  of  honor  was  given,  represents  Him  draped  in 
a  strait  dress  with  few  folds,  standing  erect  with  both  feet 
together  and  both  hands  straight  down  at  His  side  and  tied 
closely  there  by  a  cord  round  II is  body.  There  is  no  attempt 
at  action.  The  pose  is  almost  raide  in  its  formality.  The 
divine  element  is  scarcely  sought  to  be  rendered,  nor  is 
there  even  loftiness  of  character  and  expression.  It  repre¬ 
sents  simply  a  suffering  man  with  his  hands  tied  to  his  side. 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 

It  is  of  the  naturalistic  school,  and  this  is  evidently  all  the 
artist  desired.  Of  course,  in  such  a  subject,  the  eye  sees 
through  the  mind,  and  the  very  title  of  the  work  is  a  half 
victory.  But  to  own  the  truth,  though  the  work  is  good 
and  careful,  it  lacks  the  higher  qualities  of  the  imagination. 
It  does  not  embody  our  idea  of  Christ  at  such  a  moment,  or 
indeed  at  any  moment,  whatever  He  was  in  fact — whether 
the  divine  Saviour  of  the  world,  or  only  a  lofty  and  spiritual 
man,  it  is  impossible  to  accept  this  as  an  inspired  repre¬ 
sentation  of  Him. 

The  u  Death  of  Socrates,”  by  the  same  artist,  fails  in  the 
same  way.  The  philosopher  is  stretched  half  out  on  a  great 
round-backed  chair,  his  legs  thrust  out  before  him,  his 
hands  hanging  down.  Were  it  not  for  the  well-known 
features,  it  would  scarcely  be  possible  to  believe  that  this 
was  Socrates.  There  is  neither  grandeur,  nor  dignity,  nor 
power  in  the  figure.  It  might  be  any  half-naked  beggar 
asleep.  No  matter  what  the  fact  was,  this  does  not  answer 
to  our  idea  of  Socrates,  and  our  ideas  are  as  much  facts 
and  often  more  real  than  the  actual  facts  out  of  which 
they  sprang.  In  such  a  work  as  this  is,  the  artist  who  fails 
to  answer  the  sympathetic  expectation  of  cultivated  minds 
upon  the  subject;  may  be  said  to  fail  utterly,  no  matter  how 
good  his  work  is,  as  work. 

But  though  these  works  leave  us  quite  cold,  there  is  another 
work  of  M.  Antokolski,  which  has  profoundly  touched  us, 
and  that  is  the  bas-relief  of  u I? Enfant  mort .”  This  is  ex¬ 
quisite  in  feeling  and  modeled  with  rare  delicacy  and  refine¬ 
ment.  It  has  a  touch  of  nature  and  sentiment  which  goes 
to  the  heart,  and  it  could  only  have  come  out  of  a  deep  and 
sad  experience. 

M.  Tchijoifi  sent  five  works:  a  bust  of  aM.  Gromoff,” 
u  Colin- Maillardf  uLa  Petite  Folatref  and  uLa  Legon  de  Lee- 
turf  uLe  Paysan  en  Detresse .”  The  “ Colin- Maillardv  and  uLa, 
Petite  Foldtref  are  subjects  scarcely  fit  for  sculpture  however 
well  done.  The  other  two  groups  are  far  superior  in  character 
and  intention,  and  especially  uLe  Paysan  en  Detresse  ,”  which 
has  great  simplicity  and  pathos,  and  is  very  well  executed. 
It  represents  a  peasant  seated  with  his  head  bent  down  and 
leaning  on  his  hand,  while  his  little  son  stands  between  his 
legs  leaning  against  him  with  his  hand  to  his  mouth  in  an 
attitude  of  mute  and  sorrowing  sympathy.  The  expression 
of  both  figures  is  earnest  and  sincere.  There  is  no  affecta- 
tation,  there  is  much  nature. 

Among  other  works  to  be  noted  are  three  groups  of 
u  Psyche,”  by  M.  Kuneberg,  gracefully  cold,  and  character- 


143 

RUSSIA. 


Antokolski. 


Tcliijoff. 


Runeberg. 


144 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


RUSS1A-  less;  some  small  and  clever  groups  of  animals  by  M.  Lan- 

Lanceray.  ceray ;  a  series  of  eight  medals  by  M.  Alexeieff,  three  by 

M.  Steinmann,  and  one  by  M.  Koutschkine;  and  a  remark- 
Alexeieff,  ably  well  executed  mosaic  of  uLa  Mise  au  Tomheau ,  d’apres 
Booklet  a”’  ^  tableau  de  C.  Dusiv  from  the  Imperial  Academy  of  the  Fine 

Arts  at  Saint  Petersburg.  M.  Bock  .sent  a  “Head  of  a 
Faun” in  marble,  and  a  “Minerva  surrounded  by  Children,” 
M.  Koukharevski  a  “Martyr  in  Prayer;”  M.  Laveretski  a 
“Head  of  a  Jew;”  M.  Pruszinski  a  “St.  Sebastian;”  M. 
Kiguer  two  busts  of  “Juliette”  and  “Washington,”  a  has 
relief ;  M.  Stigel  an  u Amour and  M.  Takkanen  a  “  Venus 
and  Cupid;”  and  these  were  all. 


Perfection 

exactness. 


Casts  from  nature  There  were  also  in  a  small  room,  placed  apart  by  them- 
Dr.  Levittoux.  selves,  two  very  remarkable  casts  from  life  of  two  nude 
female  figures,  one  lying  on  her  back,  the  other  on  her  belly. 
Nothing  could  excel  the  perfection  of  these  casts  for  exact - 
of  ness  and  absolute  representation  of  the  model.  Not  a 
wrinkle  is  lost.  The  texture  of  the  skin  is  there  exactly  as 
in  life.  The  very  goose-flesh  of  the  simmering  girl  is  given. 
In  fact,  this  is  literal  perfection  as  far  as  simple  reproduc- 
The  despair  oftion  of  nature  goes.  No  modeling  could  aspire  to  equal  it 
in  mere  exactness,  no  eye  could  report,  no  hand  could  finish 
with  the  absoluteness  that  is  here  seen.  Every  pains  has 
been  taken  with  colored  windows  and  curtains  to  give  the 
Xaturaiism  semblance  of  reality  to  these  forms.  There  one  can  see  the 
result  of  absolute  naturalism  without  ideas,  and  what  is 
the  result  ?  It  is  curious ;  it  is  interesting  from  a  certain 
point  of  view ;  it  is  valuable  as  a  report  of  nature,  but  it  is 
not  art.  It  has  nothing  to  do  with  mind,  with  soul,  with 
emotions  and  feelings  and  thoughts,  and  it  is  not  art.  The 
rudest  sketch  of  a  master,  the  rapidest  outline  with  feeling 
in  it,  the  most  blotted  scribble  of  an  idea  has  an  interest  of 
a  totally  different  kind  and  far  beyond  this.  It  is  empty  ; 
it  is  dead ;  it  is  soulless.  Compared  with  a  true  work  of 
art,  these  casts  are  like  a  dictionary  as  compared  with  a 
poem.  The  materials,  the  words,  are  all  there.  It  is  only 
the  ideas  which  are  wanting  to  combine  and  give  soul  to 
them.  I  think  no  lesson  could  be  given  to  those  whose  faith 
it  is  that  absolute  copying  of  nature  will  necessarily  result 
in  art,  more  staggering  than  is  given  by  these  two  casts. 
Here,  as  you  look  at  them,  you  cannot  help  feeling  that  the 
perfectest  possible  imitation,  the  most  exact  and  minute 
implicit  repro-  reproduction  of  the  model,  the  perfection  of  mere  material 
duction.  workmanship  alone  and  of  itself  only  rouses  curiosity  and 
awakens  surprise,  but  does  not  enter  even  into  the  outer- 


Lesson  for  copy 
ists  of  nature. 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


145 


most  confines  of  art.  There,  in  that  region  only,  ideas,  RUSSIA- 
thoughts,  feelings  live,  abide,  and  embody  themselves  in 
never-dying  forms. 

GERMANY. 

Germany  exhibited  24  works  of  sculpture,  of  which  8  were  Germany. 
busts,  7  groups  in  marble  and  bronze,  5  single  figures,  and 
4  statuettes.  Herr  Charles  Begas  sent  two  works,  “  Satyr  c.  Begas. 
and  Bacchus,”  a  group  in  marble,  and  a  bust  of  “M.  de 
Marees.”  Herr  Beinhold  Begas  had  5  works,  u  If  Enlevement  R-  Besas- 
des  Sabines  ”  and  “  Mercury  and  Psyche,”  both  groups  in 
marble;  busts  of  “ Madame  Hopfen”  and  the  “Artist  Men- 
zel,”  and  “Venus  and  Cupid,”  a  group  in  bronze.  The 
“  Satyr  and  Bacchus”  is  of  the  old  school  and  is  well  treated, 
though  there  is  nothing  special  in  its  conception.  The 
“  Mercury  and  Psyche”  is  heavy  in  its  forms  and  somewhat 
academic  in  its  treatment,  though  it  has  good  qualities. 

The  “Psyche”  is  rather  a  stout  Deutsches  Madchen  than 
the  airy  embodiment  of  the  soul.  The  “Rape  of  the  Sa¬ 
bines  ”  shows  more  vigor  and  spirit,  but  it  is  over- violent  in 
action,  angular  in  composition,  and  French  in  its  energy. 

His  bust,  or  rather  half-length,  of  “  Herr  Menzel,”  is  his  best 
work  here.  It  is  bold  and  characteristic  and  well  worked 
out,  and  has  much  individuality  in  the  head  and  the  hands. 

Herr  Wagmiiller’s  “ Monument  Eunebrev  is  an  interesting  wagmiiiier. 
work,  well  composed,  well  modeled,  and  with  tender  senti¬ 
ment  and  expression.  It  represents  a  female  figure  seated 
in  a  sarcophagus,  at  the  four  corners  of  which  are  sphinxes. 

She  leans  forward  sideways,  resting  her  left  arm  on  a  tablet, 
and  holding  a  palm  branch  in  the  other,  and  half  caressing 
and  watching  over  a  nude  child  that  is  seated  on  the  sar¬ 
cophagus  under  her  protecting  presence.  His  other  works 
are  three  busts  and  a  group  in  marble  of  a  uJeune  Fille  et 
Enfant .” 

Herr  Hildebraud  sent  “Adam,”  a  statue  in  marble,  a  RiMebraud; 

“ Berger  dormant ,”  and  an  “ Enfant  buvantP  The  best  of 
these  is  the  “ Berger  dormant ,”  which  is  gentle  and  pure  of 
feeling,  and,  though  not  imitated  from  Thorwaldsen,  some¬ 
what  recalls  his  treatment  of  similar  subjects. 

Herr  Su ssmann -Hell born’s  uLa  Poesie  Li/rique  et  la  Glian-  Sussmann-HeU 
son  Populaire ”  has  a  good  deal  of  merit,  and,  though  alle¬ 
gorical,  is  not  hackneyed.  It  is  inspired  by  a  thorough 
German  spirit,  both  in  form  and  in  conception. 

Among  the  other  statues  must  be  noted  “27 Amour  imper¬ 
tinent  ,”  by  Herr  J.  Kopf,  uLe  Satyr e  et  Amour f  by  Herr  Kopt 
10  p  R 


146 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Germany.  Hartzer,  though  the  themes  are  not  new  and  the  treatment 
Hartzer.  not  very  original. 

On  the  whole,  there  cannot  he  said  to  he  any  great 
strength  of  purpose  or  peculiar  originality  in  the  German 
sculpture,  though  they  have  this  merit,  that  they  do  not  de¬ 
scend  to  the  trival  in  genre ,  and  their  works  are  wrought  in  a 
serious  spirit.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  they  rather  fall  into 
what  is  called  in  France  le  poucif ,  by  which  they  mean  the 
repetition  of  well-known  forms  of  composition,  motives,  and 
treatment,  and  the  use  of  common-places,  which  lack  dis¬ 
tinction  and  individuality. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 


AUSTRIA- 

HUNGARY. 


Kundmann. 

Lax. 

Bent. 


Costenoble. 

David. 


The  Austrian-Hungarian  sculpture  was  chiefly  devoted  to 
portraits,  busts,  and  statues,  and  large  decorative  allegorical 
figures.  There  were  no  less  than  three  different  figures  of 
Victory,  two  by  Herr  0.  Kundmann  and  one  by  Herr  Lax, 
his  pupil,  a  “ Pallas  Athene”  and  a  “Helios,”  by  Herr  Benk, 
as  well  as  a  large  allegorical  figure  of  “Industrie  artistique ,” 
by  Herr  Kundmann,  and  designs  for  statues  of  “ Leibnitz,” 
of  “Fittou  de  Tournefort,”  “  Linnaeus,”  and  “  Buffet,”  by  Herr 
Costenoble,  and  of  “  Gessner,”  by  Herr  David,  eleven  fig¬ 
ures,  all  intended  for  the  Boyal  Museum  of  Vienna.  Besides 
these,  there  were  colossal  statues  of  “ Albrecht  Dtirer,”  by 
wa^ie?lttber‘  ®err  Schmidgruber,  and  “  Michael  Angelo,”  by  Herr  Wag¬ 
ner,  for  the  Palace  of  the  Association  of  Artists  at  Vienna, 
and  a  colossal  statue  of  “  Beethoven”  and  a  group  of  bronze 
of  “  Prometheus,”  for  the  monument  to  Beethoven  at  Vienna. 
Certainly  it  must  be  admitted  that  here  is  evidence  of  a 
large  public  spirit,  of  interest  in  the  development  and  pa¬ 
tronage  of  art,  of  a  warm  recognition  by  the  nation  of  her 
great  men,  and  of  a  generous  outlay  of  money  to  which 
the  attention  of  the  American  Government  may  be  dis¬ 
tinctively  called,  as  indicating  the  true  policy  of  a  great 
nation.  Some  of  these  works  show  much  talent  and 
all  are  of  a  serious  character.  Among  the  best  are  the 
statues  of  “Albrecht  Diirer,”  “  Michael  Angelo,”  and  the 
“Art  Industry,”  of  Mr.  Kundmann.  The  statue  of  Beet¬ 
hoven  is  a  good  work,  but  a  little  heavy  and  not  very 
well  finished.  This  character  of  heaviness  was  perhaps, 
the  general  defect  of  all  the  colossal  works  in  this  sec¬ 
tion.  But  they  were  there  seen  too  low  and  at  a  disad¬ 
vantage,  and  when  placed  at  a  proper  height  and  dis¬ 
tance  will  probably  have  a  lighter  effect.  The  same  defect 
cannot  be  attributed  to  the  statue  of  the  “Emperor  of  Aus¬ 
tria,”  by  Herr  Tilgner,  which  goes  to  the  other  extreme  of 


Tilgner. 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


147 


heaviness  and  long  legs,  and  produces  anything  but  a 
graceful  or  agreeable  effect.  But  what  can  an  artist  do 
with  such  a  costume?  On  the  other  hand,  Herr  Tilgner  ex¬ 
hibited  some  very  clever  and  characteristic  busts,  among 
which  specially  may  be  noted  those  of  the  artist  “  Herr 
Fiihricli 77  and  of  Herr  “  Lobmeyr.77  The  “Combat  of  the 
Centaurs  and  Lapithse,77  on  a  silver  shield,  by  Herr  Tauten- 
hayn,  though  a  little  violent  in  action,  is  exceedingly 
spirited.  So,  also,  are  some  of  the  busts  of  Herr  Beer,  and 
particularly  one  by  Herr  A.  K.  F.  in  terra-cotta,  though  it 
is  rather  ostentatiously  careless  in  execution. 

BEL  (HUM. 

Belgium  exhibited  59  works,  of  which  25  were  busts  and 
medallions,  by  M.M.  Brunin,  De  Groot,  De  Yigne,  Elias, 
Fraikin,  Martens,  Pecher,  which  are  chiefly  in  the  same  school 
as  the  French,  and  some  of  which  are  clever.  The  remain¬ 
der  of  the  works  were  chiefly  genre  in  their  character,  and 
among  these  the  most  noteworthy  were  a  “  Woman  and  Child 
of  the  Boman  Campagna,77  by  L.  Samain,  a  “Souvenir  de 
Jeunesse ,77  by  M.  Desenfans,  which  is  a  plaster  model  of  a 
boy  leaning  against  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  with  a  bird  tied  by 
a  string  in  his  hand.  This  is  a  careful  study  from  the  life 
and  well  modeled.  The  action  is  good  and  the  parts  well 
felt.  “Le  Lezard ,77  by  M.  Boure,  which  is  a  statue  in  marble 
of  a  boy  lying  on  his  belly  and  playing  with  a  lizard,  is 
also  simple  and  well  modeled,  and  “ L’JExercice ,77  by  M. 
Laumans.  Among  the  few  works  of  a  higher  aim  of  sub¬ 
ject  are  the  “Calista  hesitating  between  Christianity  and 
Paganism,77  a  statue  in  bronze,  by  M.  Van  der  Linden; 
“ Daphnis ,77  a  group  in  marble,  by  M.  Catteer,  and  several 
statues  by  M.  de  Yigne,  of  “Dominica”  “ Volumnia ,77 
“Psyche”  and  “JSTarcisse.”  It  cannot  be  said,  however,  that 
in  the  Belgian  sculpture  there  was  anything  eminently  char¬ 
acteristic  and  original  to  distinguish  it  from  other  similar 
work  of  the  same  class,  and  therefore  it  need  not  detain  us 
longer. 


AUSTRIA- 

HUNGARY. 


Tilgner. 


Tautenliayn. 

Beer. 


BELGIUM. 

Brunin. 

De  Groot. 

De  Vigne  et  al. 


Samain. 

Desenfans. 


Bour6. 


Laumans. 


Van  der  Linden. 
Catteer. 

De  Vigne. 


Nor  need  we  delay  longer  with  the  sculpture  of  other  No  noteworthy 
nations.  The  works  sent  by  them  were  few  in  number  and  other  nations, 
of  no  special  excellence  or  character.  The  exhibits  of  Spain, 

Norway,  Sweden,  Portugal,  Switzerland,  and  the  Nether¬ 
lands  require  no  comment ;  and  Greece  is  perhaps  of  all  the 
lowest.  The  sacred  fire  has  utterly  died  upon  her  altars, 
nor  even  in  her  ashes  leaves  a  spark  from  the  glory  of  the 
ancient  days. 


148 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


UNITED  STATES. 


UNITED  STATES. 


xo  sculpture.  It  remains  to  speak  of  American  sculpture,  and  this  is 
easily  done.  There  was  none.  It  was,  as  I  have  already  said, 
excluded  from  the  Exposition  by  the  necessities  of  the  case, 
by  the  slow  action  of  the  government,  by  the  inadequacy  of 
means,  and  by  the  impossibility  within  the  limited  time  to 
obtain  either  a  place  or  the  statues  to  fill  it.  All  that  ap¬ 
peared  in  the  American  section  was  comprised  in  two  exceed- 
statuettes  byingiy  clever  and  spirited  small  statuettes  in  plaster,  by  Mr. 

Montague  Handley,  representing  UA  Rough  Day  on  the 
Campagna,”  and  “A  Cattle  Driver  on  the  Campagna,”  which 
were  there  merely  by  accident,  and  by  two  or  three  of  Mr. 
Rogers.  Rogers’s  well-known  groups,  which  were  huddled  away  on 
the  tops  of  the  cases  in  the  Educational  Department — almost 
out  of  sight.  I  have  already  protested  against  this  omission 
of  all  works  of  sculpture,  and  here  I  again  protest.  It  was 
unfair  to  the  nation,  it  was  unfair  to  the  sculptors.  It  was 
equivalent  to  advertising  to  all  the  world  that  in  sculpture 
we  have  achieved  nothing  of  sufficient  importance  to  be 
exhibited.  This  is  totally  false,  and  those  of  the  world 
who  knew  that  it  is  false  turned  with  surprise  to  ask  the 
reason  for  this  omission.  Could  any  of  us  give  a  satisfac¬ 
tory  answer? 


Trocadero. 


MUSEUM  OF  THE  TROCADERO. 

But,  turning  from  all  the  displays  of  modern  sculpture,  if 
we  entered  the  palace  of  the  Trocadero,  we  seemed  as  it  were 
~  to  pass  i n to  another  world.  Adequ  ately  to  describe  what  was 
there  to  be  seen  would  be  to  write  the  history  of  art  from 
the  early  ages  of  Egypt  to  the  last  week  of  the  past  cen- 
Marveiousarcii-tury.  What  a  wonderful  exhibition  was  here,  for  the  artist, 
tionfortLTchoi- for  the  scholar,  for  the  connoisseur  and  amateur,  for  the 
mauUd  the  w°rk  weaver,  the  goldsmith,  the  worker  in  metals,  and  porcelain, 
and  embroideries — in  a  word,  for  every  class,  from  the  high  to 
the  low  !  What  opportunities  were  here  given  for  study,  for 
Remains  of  the  improvement,  for  comparison,  for  delight !  Here  were  the 
ages,  remains  of  the  primitive  ages  of  bronze  and  stone,  of  the 

1  Greece,  after-products  of  Egypt,  Greece,  Assyria,  Etruria,  and  Gaul, 
Etruria,  and  the  whole  barbarian  world,  where  one  might  study 
their  arts,  their  customs,  their  manufactures,  their  develop¬ 
ment  from  the  rudest  to  the  most  refined  epochs.  Here  were 
the  exquisite  terra-cottas  of  Tanagra,  the  opaline  glass,  pic¬ 
tured  vases,  the  varied  bronzes,  the  marble  bas-reliefs  and 
statues,  of  Greece,  Rome,  Etruria;  the  medals  of  all  nations; 
Ancient  art  the  relics  of  decaying  art  in  the  Christian  and  mediaeval 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


149 


world  ;  the  treasures  of  the  Renaissance ,  with  their  enamels  franck. 
and  plaques,  coffers  and  caskets,  dishes  and  crosses,  and  re-  Trocadero. 
liquaries;  their  majolica,  ceramics,  and  niello  work;  their 
tapestries  and  altar  pieces,  and  illuminated  books  and  mis¬ 
sals  ;  their  carven  ivories,  diptych s,  and  lustrous  plates ;  their  ceramics, 
armor  and  implements  of  war ;  their  helmets,  daggers,  shields,  Tapestries, 
and  breast  plates,  the  torques  and  fibula;  of  the  Gauls  and  Missals. 
Huns,  with  the  medals  of  their  kings — in  a  word,  the  ar-  01Arms  an(1  arm‘ 
tistic  remains  of  a  score  of  centuries.  As  I  lingered  here, 
day  after  day,  I  could  not  but  sigh,  to  think  how  utterly 
America  is  wanting  in  all  these  ancient  spoils  of  time  and 
art.  How  slight  is  the  national  interest  in  all  such  treas¬ 
ures.  How,  amid  the  continual  contests  of  party  for  place 
and  power  and  money,  these  finer  fields  of  action  are  left  to  lie 
uncultivated  and  unconsidered,  with  none,  or  few,  to  give 
them  "everence. 

The  mere  catalogue  of  this  museum  occupies  a  large  vol-  Ancient  Gallic 
ume,  and  here  I  can  only  pass  them  by  with  one  hurried penod' 
glance.  The  first  room  of  the  Trocadero  was  devoted  to  the 
relics  of  the  earliest  period,  and  of  Gaul  previous  to  the 
Roman  occupation.  The  collection  of  stone  implements  and 
weapons  here  was  very  complete,  and  among  them  were  a 
number  of  Lacustrine  objects  found  in  the  Lake  of  Brienne,  Lacustrine  ob- 
and  lent  by  Hr.  Gross.  Then  came  the  bronze  and  iron  ob-  jects 
jects,  with  the  stone  moulds  in  which  some  of  them  were  run, 
with  helmets,  armor,  and  weapons.  There,  too,  were  the 
skeleton  and  relics  of  an  ancient  soldier  found  in  a  tomb  at 
Gorge  Meillet  (Marne),  with  his  weapons  and  helmet,  and 
his  horses’  bits,  and  a  wheel  of  his  chariot,  and  a  gold  arm- 
let,  fresh  as  when  it  was  first  beaten  out,  clasping  the  bone 
of  the  humerus.  Then  there  were  Polish  antiquities,  with  a  Polish  antiqui 
series  of  votos  found  at  Vichy,  and  Gaulish  fibula;,  and  golden ties' 
belt,  and  bracelets,  &c. 

Here,  however,  the  interest  was  more  archaeological  than  Artistic  coiiec- 
artistic.  The  second  and  third  rooms  were  devoted  to  art,  tl0n‘ 
and  here  were  gathered  together  a  series  of  relics  of  the 
ancient  as  well  as  of  the  mediaeval  world,  and  of  the  Re-  ^edu5eval 

'  Itenaissance. 

naissance ,  which  might  well  detain  us  for  many  a  day.  But 

I  only  stop  to  note  here  the  small  terra-cotta  figures  found 

at  Tanagra,  of  which  the  collection  is  not  only  very  large, 

but  the  most  important  and  interesting  which  has  ever  been 

seen  together.  These  are  but  trifles  in  one  sense.  They 

are  the  free  genre  work  of  the  Greeks,  not  aiming  at  finish 

or  completeness,  but  slight  and  sketchy  figures,  adorned 

with  color,  evidently  cheap,  carelessly  executed,  and  often  ^^VitSra^oi- 

mere  squeezes  from  a  mould,  made  for  the  people,  and  rep- ta • 


150 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


FKANCE-  resenting  the  life,  costume,  character,  history,  and  religion 
of  the  Greeks.  But  what  life,  what  feeling,  what  dignity, 
what  grace  and  refinement,  are  here  to  be  seen  5  whatintel- 
cottas.  rraligence  and  delicacy  in  the  composition  of  the  draperies; 

what  simplicity  and  naivete  of  design ;  what  refinement  of 
color !  Here  one  sees  what  it  is  to  be  a  naturally  artistic 
people.  There  is  no  effort,  no  affectation,  no  grimacing,  no 
attitudinizing,  no  over-insistance,  no  over-elaboration.  The 
work  is  fresh,  free,  and  spontaneous,  the  movement  natural, 
the  draperies  beautiful.  Of  course  there  are  great  differ¬ 
ences  of  mere  execution  between  the  different  figures,  but 
the  same  spirit  runs  through  all.  It  is  as  if  modeling  came 
to  them,  as  reading  and  writing  to  Dogberry,  by  nature. 
Here  is  a  school  in  which  modern  sculptors  may  well  take 
a  lesson,  and  catch  an  inspiration  for  grace  and  beauty. 
Not  that  these  works  are  accurate  in  particulars,  or  finished 
in  execution,  for  they  are  not.  It  is  not  this  that  gives  them 
their  charm ;  it  is  the  overruling  and  ever-present  something 
which  is  imponderable  and  above  calculation  that  has  spon¬ 
taneously  expressed  itself  in  them,  and  takes  you  with  a 
sweet  and  natural  surprise.  They  were  u  born  so,”  as  Topsy 
says.  They  are  the  natural  growth  of  a  large  and  graceful 
artistic  nature. 

AKCHITECTURE. 

Architecture.  We  now  come  to  the  architecture,  which  I  shall  treat  in 
~  a  very  cursory  manner.  Without  illustrative  drawings  it  is 
scarcely  possible,  by  mere  description,  to  convey  to  the 
reader  an  intelligent  impression  or  to  justify  special  criti¬ 
cism.  But  if  this  be  difficult  in  regard  to  painting  and 
sculpture,  it  is  almost  impossible  in  architecture ;  and  thus 
far  I  have  labored  under  great  disadvantages  in  not  being 
able  to  illustrate  by  engravings  at  least  the  chief  works 
which  have  been  noticed.  Besides,  the  field  is  too  large  to 
be  occupied  in  this  report,  and  it  must  be  left  to  other  and 
abler  hands. 

Exposition  Buildings. 

Buildings'  The  main  buildings  of  the  Exposition  were  constructed 
Main  building'  im(ler  the  direction  of  M.  Kranz  by  M.  Hardy,  architect  of 
the  palais ,  assisted  by  M.  Duval  and  M.  Dion.  The  criti¬ 
cisms  to  which  they  have  been  exposed  have  been  various; 
and  this  was  to  be  expected,  all  the  more  that  they  con¬ 
formed  to  no  established  school  and  to  no  recognized  style 
or  epoch,  but  aimed  at  combining  many  mixed  styles,  some¬ 
times  successfully  and  sometimes  unfortunately,  and  adapt¬ 
ing  them  essentially  to  construction  in  iron.  These  iron 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


151 


constructions  are  modern,  and  here  is  a  field  for  novelty,  of  FRANCB- 
which  the  architects  endeavored  to  avail  themselves.  As 
the  buildings  were  only  temporary,  and  not  intended  to  be 
permanent,  a  free  opportunity  was  offered  to  daring  innova¬ 
tion  and  bold  tentatives  of  effect  such  as  rarely  occurs,  and 
on  all  sides  we  saw  trials  which  sometimes  succeeded  and 
sometimes  failed.  The  restriction  of  time  must  be  taken  also 
into  consideration  in  judging  of  the  result.  They  were  ne-  Main  Building, 
cessarily  planned  and  built  rapidly,  and  little  opportunity 
was  afforded  for  reconsideration  and  study.  As  far  as  the 
interior  plan  is  concerned,  it  was  excellent — simple,  clear, 
and  admirably  adapted  to  its  purpose,  and  this,  after  all,  was 
the  matter  of  prime  importance. 

Independent  of  the  main  building,  and  differing  from  it  of 

in  design  and  construction,  the  municipality  of  Paris  erected 
for  itself  a  special  pavilion.  This  was  intrusted  to  M.  Bou- 
vard  as  architect.  Iron  in  this  building  was  largely  em¬ 
ployed,  but  subordinated  to  the  uses  of  construction,  so  that 
it  did  not  make  a  leading  feature  of  the  architectural  effect. 

On  the  whole  the  result  was  good  and  in  many  points  orig¬ 
inal.  There  were  six  large  doors,  surrounded  by  frames  of 
iron  which  were  ornamented  with  enameled  tiles,  and  on 
either  side  wTere  deep  panels  decorated  with  large  designs  in 
the  same  material.  A  great  deal  of  color  was  used,  and  the 
objection  was  that  it  was  not  harmonious  in  combination  and 
was  too  crude  in  tints.  But  though  this  polychrome  treat¬ 
ment  cannot,  in  this  instance,  be  considered  as  quite  satis¬ 
factory,  it  clearly  shows,  with  happy  combinations,  what 
admirable  effects  might  be  produced.  The  interior  disposi¬ 
tion  was  very  simple  and  good.  This  building  is  to  remain, 
and  to  be  transformed  into  a  municipal  gymnasium. 

The  palace  of  the  Trocadero  is  also  to  be  permanent.  This  Tiocadero. 
was  designed  by  MAI.  Davioud  and  Bourdais,  and  is  in¬ 
tended  for  a  permanent  exhibition  of  retrospective  art.  It 
is  a  mixture  of  many  styles — Greek,  Bornan,  Byzantine, 

Arabian,  and  Renaissance — and  yet  it  has  a  character  as  a 
whole  differing  from  all,  and  is  essentially  modern,  and  the 
effort  of  the  architects  has  been  to  construct  a  building 
adapted  to  the  purposes  for  which  it  is  intended,  and  not 
merely  an  exterior  elevation  which,  though  admirable  in 
itself,  has  no  proper  relation  to  the  interior  or  to  its  use  as  a 
building.  In  this  they  have  struck  the  right  note.  It  is  use 
that  is  the  corner-stone  of  architecture,  and  ornament  should 
be  subordinated  to  and  superposed  on  lines  of  construction. 

One  of  the  great  faults  of  modern  architecture  is  that  to  or¬ 
nament  an  independent  significance  is  too  often  given,  con- 


152 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Trocadero. 


fbakcb. _ tradictory  to  construction,  and  the  exterior  bears  no  proper 

relation  to  the  special  purpose  of  the  building.  When  one 
sees  a  Greek  temple  constructed  for  a  bank,  or  a  dimly- 
lighted  Gothic  structure  for  a  hotel  or  modern  house,  one 
may  be  sure  that  somebody  has  blundered.  MM.  Davioud 
and  Bourdais  have  not  fallen  at  least  into  such  an  error. 
The  interior  has  not  been  sacrificed  to  mere  architectural 
effect  from  without.  The  difficulties  of  their  programme 
were  great,  but  on  the  whole  they  may  be  said  to  have  been 
fairly  surmounted. 

In  the  center  is  a  vast  hall,  50  meters  in  diameter,  and 

Music  Hall  of  7  7 

the  Trocadero.  intended  for  music,  capable  of  holding  6,000  persons,  sur¬ 
rounded  by  two  stories  of  piered  porticos  and  windows,  the 
outer  curves  of  which  are  developed  on  the  fagade.  This  is 
flanked  on  either  side  by  two  pavilions  with  gilded  cupolas 
and  two  fong  curved  lateral  galleries  spreading  out  like  arms 
and  adorned  with  porticos  with  columns,  under  which  the 
visitor  can  walk  and  overlook  the  panorama  of  Paris.  On 
either  side  the  central  rotunda  is  a  lofty  tower,  rising  over 
260  feet  in  height,  and  the  central  hall  is  crowned  with  a  lan¬ 
tern,  on  the  top  of  which  is  a  gilt  figure  of  aFame,”  by  M. 
Mercie.  The  chief  defects  which  have  been  found  with  this 
building  is  that  the  facade  is  uncertain,  the  cage  of  the  con¬ 
cert  hall  nude,  the  hall  itself  defective  in  acoustic  qualities, 
and  the  two  great  towers  both  too  high  for  the  main  part  of 
the  building,  and  too  narrow,  and  the  lantern  by  which  the 
rotunda  is  crowned  is  poor  and  ineffective.  It  must  also 
be  confessed  that  these  constant  curves  diminish  the  dignity 
and  grandeur  of  the  structure. 


La  Rue  des  Nations. 


street  of  Nations.  A  great  feature  of  the  Exposition  was  to  be  found  in  the 
so-called  Rue  des  Nations ,  where,  on  one  of  the  main  avenues 
traversing  the  zones  allotted  to  the  products  of  various 
nations,  each  nation  erected  a  characteristic  building  and 
fagade  illustrative  of  its  architecture.  The  first  in  impor- 
Beigium.  tance,  and  decidedly  the  best  of  all,  was  that  of  Belgium. 

This  was  really  an  imposing  building,  constructed  in  solid 
materials,  and  in  the  finest  stone  and  marbles  of  the  country. 
In  style,  it  was  of  the  latter  part  of  the  XYIth  century,  of 
which  the  most  perfect  example  is  to  be  found  in  the  Hotel  de 
Ville ,  at  Antwerp,  but  it  was  not  a  simple  reproduction  of 
that,  or  of  any  other  actual  building,  but  a  fresh  composition 
in  that  style.  A  great  gate  formed  the  center  of  this  fagade , 
above  which  rose  a  rich  pignon  with  pyramidal  superposi¬ 
tions.  On  the  keystone  of  the  main  arch  were  carved  the 


LA  RUE  DES  NATIONS.  CHAMP  DE  MARS 


i 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


153 


armorial  bearings  of  the  provinces,  and  above,  two  Belgian  Rue  des  Nations. 
lions  supported  the  royal  shield;  on  one  side  was  a  salon 
with  a  covered  balcony,  on  the  other  a  belfry  terminating 
in  an  octagonal  lantern.  All  this  was  worked  out  with  col¬ 
ored  marbles,  and  stone,  and  brick,  and  bronze,  with  snow- 
like  columns,  so  as  to  be  very  effective. 

England  did  not  confine  herself  to  one  great  building,  England, 
but  erected  several  in  different  styles.  One  of  these  was 
the  pavilion  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  in  the  Elizabethan  order, 
constructed  in  brick  and  terra  cotta,  with  imitation  stone¬ 
work  and  faience  applications,  which  had  nothing  special  to 
recommend  it  as  characteristic  or  original.  Besides  this 
there  were  three  houses — one  designed  by  Mr.  Norman 
Shaw,  one  by  Mr.  Gilbert  R.  Redgrave,  and  one  by  Messrs. 

Collinson  &  Locke,  all  of  them  interesting  specimens  of  early 
English  houses.  Especially  simple  and  pleasing  was  the  lest 
mentioned.  It  was  a  cottage  constructed  of  beams  of  wood 
with  intervals  of  rough-cast  plaster  painted  white,  roofed 
with  red  tiles,  with  a  jutting  porch  supporting  a  bay  window, 
and  pierced  with  low,  broad  windows  with  diamonded  panes. 

The  interior  was  quite  as  attractive  as  the  exterior.  The  cot¬ 
tage  by  Mr.  Redgiave  was  more  elaborate,  with  carved  beams 
and  rosetted  woodwork  under  which  the  plaster  shows,  one 
high  peaked  central  roof,  flanked  by  two  smaller  ones,  and 
low  rows  of  continuous  congregated  windows.  Messrs. 

Doulton  &  Co.  also  exhibited  a  square  building,  two  stories 
high,  constructed  in  brick,  with  columns,  friezes,  cornices, 
etc.,  in  colored  terra  cotta,  and  adorned  with  enameled  tiles, 
which  deserves  to  be  noted. 

Sweden  and  Norway  were  both  represented  by  construe-  Sweden  and 
tions  in  wood,  which  were  national,  characteristic,  and 
striking.  They  were  rustic  houses  of  ancient  style,  massive 
in  character,  with  broad  projecting  eaves  and  narrow  win¬ 
dows  to  protect  them  from  the  snow  and  icy  gales  of  winter, 
a  covered  gallery,  and  a  clock  beneath  it,  and  heavy  hewn 
posts.  The  architect  was  M.  Thrap  Meyer,  of  Christiania. 

Of  the  two  houses,  preference  may  be  given  to  that  of  Nor¬ 
way,  but  both  were  interesting. 

After  these  came  the  Loggia  of  Italy,  in  which  the  archi-  Italy, 
tect  cannot  be  said  to  have  been  happily  inspired.  With  all 
the  noble  loggie  of  Italy  before  him,  it  is  difficult  to  see  how 
he  could  have  gone  so  astray.  This  loggia  is  divided  into 
five  arches,  the  central  one  of  which,  rising  higher  than  the 
others,  breaks  the  line  of  cornice,  disturbs  the  seriousness  of 
the  effect,  and  rounds  itself  into  a  cylindrical  cupola.  These 
arches  are  supported  by  columns  of  imitation  cipollino.  The 


154 


Rue  des  Nations. 


Japan. 


China. 


Spain. 


Austria  -  Hun¬ 
gary. 


Russia. 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

entablement  is  ornamented  with  poor  mosaic  and  terra-cotta , 
and  imitation  marbles,  out  of  harmony  in  color  and  preten¬ 
tious  in  effect.  The  whole  design  indicates  the  same  rest¬ 
lessness  and  want  of  seriousness  which  is  seen  in  then*  sculp¬ 
ture.  Voila  des  nouveautes. 

Japan  came  next,  and  here  we  had  something  peculiar 
and  original,  and  striking  for  its  bold  primitiveness  of  char¬ 
acter.  Two  great  beams  of  natural  wood  and  traverses  sup¬ 
port  and  cover  a  great  door ;  the  ends  are  finished  and  pro¬ 
tected  against  the  assaults  of  the  weather  by  capsules  of 
green  bronze.  On  the  right  and  left,  in  a  frame- work  of  wood, 
were  two  great  colored  maps,  one  of  Tokio,  and  the  other 
of  Japan,  and  on  either  side  the  door  was  a  fountain  of 
ornamented  work  surrounded  by  bamboo,  and  picturesque 
inscriptions  in  Japanese  served  as  ornaments  to  the  whole, 
somewhat  after  the  manner  of  the  Arabian  architecture. 

The  Chinese  fagade  was  insignificant  and  bizarre.  The 
walls  were  covered  with  lozenges  and  octagons  of  a  gray 
slate  color  on  a  ground  of  green,  crowned  with  a  double  frieze 
of  angles.  The  door  was  of  a  bright  vermilion,  and  above 
it  was  a  shield  defended  by  grinning  dragons,  and  groups 
of  diminutive  warriors  were  figured  on  the  wall  with  sabres 
and  lances. 

Spain  came  next,  and  erected  a  fagade  in  the  Moorish 
style,  consisting  of  a  central  pavilion  with  lateral  walls 
ending  on  either  side  in  smaller  pavilions.  The  central 
pavilion  is  copied  from  that  of  the  Palace  of  Alhamar  at 
Grenada,  decorated  with  details  from  the  principal  ancient 
monuments  at  Cordova,  Grenada,  and  Seville,  with  painting 
and  gilding  and  faiences  and  enamels.  The  two  pavilions 
at  each  extremity  were  more  sober  in  style,  and  ornamented 
also  with  selected  details.  There  was  too  much  decoration, 
and  the  eye  was  fatigued  by  the  want  of  any  repose  of  sim¬ 
ple  surfaces  to  give  it  relief. 

Next  came  Hungary  and  Austria  (Germany  was  not  repre¬ 
sented).  This  fagade  was  a  succession  of  arcades  supported 
by  couified  columns  of  the  Doric  order,  and  on  the  tympani 
and  friezes  were  graffiti  designs  after  the  manner  of  the  late 
Munich  school,  consisting  of  griffins,  garlands,  vases,  cor¬ 
nucopia,  cartouches,  inscriptions,  candelabra^,  etc.  Below 
on  the  bases  were  diamonded  and  pointed  bosses. 

The  Bussian,  which  was  next  in  order,  was  of  an  entirely 
opposite  character.  The  Austrian  was  composite,  and  in 
measure  a  reminiscence  of  early  Italian,  but  the  Bussian 
was  national,  affected  rudeness  and  massiveness,  and  took 
the  theme  of  her  fagade  from  old  Bussian  edifices,  and  par- 


FINE  arts:  commissioner  story.  155 

ticularly  from  the  palace  of  Kolonera  near  Moscow,  the  birth  Rue  des  Nations. 
place  of  Peter  the  Great.  There  were  three  great  pavilions 
with  picturesque  roofs,  connected  together  by  a  covered  gal¬ 
lery  on  one  side,  and  an  exterior  staircase  on  the  other. 

The  heavy  woodwork  was  carved  and  decorated,  and  the 
friezes,  cornices,  and  window  frames  were  cut  into  various 
ornamental  forms  The  whole  was  impressive  and  had  a 
barbaric  character  which  was  not  without  its  charm. 

If  from  the  Swiss  Confederation  one  might  have  expected  Switzerland, 
a  chalet  as  being  especially  characteristic,  he  would  have 
been  entirely  disappointed.  Instead  of  this,  we  had  a  mas¬ 
sive  construction  of  quite  a  different  style  and  character. 

Above  a  great  arch  was  a  balustrade,  forming  a  terrace  sur¬ 
mounted  by  a  convex  roof,  out  of  character  with  the  rest  of 
the  edifice.  Above  this  rose  a  peaked  belfry,  and  under 
the  open  arch  were  two  figures  of  Burgundians  on  either 
side  the  bell,  who  struck  on  it  the  hours.  Bight  and  left  of 
the  main  door  were  large  shields  with  the  arms  of  the  Confed¬ 
eration  in  colors,  supported  by  purely  heraldic  lions,  while 
the  frieze  under  the  roof  on  the  lateral  parts  were  adorned 
with  a  series  of  cantonal  escutcheons  painted  in  color.  It 
cannot  be  said  on  the  whole  that  this  was  a  harmonious 
structure  or  particularly  happy  in  its  conception. 

Greece  was  particularly  unfortunate.  It  was  represented  Greece, 
by  an  cediculum  without  grace,  grandeur,  or  proportion,  with 
enormous  Boman  modillons ,  and  crude  effects  of  polychromie. 

Denmark  had  a  modest  jagade  in  the  style  of  the  Belgian  Denmark. 
Renaissance ,  but  with  no  specialty  of  national  character. 

Portugal  reproduced  in  her  fagade  the  Cloister  of  Belem  Portugal, 
near  Lisbon.  In  architecture  it  was  a  curious  mixture  of 
many  styles.  Gothic  and  Renaissance ,  Moorish  and  Boman, 
with  flat  round  arches,  slender  twisted  columns,  heavy  pilas¬ 
ters,  Gothic  statuettes,  and  Arabian  and  Boman  ornaments. 

The  States  of  South  and  Central  America  had  a  structure  south  ana  Cen- 
in  the  style  imported  from  Spain  in  the  sixteenth  century,  tr“  menca' 
and  modified  so  as  to  adapt  it  to  the  climate  and  the  cus¬ 
toms  of  the  people.  It  was  taken  chiefly  from  a  palace  at 
Lima,  called  La  Casa  Marques  de  Torre  Tagle,  with  an  in¬ 
closed  balcony,  studded  with  windows  and  overhanging  a 
triple-arched  portico.  The  upper  part  of  the  balcony  was 
ornamented  with  the  shields  of  each  of  the  South  Ameri¬ 
can  republics. 

Morocco,  Tunis,  Siam,  and  Persia  erected  small  lodges  of  Morocoo, Tunis, 
no  importance  and  scarcely  demanding  notice. 

Holland  distinguished  herself  by  a  structure  in  brick  and  Holland, 
stone  of  good  taste  and  moderated  ornament,  which  favora- 


156 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Rue  des  Nations. 


United  States. 


Architectural  de¬ 
signs. 


FliANCE. 


bly  compared  with  that  of  Belgium  and  had  more  restraint 
and  distinction  of  style. 

I  prefer  to  say  nothing  about  the  fagade  of  the  United 
States  on  my  own  account,  but  \yill  merely  cite  the  judg¬ 
ment  of  two  or  three  of  the  ablest  critics: 

u  La  fagade  des  Utats  Unis,”  says  M.  Charles  Blanc,  aest 
sans  caractere  et  ne  manifeste  pas  meme  un  soupgon  d’art. 
Quelque  chose  de  sauvage  perce  encore  a  travers  cette 
architecture,  parfaitement  convenable  d’ailleurs  pour  un  cafe 
de  New  York,  Philadelphie,  ou  de  Chicago.”  Mons.  Paul 
Sedille,  after  commenting  on  the  structures  of  Great  Britain, 
says  of  them :  u  Quelle  contraste  avec  le  Pavilion  des  Stats 
Unis!  Qu’estil?  Une  gare — un  etablissement  de  bains — 
un  poste  de  police  ?  Cela  est  difficile  a  dire.  D’ailleurs  cette 
construction,  encore  en  bois,  ne  pretend  pas  aux  formes  so- 
lides  ct  durables  du  monument.  Bile  semhle  i  Into':  offr’r 
un  echantillon  de  des  carcasses  de  bois  faciles  a  demonter  et 
a  transporter,  destinies  a  la  creation  instantanee  de  quelque 
ville  nouvelle  sur  le  bord  d’un  lac  encore  inconnu,  Ce  n’est 
pas  meme  de  la  charpente,  e’est  plutot  une  boite  en  menui- 
serie,  n’expriment  qu’  un  seul  desir,  faire  vite  et  encono- 
miquement.” 

The  responsibility  of  this  is  not,  however,  to  be  thrown 
solely  on  the  shoulders  of  the  architect,  nor  indeed  upon 
any  of  the  commissioners.  There  was  neither  time  nor 
money  to  enable  us  to  erect  a  proper  structure,  conformable 
to  the  wealth  or  the  dignity  of  our  country,  and  the  conse¬ 
quence  was  precisely  what  M.  Sedille  says,  that  the  com¬ 
missioner-general  and  his  subordinates  were  forced  to  have 
but  one  aim — to  build  cheaply  and  rapidly;  to  save  time  and 
money  at  any  risk.  We  did  save  money;  we  did  save  time; 
but  we  lost  credit.  We  went  to  a  great  international  recep¬ 
tion  in  our  shirt-sleeves. 

On  the  whole  the  effect  of  the  Rue  des  Nations  was  very 
picturesque  and  varied,  and  it  was  thronged  by  a  constant 
crowd.  The  idea  of  this  street  was  Mr.  Berger’s,  and  we 
congratulate  him  on  its  happiness  and  on  the  success  with 
which  it  was  carried  out. 

Architectural  Resigns. 

FRANCE 

In  the  pavilion  of  the  Ville  de  Paris  were  exhibited  in 
drawing  and  in  models  a  number  of  buildings  lately  erected 
or  still  to  be  erected,  the  models  of  which  were  carefully  exe¬ 
cuted  in  plaster  of  Paris.  It  is  quite  impossible  to  review 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


157 


all  these,  but  amung  the  best  in  style  ami  design  may  be 
mentioned  the  Biolioteque  de  VJ^cole  de  Droit ,  by  M.  L. 
Heureux,  architect,  and  M.  Oheville,  sculptor.  The  Col¬ 
lege  Rollin ,  by  M.  Roger,  and  some  of  the  Mairies ,  which 
are  weM  designed  and  effective,  specially  those  of  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  arrondissements,  the  former  by  M. 
Hfenard  and  the  latter  by  M.  Gancel.  One  room  in  the 
main  building  was  devoted  to  restorations  from  the  antique 
by  the  French  students  at  Rome,  all  well  done.  Among 
them  we  may  specially  note  the  restoration  of  the  “  Tomb 
of  Mausolus,”  by  Louis  Bernier,  which  is  harmonious  and 
effective,  and  closely  conforms  to  the  description  of  this 
splendid  mausoleum  by  Pliny;  “The  Baths  of  Titus,”  by 
M.  Leclerc ;  the  “  Palestra  Palatina  ”  and  “  Temple  of  the 
San,”  by  M.  Gerhardt;  the  “  Forum  of  Augustus,”  by  M. 
Noguet;  the  “  Forum  of  Trajan,”  by  M.  Guadet,  and  the 
“  Villa  Madama,”  by  M.  Benard. 

There  were  also  a  great  number  of  restorations  of  ancient, 
mediaeval,  and  Renaissance  buildings  and  historical  monu¬ 
ments  in  the  French  department  of  architecture,  such  as  the 
restoration  of  uMont  St.  Michel ,”  by  M.  Oorroyer,  and  the 
“ Chateau  de  Ran”  by  M.  Lafollye,  and  many  of  the  old  ab¬ 
beys,  cloisters,  churches,  fortifications,  castles,  tombs,  hos¬ 
pices,  amphitheatres — all  exceedingly  interesting,  and  under 
the  special  charge  of  the  Commission  des  Monuments  Histo- 
rique.  Besides  these  were  a  considerable  variety  of  plans 
for  new  buildings  of  every  kind,  with  their  decorations  and 
details,  which  would  merit  attention,  but  as  there  were 
nearly  400  different  works,  it  will  at  once  be  seen  that  it  is 
impossible  here  to  do  more  than  simply  to  refer  to  them  en 
masse ,  without  even  attempting  to  particularize. 


Heureux, 
Cheville, 
Roger  et  al. 


Restoration 
from  the  antique. 

Bernier. 

Leclerc. 

Gerhardt. 

Noguet. 

Guadet. 

B6nard. 


Restoration  of 
the  mediaeval  and 
r  ennaiss  ance 
builders  and  mon¬ 
uments. 


Corroyer. 

Lafollye. 


ENGLAND. 

England  also  sent  a  considerable  number  of  architectu-  englakd. 
ral  designs,  chiefly  of  buildings  lately  erected.  In  most  of 
these  designs  good  taste  and  knowledge  of  styles  and  de¬ 
tails  was  shown.  The  chief  fault  to  be  found  with  them  is 
quite  apart  from  their  mere  architectural  merit,  and  it  is 
that  English  architects  do  not  ordinarily  take  into  consid¬ 
eration  the  dull  character  of  their  climate,  and  rather  affect 
styles  which  would  be  better  fitted  for  a  bright  and  sunny 
atmosphere.  As  a  rule  the  windows  are  small  and  the 
ornamentation  massive  and  inclined  to  be  heavy,  and  the 
fagades  crowded.  Among  these  designs  are  to  be  noted 
specially  those  by  Mr.  Charles  Barry  of  “Alleyn’s  College,”  c.  Barry, 
at  Dulwich,  exterior  and  interior.  This  building,  which  is  in 


158 

UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

ENGLAND. 

red  brick,  is  handsome  and  effective.  “  Stevenstone  House,” 
by  the  same  architect,  seems  in  the  drawing  a  little  heavy 

E.  M.  Barry. 

and  overweighted  by  the  upper  part.  Mr.  E.  M.  Barry  sent 
some  restorations  and  additions  to  “  Crewe  Hall,”  also  of 
red  brick,  well  windowed,  surmounted  by  a  balustrade,  and 
plans  for  the  “New  National  Gallery,”  which  is  in  the  old, 
well-known  style  of  a  central  mass  with  dome  and  lateral 
wings.  The  interior  is  handsome  in  itself,  but,  as  far  as  one 
can  judge  from  the  drawings,  the  artist  seems  to  have  thought 
of  everything  rather  than  the  purpose  and  object  of  the 
building,  which  is  to  exhibit  pictures  and  statues,  and  to 

Shaw. 

which  it  seems  little  adapted.  Mr.  Norman  Shaw  sent  draw¬ 
ings  of  “Pierrepoint,”  which  is  a  good  specimen  of  old  Eng¬ 

Street. 

lish  with  gables.  Mr.  Street  sent  several  drawings,  among 
which  is  particularly  to  be  noticed  the  bird’s-eye  view  of  the 
“  New  Palace  of  Justice,”  London,  which  is  admirable.  Mr. 

Wyatt. 

Wyatt  sent  drawings  of  a  house  in  Park  Lane  in  red  brick, 
whicli  is  spirited,  and  of  the  “  New  Exchange  ”  at  Liverpool, 

in  which  there  is  nothing  special  or  new.  Messrs.  George 
George  &  Pet'o.  &  Peto  sent  drawings  of  an  “Old  Manor  House”  at  Rous- 
den  with  towers  and  a  sloping  roof,  which  is  simple,  broad 


Pearson. 

in  effect,  and  well  designed.  We  must  also  note  some  admi¬ 
rable  drawings  for  the  church  of  “  St.  Augustine’s,”  Kilburn, 
London,  by  Mr.  Pearson;  the  “Exterior  of  a  House”  and 
the  “  Interior  of  a  Church  ”  by  Mr.  Plumbe ;  an  “  Entresol” 

Plumbe. 

Waterhouse. 

Young. 

by  Mr.  Plumbe,  which  is  very  good;  some  admirable  designs 
by  Mr.  Waterhouse ;  and  a  “  Country  House  ”  by  Mr.  Young, 
which  is  pretty  and  varied  in  composition. 

ITALY. 

ITALY. 

Italy  sent  a  few  architectural  drawings,  but  they  are  not 
specially  distinguished.  The  most  important  was  the  de¬ 
sign  for  the  fagade  of  the  cathedral  at  Florence,  now  in  exe¬ 
cution. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

C  AUSTRIA- 
l  HUNGARY. 

Austria  sent  78  architectural  designs,  some  of  which  are 
-  important  and  admirable.  “  The  Hotel  de  Ville  at  Vienna,” 

Schmiclt. 

by  Herr  Schmidt,  has  much  that  is  original  and  striking,  and 
rich  in  its  open-work  decoration.  The  tower  seems  a  little 
too  narrow  for  the  rest  of  the  building,  but,  worked  out,  it  may 
be  different.  His  design  of  the  “Post  of&ce  at  Bale”  is  also 

Wurm. 

out  of  the  common,  and  exhibits  much  talent.  Herr  Wurrn’s 
project  for  the  “  Hotel  de  Ville  at  Hamburg  ”  is  rich  and 
varied,  and  very  effective  in  its  perfections  of  light  and 

Ferstel. 

dark.  Herr  Ferstel  also  sent  some  admirable  designs  for 

FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


159 


a  “Votive  Church  at  Vienna/7  the  “ Royal  Museum  of  Art  { Hungary. 

at  Vienna,77  and  the  “  University  at  Vienna.77  Herr  Hansen 

some  very  clever  designs  for  the  “New  Parliament  House,77 

the  “Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts,77  the  “New  Exchange,77  all 

at  Vienna,  and  the  “Academy  of  Sciences,77  at  Athens,  the 

last  especially  to  he  noted  for  its  merit.  Herr  Hasenauer7s  Hasenauer. 

designs  are  also  worthy  of  much  praise,  and  we  must  also 

note  those  of  Herr  C.  Koning,  Herr  F.  Neumann,  and  Herr  Zoning. 

A.  Wielemans.  On  the  whole,  these  designs  reflect  great  wieiemans. 
credit  upon  the  Vienna  architects.  They  are  not  tame  or 
common,  hut  spirited,  clever,  and  at  times  original. 

In  architecture  America  sent  nothing,  and  there  was  little 
to  detain  us  in  the  other  countries. 


ENGRAVINGS. 


Engravings. 


There  was  a  very  considerable  number  of  engravings  in 
this  Exposition,  hut  we  can  hut  give  a  glance  at  them.  The 
art  of  line  engraving  has  of  late  years  counted  hut  few  ardent 
disciples,  and  Photography  has  struck  at  it  a  severe  blow. 
But  there  are  still  eminent  engravers  who  cling  to  the  old 
and  classical  style,  and  from  time  to  time  present  admirable 
works  to  the  public. 

FRANCE. 


Among  the  French  may  he  named,  for  instance,  Bertinot, 
Blanchard,  Salmon,  Huot,  Danguin,  Didier,  Waltner,  Jac- 
quet,  and  Gaillard,  who  were  all  represented  here.  Most  of 
the  engravers,  however,  have  of  late  rather  given  them¬ 
selves  to  etching  and  engraving  in  aqua-fortis ,  and  some 
of  these  productions  have  shown  great  talent,  and  the  com¬ 
parative  freedom  and  facility  of  this  method  of  engraving 
has  induced  many  painters  to  try  their  hand  at  it,  with 
very  considerable  success,  and  often  with  masterly  effects. 
Among  engravers  and  painters  who  have  devoted  them¬ 
selves  to  this  branch  may  be  specially  mentioned  as  in  the 
front  line  those  of  M.  Jacquemart,  who  sent  a  number  of 
spirited  and  powerful  engravings,  chiefly  from  the  Dutch 
and  Flemish  masters.  M.  Leopold  Fleming  has  abandoned 
the  burin  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  an  aqua-fortist. 
He  sent  22  specimens  of  his  art.  Among  others  also  must  be 
specially  noticed  as  distinguished  in  this  art,  Mills,  Bajon, 
Chauvel,  Boilvin,  Gilbert,  Monzies,  Milius,  and  Greux.  M. 
Bajon  has,  among  other  works,  reproduced  with  spirit  the 
pictures  of  Meissonier,  Brion,  and  Alma-Tadema,  and  par¬ 
ticularly  a  very  clever  portrait  of  Darwin,  which  is  admira¬ 
bly  rendered $  M.  Chauvel  the  landscapes  of  Diaz,  Corot, 


FRANCE. 


Bertinot, 
Blanchard, 
Salmon  et  al. 


J  acquemart. 


Fleming. 


Mills, 
Bajon  et  al. 


Chauvel. 


160 


FRANCE. 

Boilvin. 

Milius. 

Gilbert. 

Monzies. 

Courtry. 


Laguillennie. 

Brnnet-De 

baines. 

Nicolle. 


HMouin. 


ENGLAND. 


Herkomer. 

Palmer. 

Macbetb. 

Edwards. 

Doo. 

Atkinson. 

Heseltine. 

Stacpoole. 

Eversbed. 

Faed. 

Haden. 

Richeton. 


ITALY. 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

Daubigny,  Dupre.  M.  Boilvin  has  treated  a  number  of  his 
own  designs,  representing  the  adventures  of  Pantagruel, 
Gargantua,  and  Panurge.  M.  Milius  has  rendered  with 
spirit  uLes  Fauconniers ”  of  Fromentin,  the  “  Oats”  of  Lam¬ 
bert,  and  a  painting  of  Goya.  M.  Gilbert  has  in  some  eases 
adojjted  another  style,  touching  with  the  burin  after  biting 
with  aqua-fortis,  as  in  the  portrait  of  a  lady  from  Henner. 
So  also  has  M.  Monzies  in  the  portrait  of  “M.  Coquelin” 
after  Vibert.  Mr.  Courtry  sent  13  engravings  from  con¬ 
temporary  painters,  such  as  Troy  on  and  Yan  Marche,  Dela¬ 
croix,  Gerorne,  Meissonier,  and  Munkacsy.  M.  Monzies  had 
engravings  from  Yibert,  Goupil,  Meissonier,  Brion,  and 
Wauters.  Among  other  engravings  in  the  French  section 
should  also  be  noted  those  by  Laguillermie ;  the  ancient 
“  Hotel  de  Yille,”  at  Paris,  by  Brunet-Debain es ;  four  en¬ 
gravings  of  streets  and  buildings,  by  M.  Mcolle;  and  a 
series  of  illustrations  of  uManon  Lescaut?  Sterne’s  “Senti¬ 
mental  Journey,”  and  the  “  Voyage  autour  de  ma  Chambre ,” 
composed  by  the  engraver,  M.  Hedouin. 

ENGLAND. 

England  also  sent  36  engravings  on  wood,  steel,  copper, 
and  aqua  fortis.  Among  these  were  several  by  the  painters 
themselves,  of  their  own  pictures.  M.  Herkomer  sent  two, 
a  souvenir  of  Bembrandt,  and  a  Welsh  Woman ;  Mr.  Palmer 
his  “Early  Ploughman”  and  “Morning  of  Life”;  Mr.  Mac¬ 
beth,  aqua-fortes  of  three  of  his  pictures;  Mr.  Edwards  two 
pictures  of  “London  from  the  Observatory,”  and  “Black- 
friar’s  Bridge”;  Mr.  Doo  sent  three  portraits,  one  from  Sir 
Thomas  Lawrence;  Mr.  Atkinson  three  engravings,  two 
from  paintings  by  M.  Millais;  Mr.  Heseltine  some  aqua- 
fortes;  Mr.  Stacpoole  sent  three — the  “Boll  Call”  of  Miss 
Thompson,  “The  Palm  Offering”  by  F.  Goodall,  “Circe and 
the  Companions  of  Ulysses”  by  Mr.  Briton  Biviere;  Mr. 
Evershed  uSur  la  Tamise ”  and  uFointes  Seelies ”;  Mr.  Faed 
two  portraits  after  Sir  Daniel  Macnee ;  Mr.  Haden  the  “  Pier 
of  Calais,”  after  Turner,  and  “The  Breaking  up  of  the  Aga¬ 
memnon”;  Mr.  Bicheton  a  portrait  of  “Bichard  Wagner” 
and  “William  III”  after  Bembrandt.  Messrs. Dalziel Bros, 
sent  some  proofs  of  engravings  on  wood  from  their  own 
designs  for  “The  Pilgrim’s  Progress,”  and  from  Mr.  Bar¬ 
nard’s  designs  in  illustration  of  some  of  Dickens’  novels. 

ITALY. 

Italy  sent  13  engravings,  all  of  which  have  merit.  Among 
the  best  we  may  note  five  acqua- fortis  portraits  and  studies 
of  animals  by  Sig.  diBartolo,  and  “The  Sacred  and  Profane 


Bartolo. 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY 


161 


Love,”  by  Titian,  engraved  with  the  burin.  The  “  Daughter  ITALY- 
of  Tintoretto,”  by  Sig.  Pagliano,  and  the  “Arch  of  Titus,” 
by  Sig.  Beltrami,  and  the  “Court  of  the  Palazzo  Marino”  at 
Milan,  by  Sig.  L.  Conconi,  and  the  “Bemorse”  of  Sig.  Gilli. 

Sig.  Datnele  had  a  “Cleopatra”  engraved  with  the  burin, 
and  Sig.  Turletti  a  “Virgin  in  the  Catacombs”  and  the 
“  Death  of  Boniface,”  in  aqua  fortis. 

SPAIN. 

Spain  sent  52  engravings  and  chromo  lithographs  and  SPAIN- 
lithographs;  24  in  aqua-fortis  were  from  the  frescoes  of  “St. 

Antonio  de  la  Floridas”  (by  Goya),  and  engraved  by  Sig. 

Galban  y  Candela ;  Sen.  Bossel  y  Torres  sent  also  20  en¬ 
gravings  in  aqua  fortis,  and  Sen.  Uavarrete  y  Jos  a  por¬ 
trait  by  Goya,  engraved  with  the  burin.  The  remainder  were 
lithographs  and  sketches  for  the  “ Illustration  Espagnole  et 
Americaine .” 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

Austria  sent  18  engravings ;  among  which  are  to  be  ^  austria- 

specially  noted  five  in  aqua-fortis,  by  Herr  W.  Unger,  after - - - - — 

Rembrandt,  Rubens,  and  Snyders;  four  by  Herr  Sonnen- 
leitner  ( en  taille  douce),  after  Rubens,  Knaus,  and  Defregger ; 
and  eight-  by  Herr  Klaus,  after  L’Allemand,  Velasquez,  and 
Muller. 

SWITZERLAND. 

Switzerland  sent  10  engravings,  among  which  are  to  be  Switzerland. 
noted  those  by  M.  F.  Weber,  of  the  “Sacred  and  Profane 
Love,”  by  Titian,  a  “Madonna,”  by  Luini,  and  “Amerbach.” 
by  Holbein.  M.  Girardet  sent  three  after  M.  Bonheur  and 
M.  Baron. 

BELGIUM. 

Belgium  sent  19,  of  which  particularly  are  to  be  mentioned  Belgium. 
three  by  M.  Biot,  engravings  on  steel,  representing  the 
“Triumph  of  Galatea,”  and  portraits  of  “M.  Sanford”  and 
of  “the  Emperor  of  Austria,”  and  three  engravings  on  wood 
by  M.  Pannemaker. 

.  RUSSIA. 

Russia  sent  26,  of  which  ten  were  in  aqua-fortis,  by  M.  Russia. 
Schichkine.  M.  Redlich  sent  an  engraving  on  copper,  after 
a  picture  by  Meteiko,  representing  Pierre  Skarga  preaching 
before  Sigismond  III,  for  which  he  received  the  medal  of 
honor. 

UNITED  STATES. 

America  sent  12  etchings  and  engravings  on  wood,  of  united  states. 
which  six  by  Mr.  Henry  Marsh,  two  by  Mr.  J.  A.  Mitchell, 

11  p  R 


162 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


ukited  states.  one  ])y  Mr.  Fred.  Moller  are  specially  to  be  noted.  In  wood- 
engraving  America  distinguishes  herself,  and  we  cannot 
refrain,  in  passing,  from  referring  to  the  admirable  speci- 
Scribner’s Mag-  mens  to  be  seen  lately  in  u  Scribner’s”  and  u  Harper’s  Maga- 

azine.  . 

Harper’s  Maga  zines,”  in  which  not  only  the  design  is  at  times  to  be  highly 
commended  but  also  the  engraving.  It  is  greatly  to  be  re¬ 
gretted  that  in  this  branch  we  were  not  more  largely  repre¬ 
sented  in  the  Exposition. 

Repoussee  Chasings . 

Repousse.  In  engraving,  laminated  metals,  repoussee  work,  niello, 
Tiffany  &  Co.  and  chasing,  Messrs.  Tiffany  &  Co.  eminently  distinguished 
themselves,  and  for  the  admirable  work  they  displayed 
justly  received  one  of  the  three  grandes  medailles.  Not  only 
for  mere  workmanship  are  they  to  be  highly  commended, 
but  also  for  the  good  taste  displayed  in  the  designs,  many 
of  which  were  as  beautiful  in  form  and  outline  as  in  the  re¬ 
fined  delicacy  of  their  execution.  The  copies  of  the  gold 
ornaments  of  the  Oesnola  collection  were  wonderful  speci¬ 
mens  of  elaborate  and  almost  deceptive  imitation  of  the 
antique  originals,  even  to  their  defects  and  imperfections, 
while  the  cups,  vases,  bowls,  pictures  they  exhibited  might 
challenge  comparison  with  the  best  work  of  Europe  or 
Japan. 

Medals. 

_ Medals. _  ln  medals,  America  is  peculiarly  weak,  if  one  may  judge 

from  the  national  coins,  which  are  inferior  to  the  coins  of 
almost  every  other  country,  not  only  in  the  tastefulness 
of  the  design,  but  in  the  quality  of  the  workmanship.  So 
far  from  improving,  the  later  coinage,  as  far  as  design  and 
die-work  goes,  are  even  worse  than  those  of  an  early  day. 
They  are,  in  a  word,  for  the  most  part,  vulgar.  While  in 
the  fine  engraving  of  bank-notes  we  have  risen  to  excellence, 
^™edica  wTui  our  c°ins  we  have  scarcely  achieved  respectability.  On 

gUsb°k  and  En'the  contrary,  the  medals  here  exhibited  by  France  and  En¬ 
gland  are  admirable,  and  the  late  coinage  of  England  is 
specially  to  be  commended. .  Nothing  in  any  coinage  can 
Greet  coins,  compare  to  the  best  antique  coins  of  Greece,  at  least  so  far 
as  beauty  of  design  in  their  ideal  heads ;  but  in  workman¬ 
ship  the  coinage  and  medals  of  Europe,  and  especially  of 
France  and  England,  have  been  carried  to  a  high  point  of 
excellence.  Among  the  medals  and  coins  to  be  noted  are 
those  executed  by  Messrs.  Dubois,  Merley,  Degeorge,  La¬ 
grange,  Dupuis,  Oudine,  Ponscarme,  and  Chaplain. 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


163 


NATIONAL  AET  EDUCATION.  National  Art  Ed, 

vacation. 

I  have  already  occupied  too  much  space  and  must  hurry 
to  a  conclusion.  But  before  doing  so  a  few  statistics  seem 
to  be  demanded,  in  regard  to  the  national  encouragement 
of  the  fine  arts  in  Europe.  There  is  scarcely  a  country, 
however  small,  that  has  not  national  museums  and  acade¬ 
mies  devoted  to  the  fine  arts,  to  which  an  annual  sum,  and 
often  a  very  considerable  one,  is  inscribed  in  the  budget,  and 
that  does  not  seek  in  various  ways  to  honor  and  encourage 
art  and  artists.  As  a  nation  we  may  be  almost  said  to  stand 
alone  in  our  rejection  of  their  claims.  Not  only  painting, 
sculpture,  and  architecture  are  under  supervision  in  Eng¬ 
land  and  on  the  Continent,  but  music  has  also  its  claims 
and  its  appropriations  of  no  inconsiderable  sums. 

ENGLAND. 


Beginning  with  England,  the  sum  inscribed  in  the  budget  exgland. 
for  1878,  for  education,  science,  and  art,  was  £3,847,390, 
which  included  the  following : 


1st.  For  the  department  of  science  and  art. . 

For  the  purchase  of  works  of  art .  £6, 000 

For  the  reproduction  of  works  of  art .  1, 500 

Making  photographs,  and  engravings  in  aqua¬ 
fortis  .  750 

Purchase  of  oil  pictures  and  aquarelles .  1, 000 

Exchange  of  reproductions .  200 

Library  of  arts . . .  2, 000 

Purchase  for  mtiseum,  Jenny n  street .  500 

Museum,  Edinburgh .  2,500 

Museum,  Dublin .  1,000 

2d.  The  British  Museum . . . 

For  the  purchase  of  manuscripts .  2, 500 

For  the  purchase  of  oriental  antiquities .  250 

Excavations  in  Assyria .  2,  000 

Purchase  of  national  antiquities,  objects  of  art  of 

the  middle  ages,  and  ethnography .  500 

Purchase  of  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities .  2, 500 

Purchase  of  medals  and  silver  coin .  1, 000 

3d.  The  National  Gallery . 

Purchase  of  pictures  and  drawings .  5, 000 

4th.  Gallery  of  National  Portraits . 

Purchase  of  pictures,  busts,  &c .  750 

5th.  National  Gallery  of  Scotland  at  Edinburgh . 

6th.  National  Gallery  of  Ireland  at  Dublin . 

For  purchase  of  pictures .  1, 000 


£307, 414 


Government  aid 
to  science  and  art. 


112, 990 


Museum  and 
galleries. 


11, 983 

2,  000 

2, 100 

2, 389 


This  does  not  take  into  account  special  appropriations  for 
accidental  purchases,  such  as,  for  instance,  occurred  in  1871, 
upon  the  sale  of  Sir  Eobert  BeaPs  collection,  at  which  the 


164 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

England.  English  Government  expended  £75,000  for  the  purchase 

of  77  pictures,  chiefly  of  the  Dutch  and  Flemish  schools, 

^Koyai  Acade-  nor  0f  the  annual  purchases  of  the  Royal  Academy.  During 

National  Gaiie- the  year  1878,  there  were  added  to  the  National  Gallery  by 

purchase,  eight  pictures  of  foreign  schools,  by  Raffaelle  (?) 

Botticelli,  Fr.  Bigio,  Girard  Horebout,  Paul  Veronese, 

Jean  Jerome  Savoldo,  Catherine  Van  Hemessen,  and  Lippi, 

and  six  pictures  of  the  English  school.  A  very  considerable 

„  .  .  ,  number  of  works  of  various  kinds  were  purchased  for  the 

um.  British  Museum,  from  the  Italian,  French,  German,  and 

English  schools.  The  Assyrian  department  was  enriched 

by  a  number  of  ancient  relics  of  art,  and  by  a  variety  of 

south  Reusing-  ancient  coins  of  rarity  and  value.  The  museum  of  South  Ken¬ 
ton  Museum. 

sington  made  very  considerable  xmrchases,  and  acquired  by 
gift  or  purchase  2,044  rare  objects  of  art,  among  which 
were  a  work  by  L.  Penicaud  (lit  Nardon,  and  an  oval  portrait 
of  Charles  de  Guise,  Cardinal  of  Lorraine,  surrounded  by 
enamel  plaques,  attributed  to  Leonard  Limousin,  for  which 
tion ai^ Portraits?  £1/100  were  paid.  The  Gallery  of  National  Portraits  added 
greatly  to  its  interesting  collection.  Besides  these  the 
.seum3°Lib?a- 1  museum >  library,  and  galleries  of  art  at  Liverpool  expend 
ry  annually  £12,000,  in  purchases,  and  new  museums  of  art  have 

been  founded  at  Manchester  and  at  Nottingham. 

English5  govern-  The  prices  paid  in  England  for  some  of  the  pictures  of 
ment  tor  pictures.  English  school,  sold  at  auction  during  the  year  1878, 

may  also  be  noted  as  showing  the  encouragement  there 
afforded  to  artists :  a  portrait  of  “  Lady  Smith  and  Child,”  by 
Reynolds,  32,800  francs ;  portrait  of  “Madame  Stanhope,”  by 
Reynolds,  78,750  francs;  a  “  Fish-market”  and  “  Grand  Canal 
at  Venice,”  by  Bonnington,  78,750  francs  each;  “Boats,” 
by  Stanfield,  36,750  francs;  a  picture  by  Landseer,  42,000 
francs;  two  pictures  by  Turner,  31,500  francs  each;  “St. 
Joseph,”  by  Millais,  11,812  francs ;  “The  Scapegoat,”  by  Hol¬ 
man  Hunt,  12,600  francs ;  portrait  by  Raeburn,  16,012  francs ; 
“Crossing,”  by  H.  Thompson,  20,475  francs;  a  Landscape, 
by  Gainsborough,  13,125  francs,  etc. 

The  pictures  by  old  masters  of  the  “Gallery  Novar”  were 
also  sold  at  auction,  and  the  “Madonna  del  Candelabri,”  by 
Raffaelle,  was  withdrawn  after  an  offer  of  487,500  francs. 
uLa  Vierge  de  la  Legende ,”  also  by  Raffaelle,  was  sold  for 
78,750  francs ;  a  Seaport,  by  Claude,  at  the  same  price  ;  a 
Landscape,  by  Hobbema,  at  52,760  francs  ;  a  “  St.  Antonio,” 
by  Murillo,  59,062  francs ;  uLes  deux  Marquises ,”  by  Wat¬ 
teau,  59,062  francs  ;  “A  Glass  of  Lemonade,”  by  Terburg, 
48,560  francs.  “  The  Vision  of  St.  Helena,”  by  Paul  Veronese, 
was  bought  by  the  National  Gallery  at  86,625  francs. 


FINE  ATTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


165 


FRANCE. 


FRANCE. 


Let  ns  now  pass  to  France.  The  budget  for  the  fine  arts  Budget  for  the 
for  1878  amounted  to  7,434,830  francs,  and  this  has  been  me  1  s 
vehemently  complained  of  and  reported  upon  by  the  com¬ 
mission  as  being  altogether  too  small  to  meet  the  require¬ 
ments  of  the  nation.  There  is  every  reason,  therefore,  to 
suppose  that  the  recommendations  contained  in  the  report 
of  the  director  and  commission  for  the  fine  arts  will  be  com¬ 
plied  with,  and  that  this  sum  will  be  increased  very  mate¬ 
rially. 

This  sum  was  apportioned  as  follows : 


Francs. 

Administration  Centrale  (personel) .  197,  000  .  Appropriation 

Administration  Centrale  (materiel) .  40,  000  of  money' 

Etablissement  des  Beaux  Arts .  597, 510 


Ouvrages  d’art  et  decoration  d’edifices  publics .  787, 140 

Exposition  des  artistes  vivants  . .  502,  300 

Theatres  nationaux,  Conservatoire  de  Musique .  1, 850, 500 

Souscription  aux  ouvrages  (Part .  90, 000 

Encouragement  et  secours  (Beaux  Arts) .  140,  000 

Encouragement  et  secours  (Theatres) .  140,  000 

Monuments  historiques  . . . . .  1, 335, 000 

Musses  Nationaux .  702,  000 

Palais  de  Luxembourg .  82, 000 

Manufactures  National  es .  883, 800 

Manufactures  Nationales  (Exposition) .  25, 000 


7, 434, 830 


In  the  annual  budget  of  698,275  francs  accorded  to  the 
Academic  des  Beaux  Arts ,  15,000  are  given  to  the  prepara-  Bf™xT?ts  dcs 
tion  of  the  u  Dictionnaire  des  Beaux  Arts 6,000  for  the  cost  mctionai>e  des 

Beaux  Arts. 


of  medals  for  the  Grand  Prix  de  Borne,  and  the  execution  of 
cantatas.  Every  year  the  Academie  distributes  prizes  to 
young  artists  at  a  solemn  public  meeting.  Besides  the  Grand 
Prix  de  Borne ,  and  those  instituted  by  the  government,  the 
Academy  also  distributes  a  series  of  prizes  established  by 
private  gift  and  bequest.  The  academy  at  Rome  and  the 
school  of  Athens  are  also  supported  by  a  credit  of  144,200 
francs.  Each  pensioner  receives  an  annual  pension  of  3,510 
francs,  and  the  director  a  salary  of  8,000  francs.  In  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts ,  by  the  last  official  report,  there  were 
994  pupils,  of  whom  274  were  painters,  146  sculptors,  and  574 
architects.  An  annual  competition  takes  place,  and  prizes 
of  importance  are  adjudged.  Besides  this  there  are  the  Ecole 
des  Arts  Decorative ,  27 Ecole  Rationale  de  Dessin  pour  les 
Jeunes  Filles ,  and  the  National  Manufactures  at  Sevres, 
Gobelins,  and  Beauvais,  which  give  much  occupation  to  deco¬ 
rative  artists.  Besides  this  the  municipality  of  Paris  disposes 


Prix  de  Home. 


Academy  at 
Home  and  at  Ath¬ 
ens. 


ficole  des  Beaux 
Arts. 


lUcole  dcs  Arts 
Decorative ,  cfic. 
Sevres. 

Gobelins. 

Beauvais. 


166 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1*78. 


FRANCIS. 


of  a  credit  of  300,000  francs  in  works  of  art,  which  is  dis¬ 
tributed  among  the  best  artists  of  France.  Within  the  year 
1878,  52,000  francs  were  expended  in  sculpture,  and  the  re¬ 
mainder  in  other  works  of  decoration,  and  of  painting. 
The  government  annually  purchases  from  the  Salon ,  and 
from  distinguished  living  artists,  a  very  considerable  num¬ 
ber  of  works  which  are  given  a  permanent  place  in  their 
noble  galleries ;  and  the  great  national  collections  are  con¬ 
stantly  enriched  by  the  purchase  of  valuable  works  of  an¬ 
tiquity  and  of  the  past.  In  the  provinces  also  art  is  encour- 
ged  by  public  academies  and  societies,  independently  of  the 
government. 

Sales  at  the  Ho-  At  the  Hotel  Drouot,  sales  of  works  of  art  take  place, 

telOrouot  7  1  7 

and  here,  by  the  prices  paid,  one  can  judge  of  the  patronage 
of  art  and  the  interest  it  arouses  in  France.  It  would  be 
quite  impossible  here  to  go  through  the  lists  of  their  sales 
during  the  year  1878,  but  we  may  note  a  few  of  the  highest 
prices  for  works  of  contemporary  artists.  uLe  Liseur ,77  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  pictures  of  Meissonier,  was  sold  at 
27,100  francs 5  “The  tw>  Van  der  Veldes,77  by  the  same 
artist,  at  57,100  francs;  “Reverie,”  by  Madrago,  4,010  francs; 
“Antechambre  au  Vatican,”  by  Fortuny,  6,000  francs;  uLe 
Taureau  en  Liberte,”  by  Br&cassat,  19,000  francs ;  “La  Meri- 
dienne,”  by  Jules  Duprd,  20,700  francs;  “Le  Matin,”  by 
Rousseau,  27,000  francs;  “Les  Couturieres,”  by  Millet,  10,700 
francs ;  “Animaux  en  Pdturages,”  by  Troy  on,  46,000  francs ; 
“Berger  gardant  ses  Moutons,”  by  the  same,  30,000  francs; 
“Le  Giaour  et  le  Pacha,”  by  E.  Delacroix,  27,000  francs. 


GERMANY. 

Germany.  In  Germany,  the  budget  allowed  to  the  department  of  the 

Budget  for  the  fine  arts  amounted  to  2,438,230  marks,  equivalent  to  3,047,782 
fine  arts.  francs,  the  main  part  of  which  was  thus  distributed : 

Marks. 

Sums  afforded.  Traitements . . . .  156, 000 

Employes,  &c . . . .  56, 614 

Entretien  des  collections  et  achats . ... .  448, 375 

Entretien  des  Batiments .  56, 620 

Frais  divers . . . . . . 215, 783 

National  gaiie-  Great  reforms  were  proposed  in  this  department  during 
the  year  1878,  and  a  larger  sum  was  demanded  for  purchases 
to  enrich  the  various  museums  and  galleries,  and  this  will, 
in  all  probability,  be  allowed  for  the  future.  There  are  the 
great  galleries  of  Berlin,  of  Munich,  of  Dresden,  of  Frank¬ 
fort,  and  of  Cassel,  rich  in  works  of  eminent  masters,  and 
to  which  constant  additions  are  made.  For  the  Berlin 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


167 


galleries  the  chefs  d’ceuvres  of  the  Stroggi  collection  in  Flor-  France. 

ence  were  purchased  in  1878,  for  which  180,000  francs  were 

paid.  These  consisted  of  3  pictures — a  portrait  by  Titian, 

a  portrait  by  Botticelli,  and  a  portrait  by  Bronzino;  one 

statue  and  two  busts,  one  of  Niccolo  Strozzi,  by  Nieno  de  H  GaUery  of  Ber- 

Fiesole,  and  one  of  Marietta  Strozzi,  by  Desiderio  de  Set- 

tignano.  The  cabinet  of  engravings  was  enriched  in  1867 

by  many  prints,  among  which  were  more  than  40  by  Albert 

Diirer,  so  that  it  may  now  be  said  to  hold  the  first  place 

after  that  of  the  Collection  Albertine,  at  Vienna,  in  prints 

by  this  master.  The  sum  expended  on  these  was  100,000 

francs. 

The  new  gallery  at  Cassel  was  opened  in  1877,  and  con-  Gallery  of  ob¬ 
tains  among  other  valuable  works  the  interesting  collection 
of  the  Dutch  masters,  formerly  belonging  to  the  Electors  of 
Hesse.  On  this  gallery  the  government  expended  1,200,000 
marks. 

Another  new  gallery  has  been  just  opened  at  Frankfort  k,Brankforfc  Gal' 
in  which  has  been  placed  a  very  fine  collection  of  pictures 
and  engravings. 

In  the  magnificent  collection  well-known  at  Dresden  Dresden  Gaiie- 
462,972  marks  were  expended  on  new  purchases  in  1874-?75, r>' 
during  which  time  49  works  of  ancient  masters  were  pur¬ 
chased  at  257,000  marks,  as  well  as  twelve  modern  pictures. 

Besides  this,  archaeological  and  artistic  societies  are  estab-  Societies  at 

.  _  .  7  i  -Tii  i  Home  and  Ath- 

lished  m  Rome  and  Athens,  and  a  considerable  number  otens. 
distinguished  archaeologists  are  there  supported  by  the  gov¬ 
ernment.  The  works  on  art  published  by  these  and  others 
in  Germany  are  very  important  and  valuable.  Among  these 
may  be  specified:  the  “ History  of  Painting  in  the  Middle  Histories  and 
Ages,”  by  Professor  Waltman;  the  “History  of  Painting  painting ani  ah 
from  the  IV  to  the  XYI  Centuries;”  the  “General  History  lsts‘ 
of  the  Fine  Arts,”  by  Professor  Liibec;  the  “Monograph  on 
Jules  Signorelli  and  the  Renaissance ,”  by  Dr.  Yisscher;  and 
the  “Dictionary  of  Artists,”  by  Dr.  Julius  Meyer,  which  is 
now  in  course  of  publication.  In  addition  to  this,  large  exca¬ 
vations  are  carried  on  by  the  government  in  Greece,  which 
have  resulted  in  the  remarkable  discoveries  by  Dr.  Schlie*  Dr-  schiiemann. 
mann  and  others,  well-known  now  throughout  the  artistic 
world. 

ITALY. 

In  Italy,  restricted  as  are  its  finances  at  present,  a  lively  1TALY- 
interest  is  felt  in  all  that  appertains  to  the  fine  arts.  The  National acade- 
government  is  the  head  of  all  the  academies  at  Milan,  Turin, 

Florence,  Naples,  Yenice,  Bologna,  Parma,  Modena,  Pavia, 

Lucca,  Massa,  and  Reggio  Emelia.  In  Genoa,  Bergamo, 


168 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

Yerona,  Urbino,  Siena,  Pisa,  Perugia,  and  Ravenna,  the 
chief  burden  of  the  expenses  is  borne  by  the  provinces  and 
municipalities. 

oeart?  for  the  The  budget  gives  to  the  state  for  the  fine  arts  1,970,179 


francs,  thus  distributed: 

Francs. 

Personnel  des  Academies,  Instituts,  et  Pinacotheques .  697, 435 

Materiel . 451,898 

Depense  divers . . .  58, 289 

Personnel  desMus6es,  des  Fonilles,  Conservation  des  Antiquity.  313, 382 
Materiel .  449, 175 


Excavations  at  Excavations  are  now  being  made  in  various  quarters,  and 

Pompeii,  Pome,  1 

etc.  specially  at  Pompeii,  Palestina,  Sipontum,  and  Rome.  The 

Tiber  has  not  as  yet  yielded  any  great  number  of  objects, 
at  least  as  far  as  they  have  been  exhibited,  and  questions 
have  raised  made  as  to  those  which  have  been  discovered, 
and  explanations  demanded  as  to  their  non-appearance. 
The  result  of  the  excavations  during  the  last  few  years 
has  been  very  satisfactory,  and  a  large  number  of  statues 
and  some  remarkable  wall  paintings  of  great  interest  and 
importance  have  been  unearthed.  New  museums  have  also 
been  constructed  for  their  exhibition,  and  the  government 
has  now  founded  a  new  museum  of  art  applied  to  industry. 

Gallery  at  rior- The  gallery  at  Florence  has  been  enriched  by  50  works, 
chiefly  of  the  science  school.  Unfortunately  the  govern¬ 
ment  is  too  poor  to  secure  for  its  national  collections  all 
the  important  works  which  from  time  to  time  are  sold  from 
private  galleries.  Many  of  these  have  of  late  gone  into  the 
possession  of  foreign  countries,  for  the  weight  of  taxation 
and  the  cost  of  retaining  such  works  brings  about  forced 
sales.  Among  other  things  lately  sold  may  be  mentioned 
two  bronzes  attributed  to  Michel  Angelo  (?),  which  were 
bought  at  Venice  by  Madame  le  Barronne  de  Rothschild  for 
350,000  francs ;  two  busts  purchased  for  the  Berlin  Gallery 
for  100,000  francs ;  350  pieces  of  ceramics  sold  to  Paris  by 
Sig.  Castellani;  and  a  number  of  pictures  purchased  by 
England. 

Monuments  to  But,  notwithstanding  the  unfortunate  financial  condition 

Victor  Emanuel.  7  ° 

of  Italy  at  the  present  moment,  conspicuous  sums  were 
voted  within  the  year  1878  for  the  erection  in  the  various 
cities  of  monuments  in  honor  of  Victor  Emanuel,  amount¬ 
ing  to  over  13,000,000  of  francs.  Of  this  sum  10,000,000  have 
been  appropriated  by  the  government  to  the  monument  in 
Rome,  1,000,000  to  that  in  Turin,  400,000  to  that  in  Milan, 
250,000  to  that  in  Venice,  and  so  on.  These  were  voted 
within  a  year  of  the  King’s  death,  while  America,  as  a  na¬ 
tion,  has  as  yet,  after  the  lapse  of  nearly  a  century,  erected 


FINE  ARTS:  COMMISSIONER  STORY. 


169 


no  national  monument  to  Washington,  and  still  seems  to  ITALY- 
grudge  the  outlay  necessary  to  complete  one  worthy  of  the 
country  and  of  its  great  leader  in  the  path  of  liberty. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

Austria  also  is  devoting  large  sums  to  the  development  S  austria- 

of  art.  I  have  not  been  able  to  obtain  the  amount  attrib- - 

uted  to  her  in  the  budget  to  this  purpose,  but  it  is  large. 

At  present,  in  addition  to  the  magnificent  collections  of  art, 
she  is  engaged  in  building  and  adorning  the  new  great  National  Muse- 
National  Museum  in  Vienna,  some  of  the  statues  for  which 
appeared  at  the  Exposition  and  have  already  been  spoken 
of.  Besides  this,  there  is  the  Academy  of  Vienna  and  the  Academies  at 
Hotel  of  the  Kunstler  Verein  at  Vienna,  now  in  execution, 
and  the  great  monument  to  Beethoven.  A  glance  into  the 
catalogue  of  architectural  places  at  her  section  at  the  Ex¬ 
position  of  Paris,  as  well  as  of  statues  and  pictures,  will 
show  the  great  works  on  which  she  is  engaged,  all  giving 
work  to  artists  and  tending  to  develop  art. 


Here  I  must  pause,  passing  over  with  merely  general  co^ragiment  To 
remarks  the  encouragement  given  by  the  other  nations  of 
Europe  to  the  fine  arts.  In  a  word,  let  it  be  said  that  Rus¬ 
sia,  Spain,  Belgium,  Holland,  Sweden,  Norway,  Denmark — 
all,  in  fact,  show  a  national  pride  in  art,  all  have  their  great 
national  galleries,  museums,  and  academies,  and  all  give 
largely  of  their  means  to  support  them.  Nowhere  are  they 
neglected  by  any  nation  as  a  nation.  Nowhere  are  they  left 
solely  to  private  patronage  or  special  municipalities.  No¬ 
where  are  artists  without  public  rewards  and  honors  and 
distinctions.  Nowhere  does  any  nation  neglect  their  claims 
and  deny  them  their  honors,  save  in  America. 

We  as  a  nation  have  built  our  house.  It  is  useful.  It  is  icif one  iu  Ainer' 
commodious.  To  its  practical  departments  we  have  given 
much  thought.  But  art  as  yet  has  no  place  in  it.  We  claim 
to  be  a  practical  people.  We  insist  that  use  is  better  than 
beauty  5  that  if  our  national  house  is  not  decorated  and 
beautified,  it  is  because  beauty  is  of  no  practical  benefit  to 
men.  We  talk  perpetually  of  our  being  a  new  country, 
whose  business  it  is  to  fell  forests,  open  new  paths,  plant 
sawmills,  build  towns  and  railways,  and  attend  to  business. 
Undoubtedly  this  is  our  duty,  but  not  all  our  duty,  nor  the 
highest  and  best  part  of  it.  A  new  country,  forsooth  !  As 
if  any  people  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin — with  all  its  world  of 
inherited  literature  behind  it  and  Shakespeare  for  an  an- 


170  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

united  states,  cestor ;  with  all  its  history  stretching  hack  in  direct  line  two 
thousand  years ;  with  all  its  religion  and  law  derived  from 
the  past — could  possibly  be  called  young !  As  if  the  mere 
facts  of  place  made  a  people  young !  As  if  we  should  all  be 
old  if  we  were  on  European  soil,  and  are  only  young  because 
we  are  on  American  soil !  Do  we  plead  ignorance  of  finance, 
of  war,  of  trade,  of  commerce,  of  mechanics,  on  that  score  ?  Is 
there  any  nation  that  stands  more  forward  than  we  in  these 
a^reciatfon^a  departments l?  Why,  then,  should  we  excuse  ourselves  for 
higher  culture.  qef[ciencies  higher  culture  by  such  a  plea  ?  We  know 

that  it  is  false.  We  know  that  it  is  only  an  excuse.  So 
far  from  this  being  the  case,  we  are  one  of  the  most  luxu¬ 
rious  nations  in  the  world ;  one  of  the  most  developed  in  all 
that  relates  to  convenience  and  the  practical  requirements  of 
life,  one  of  the  most  accomplished  in  all  the  so-called  useful 
and  mechanical  arts ;  but  in  the  ideal  spheres  of  art  we  have 
accomplished  little,  because  we  have  desired  little  ;  our  needs 
and  necessities  have  been  amply  supplied,  but  the  heart  and 
soul  have  been  fed  upon  husks.  Use  has  its  buildings  and 
habitations,  but  beauty  has  not  yet  its  temple. 

W.  W.  STORY, 
Additional  Commissioner. 


[Note. — Appended  hereto  are  lists  of  the  jurors  of  the  several  classes  comprised  in  the  First  Group 
(Works  of  Art),  also  of  the  exhibitors  in  those  classes  to  whom  awards  were  decreed.] 


APPENDIX. 


FIRST  GROUP— WORKS  OF  ART. 

PRESIDENT  AND  VICE-PRESIDENTS  OF  THE  JURIES  OF  THE  FIRST  GROUP. 

Tullo  Massarani,  Senator,  President  . . . . .  Italy. 

Meissonier,  First  Vice-President . . . . .  France. 

Gude,  Second  Vice-President .  Sweden  and  Norway. 


JURY  ON  CLASSES  1  AND  2  (PAINTINGS  AND  DESIGNS). 


Armitage  ........... 

Leighton . 

Dobson . 

Millet . 

Dardel . . 

Dietrichson . 

Pagliano . 

Ponte  de  la  Hoz  . . 

Passini . . 

Harkanyi . 

Bogoluboff  . 

Jacoby  . 

Saussure . . 

Delin . 

Slingeneyer . . 

De  Laveleye . 

Frcelich  . . . 

Marquis  of  Penafiel 

Rielefs . . . 

Stortenbecker . 

Baudry . 

Hebert  . . . 

Robert-Fleury _ 

Bonnat  . 

Breton . . . 

Delaunay . . . 

Jalabert  . 

Cottier . 

Laurens . 

Reiset . . 

Hesse . . . 

Vicomte  de  Tauzia  . 
Gruyer - ......... 


England. 

England. 

England. 

United  States. 
Sweden  and  Norway. 
Sweden  and  Norway. 
Italy. 

Spain. 

Austri  a-Hungary . 
Austria-Hungary . 
Russia. 

Russia. 

Switzerland. 

Belgium. 

Belgium. 

Belgium. 

Denmark. 

Portugal. 

Netherlands. 

Netherlands. 

France. 

France. 

France. 

France. 

France. 

France. 

France. 

France. 

France. 

France. 

France. 

France. 

France. 


171 


172 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 
AWARDS  IN  CLASSES  1  AND  2  (PAINTINGS  AND  DESIGNS). 


Of  the  Grand  Prizes  given  to  the  Section  on  Painting,  five  were  given  to  France, 
three  to  Austria-Hungary,  two  to  England,  one  to  Italy,  one  to  Spain,  one  to  Russia, 
one  to  Belgium  ;  as  follows : 


GRAND  PRIZES. 


1 Rappels ”  ( confirmation  of  previovs  Medals  of  Honor ,  1867). 

Meissonier .  France. 


Cabanel .  France. 

G6rome .  France. 


Medals  of  Honor. 


Bouguereau . 
Franyais .... 
Herkomer,  H 

Makart . 

Matejko  .... 
Millais,  J.  E 


France. 

France. 

Great  Britain. 
Austria-Hungary. 
Austria-Hungary. 
Great  Britain. 


Munkacsy,  M 
Pasini,  A . . . . 
Pradilla,  F  .. 
Siemiradski  . 
Wauters . 

I 


Austri  a-Hungary . 
Italy. 

Spain. 

Russia. 

Belgium. 


MEDALS  OF  THE  FIRST  CLASS. 

11  Rappels”  ( confirmation  of  previous  Medals  of  the  First  Class,  1867). 


Bida .  France. 

Calderon,  P.  H .  Great  Britain. 

Grant,  Sir  Francis -  Great  Britain. 


Alma  Tadema . 

Bloch . . 

_  Denmark. 

Breton,  Emile . 

Busson . 

_  France. 

Delaunay . 

...  France. 

Dubois,  Paul -  . . 

. . .  France. 

Glaize,  L6oh - - - - 

...  France. 

Henner .  . . . 

. . .  France. 

Israels,  J . . . . 

...  Holland. 

Lefebvre,  Jules . . . . 

...  France. 

Levy,  Emile . 

Levy,  Henri . 

...  France. 

Madrazo,  Fr6ddric -  Spain. 

Stevens,  Alfred .  Belgium. 

Willems,  F .  Belgium. 

Medals. 

Madrazo,  R  .  Spain. 

Munthe .  Norway. 

Nittis,  G.  de .  Italy. 

Robert-Fleury,  Tony..  France. 

Rousseau,  Philippe -  France. 

Van-Marcke . .  .  France. 

Van  tier,  B .  Switzerland. 

Verlat .  Belgium. 

Vollon .  .  France. 

Wahl  berg,  A . .  Sweden. 

Watts,  G.  F .  Great  Britain. 

Winne,  De . .  Belgium. 


MEDALS  OF  THE  SECOND  CLASS. 


Bernier,  Camille .  France. 

Bisschop . .  Holland. 

Blanc,  P.  ,1  . France. 

Boulanger,  G .  France. 

Bridgman .  United  States. 

Canon .  Austria-Hungary. 

Cederstrom,  Baron  G..  Sweden. 


Clays .  Belgium. 

Cluysenaar . Belgium. 

Cor .  Franee. 

Curzon,  De .  France. 

Dominguez,  D.  Manuel,  Spain. 

Dubufe,  Edouard . France. 

Duran,  Carolus - -  .  France. 


APPENDIX. 


173 


Gonpil,  J . .  France. 

Haanen,  C.  H.  van  . .  .  Holland. 

Harlamoff . .  Russia. 

Harpignies .  France. 

Jacquemart,  Mlle  N _  France. 

Roller,  R .  Switzerland. 

Kovalevski  . .  Russia. 

L’Allemand  . .  Austria-Hungary. 


Leloir,  Louis . *  France. 

Machard . France. 

Moreau,  Gustave .  France. 

Ouless,  W.  W .  Great  Britain, 

Pagliano,  E .  . .  Italy. 

Pelouse . .  France. 

Pettersen .  .  Norway 

Thirion,  E .  France. 


MEDALS  OE  THE  THIRD  CLASS. 


Angeli,  Y . 

..  Austria. 

Bastien-Lepage _ _ 

. .  France. 

Benezur  Cyula . 

. ..  Hungary. 

Berchbre . 

. . .  France. 

Berne-Bellecour _ 

..  France. 

Bertrand,  J . 

France. 

Collart,  Mme  M . 

.  Belgium. 

Constant,  B . 

..  France. 

Cormon . 

..  France. 

Dana . 

. .  United  States. 

Defregger . 

Gilbert,  Sir  John  .  . . 

..  Great  Britain. 

Guillaumet . 

..  France. 

Gvzis .  . 

..  Greece. 

Heyerdahl . 

..  Norway. 

Humbert . 

. .  France. 

Induno,  Girolamo. .. 

. .  Italy. 

Jacquet,  G . 

. .  France. 

Kramskoi . . 

. .  Russia. 

Lambert,  Eugene . France. 

Lamoriniere,  F .  Belgium. 

Le  Roux,  Hector .  France. 

Lupi . Portugal. 

Mesdag,  H.  W .  Holland. 

Orcliardson,  W.  Q _  Great  Britain, 

I  Parrot .  France. 

Plasencia,  C .  Spain. 

Protais .  France. 

Ribot .  France. 

Rico,  M .  Spain. 

Rivibre,  B .  Great  Britain. 

Rotta,  A .  Italy. 

Sautai .  France. 

Segb .  France. 

Toulmouche _ _  France. 

Verwbe . Belgium. 

Yibert .  France. 

!  Worms .  France. 


HONORABLE  MENTIONS.  ' 


Alt . 

. .  Austria-Hungary. 

Becker . 

. .  France. 

Becker,  A.  von . 

. .  Russia. 

Blanchard,  E . 

.  .  France. 

Braekeleer,  H.  de... 

. .  Belgium. 

Claude,  J.  M . 

.  .  France. 

Desgoffe,  Blaise . 

.  .  France. 

Dupain . 

..  France. 

Durand,  Simon . 

. .  Switzerland. 

Ferrier . 

..  France. 

Feyen-Perrin . 

. .  France. 

Gaillard . 

..  France. 

Giacomotti . 

..  France. 

Girard,  Firmin . 

. .  France. 

Green,  C . . 

. .  Great  Britain. 

Hanoteau . 

..  France. 

Herpin . 

. .  France. 

Hennebicq,  A . 

. .  Belgium. 

Jemdorff . 

. .  Denmark. 

Keil . 

..  Portugal. 

Lafarge . 

. .  United  States. 

Lecomte  du  Nouy... 

. .  France. 

Lematte . 

. .  France. 

Leslie,  G.  D . 

. .  Great  Britain. 

Maignan . 

. .  France. 

Maris,  J . 

. .  Holland. 

Moreau,  Adrien . 

. .  France. 

Pal,  L . 

. .  Austria-Hungary. 

Perrault . 

. .  France. 

Pettie,  J . 

. .  Great  Britain. 

Ribera,  P . 

. .  Spain. 

Robert,  L.  P . 

. .  Switzerland. 

Roll . 

..  France. 

Saintin,  J.  E . 

. .  France. 

Salmson . 

Shirlaw . 

. .  United  States. 

Sinding . 

. .  Norway. 

Yertunni,  A . 

..  Italy. 

174 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878 

DIPLOMAS  TO  THE  MEMORY  OF  DECEASED  ARTISTS. 


Belly . . .  France. 

Corot .  France. 

Daubigny .  Franceu 

Diaz . . . .  France. 

Fromentin .  France. 

Millet . . .  France. 

Pils . .  France. 

R^gnault . . .  France. 

Ricard .  France. 

Rousseau,  Theodore . . .  France. 

Landseer,  Sir  Edwin  ..  Great  Britain. 

Lewis,  J.  F .  Great  Britain. 

Mason,  G.  H ......... .  Great  Britain. 

Phillip,  J .  Great  Britain. 

Walker,  F . .  Great  Britain. 

<3ermak . . .  Austria-Hungary. 


Fuhrich,  Von . . 

. . .  Austria. 

Leys,  Baron  ....  ... 

Madou,  J.  B  .... ... 

Wappers,  Baron  . . . 

Fortuny,  M _ _ _ _ _ 

Rosales,  E . . 

Zamacois,  E  ...... . 

...  Spain. 

Meyer,  L . 

. . .  Holland. 

Veroeer,  L . 

...  Holland. 

Waldorp,  A . . 

...  Holland 

Tideman . 

. . .  Norway. 

Faruffini . 

.. .  Italy. 

Fracassini  . . 

...  Italy. 

Bruni . 

Glevre  . 

JURY  ON  CLASS  3  (SCULPTURE  AND  DIE-SINKING). 


Marshall,  W.  Calder  .... _ 

Ktjndmann,  C . 

Monteverde,  Le  Commandeur 

Fraikin . . 

Chapu . . . 

Cavelier  . . . 

Millet,  A . . 


Great  Britain. 

Austria-Hungary. 

Italy. 

Belgium. 

France. 

France. 

France. 


AWARDS  IN  CLASS  3. 

GRAND  PRIZE. 

u  Rappel”  ( confirmation  of  previous  Medal  of  Honor,  1867). 

Guillaume,  Eugfcne  . . . . . . . .  France. 

Medals  of  Honor . 

Antokolski _ _ ......  Russia.  Mercia,  A - - - - - .....  France. 

Dubois,  Paul  . . .  France.  Monteverde,  G . .  Italy. 

Hiolle . .  France. 


medals  of  the  first  class. 


11  Rappels”  ( confirmation  of  previous  Medals  of  the  First  Class,  1867). 


Crauk . . . 

.  . . . .  France. 

Ponscarme,  N.,  graveur 

Falgui&re . 

en  m^dailles . 

France, 

Millet,  Aim6 . 

....  France. 

Thomas,  G.  J . 

France, 

Medals. 

Allar . . 

Delaplanche . 

France. 

Barrias,  E . . 

. ....  France. 

De  Vigne . 

Belgium. 

Chaplain . 

. France. 

Lafrance . . . 

France. 

Civiletti,  B  ..... . 

Leighton,  Sir  F . 

Great  Britain. 

APPENDIX. 


175 

Moreau,  Mathurin France.  |  Zumbusch . .  Austria-Hungary. 

Schmnewerk .  France.  I 


Aizelin . .  . 

Becquet,  J  — 
Belliazzi,  R  . . 

Boehm . 

Cain . 

Degorge . 

G6r6me,  J.  P  . 
Ginotti,  G  . . . . 
Lenoir,  Alfred 


MEDALS  OF  THE  SECOND  CLASS. 


France. 

France. 

Italy. 

Great  Britain. 
France. 
France. 
France. 

Italy. 

France. 


Lephre . 

Leroux,  fitienne 

Marqueste . 

Mignon,  L . 

Noel,  Tony . 

Sanson  . 

Tautenhayn  .... 

Tilgner . 

Tournois . 


France. 

France. 

France. 

Belgium. 

France. 

France. 

Austria-Hungary. 

Austria-Hungary. 

France. 


MEDALS  OF  THE  THIRD  CLASS. 


Aub6 .  France. 

Baujault .  France. 

Borghi,  A . .  Italy. 

Bortone,  A .  .  Italy. 

Bourgeois,  Baron  Ch.  A.  France. 

Caill6 .  France. 

Cattier,  A .  Belgium. 

Dam6 .  France. 

Dupuis,  D.,  graveur  en 

m^dailles .  France. 

Gautherin  . .  France. 


Gandarias,  J .  Spain. 

Hove,  B.  van .  Holland. 

Moreau-Vauthier . France. 

Morice .  France. 

Moulin .  France. 

Simoes  d’ Almeida  .....  Portugal. 

TchijofF .  Russia. 

Vingtrie,  P.  A.  Bayard 

de  la .  France. 

Wagner  . .  Austria-Hungary. 


Ablborn,  Mme  L . . 

Barthtilemy . 

Berg,  O . . 

Bertaux,  Mme  L. _ _ _ 

Borjesson . 

Comein,  P . 

Corbel . 

Dor6,  Gustave . 

Ferrari,  E . 

Francois,  graveur  en 
pierres  fines . . 


HONORABLE 

MENTIONS. 

Sweden. 

Idrac . . 

France. 

Maccagnani,  E . 

....  Italy. 

Sweden. 

Runeberg . . 

-  Russia. 

France. 

Scliarff . 

Sweden. 

Schmidgruber  . . . . . 

Belgium. 

Smith . . . 

France. 

Soares  dos  Reis  . . . . 

France. 

Tabbachi,  D . .  . 

Italy. 

Wiener . . . . 

France. 

DIPLOMAS  TO  THE  MEMORY  OF  DECEASED  ARTISTS. 

Barye .  France.  I  Perraud .  France. 

Cabet .  France.  Rochet,  Louis .  France. 

Carpeaux .  France.  I 


176  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


JURY  ON  CLASS  4  (ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWINGS  AND  MODELS). 


Barry,  M.  C . 

Basile,  Le  Commandeur  . 
De  Fertel,  Le  Chevalier 

Mariette-Bey . 

De  Stuers,  Le  Chevalier . 

Ballu . 

Due  . 

Lefuel . . . 

Bceswillwald . 

Vaudremer  . 

Ginain . 


Great  Britain. 
Italy. 

Austria-Hungary. 

Egypt. 

Holland. 

France. 

France 

France. 

France. 

France. 

France. 


AWARDS  IN  CLASS  4. 

GRAND  PRIZES. 


u Rappels ”  ( confirmation  of  previous  Medals  of  Honor,  1867). 


Ferstel,  Ch.  de .  Austria.  |  Waterhouse,  A.  F .  Great  Britain. 

Medals  of  Honor. 


Paris,  Exposition  d’ Ar¬ 
chitecture  de  la  Ville 
de . France. 

Minister  of  Public  In¬ 
struction,  Public  Wor¬ 
ship,  and  Fine  Arts 
(works  of  the  Roman 
and  Historical  Monu¬ 
ment  Commissions)  . .  France. 


Barry,  E.  M .  Great  Britain. 

Schmidt .  Austria. 


MEDALS  OF  THE  FIRST  CLASS. 


Chardon,  E.,  and  Lam¬ 
bert,  M .  France. 

ficole  Royale  d’ Archi¬ 
tecture.... .  Spain. 

Hansen,  Chevalier  T. 
de . Austria-Hungary. 


Hasenauer,  Baron  C. 

de . Austria-Hungary. 

Pearson,  J.  L  . . . . .  Great  Britain. 

Street,  G.  E .  Great  Britain. 


Awarded  ex  cequo  to  the  Architects  of  the  City  of  Paris. 


Bailly, A.  N.  (diploma).  France. 
Baltart,  V.,  deceased 

(diploma)  .  France. 

Diet,  A.  S.  (diploma)..  France. 
Godebceuf,  E.( diploma)  France. 
Hermant,  P.  A.  A.  (di¬ 
ploma)  .  .  France. 


Janvier,  L.  J.  (diplo¬ 
ma)  .  France. 

Lheureux  (diploma)  ..  France. 
Magne,  A.  J.  (diploma)  France. 


Awarded  ex  aequo  to  the  works  of  the  Roman  Commission. 


Bernier,  S.  L.  (diplo¬ 
ma)  . 


Dutert,  C.  L.  F.  (diplo¬ 
ma)  . 


France. 


France. 


APPENDIX. 


177 


Gnadet,  J.  (diploma)..  France.  1  Noguet,  L.  (diploma)  .  France. 

Leclerc,  C.  A.  (diploma)  France.  \  Pascal,  J.  L.  (diploma)  France 

Aivarded  ex  aequo  to  the  works  of  the  Historical  Monument  Commission. 


Bruyerre,  L.  C.  (diplo¬ 
ma)  .  France. 

Corroyer,  E.  (diploma)  France. 

Darcy,  D.  (diploma)  ..  France. 

Duthoit*  C.  M.  (diplo¬ 
ma)  .  France. 

Lafollye,  J.  A.  (diplo¬ 
ma)  .  France. 

Lisch,  J.  J.  (diploma).  France. 


|  Millet,  E.  L.  (diploma)  France. 
|  Ruprich-Robert  (diplo¬ 


ma)  .  France. 

Sauvageot,  L.  C.  (di¬ 
ploma)  .  France. 

Simil,  A.  P.  (diploma) .  France. 
Yiolet-le-Duc,  E.  E.  (di- 
!  ploma) .  France. 


MEDALS  OF  THE  SECOND  CLASS. 


Amador  de  los  Rios,  R. 

Aguado,  M . 

Boudier,  A . . . 

Cuypers,  P.  J.  Ii . 

Guillaume,  Edmond 

and  Renaud . 

Normaud,  A.  N . 


Spain. 

j  Schmoranz,  F., 

,  andMa- 

Spain. 

chytka,  J. . . 

France. 

Shaw,  R.  N  . . 

Holland. 

Trdves,  M  . . . . 

.  Italy. 

Welemans,  A  . 

.  Austria-Hungary 

France. 

France. 

Wyatt,  J . 

.  Great  Britain. 

Awarded  ex  aequo  to  the  Architects  of  the  City  of  Paris. 


Aldroplie,  A.  P.  (diplo¬ 
ma)  .  France. 

Bonnet,  P.  E.  (diplo¬ 
ma)  .  France. 

Constant  Dufeux,  de¬ 
ceased  (diploma) _  France. 

Daumet,  P.  J.  H.  (di¬ 
ploma)  . France. 

Davioud,  G.  J.  A.  (di¬ 
ploma)  .  France. 

Depertlies,  P.  J.  E.  (di¬ 
ploma)  .  France. 

Devrez,  D.  H.  L.  (di¬ 
ploma)  .  France. 


Hdnard,  A.  J.  (diplo¬ 
ma)  .  France. 

Lavezzari,  E.  (diplo¬ 
ma)  .  France. 

Lebouteux,  D.  (diplo¬ 
ma)  .  France. 

Roger,  N.  A.  (diploma)  France. 

Roguet,  F.  (diploma)..  France. 

Salleron,  C.  A.  L.  (di¬ 
ploma)  .  France. 

Ucbard,  T.  F.  J.  (diplo¬ 
ma)  . France. 


Awarded  ex  aequo  to  the  Commissioners  of  Borne. 


Chabrol,  W.  F.  (diplo¬ 
ma)  . . .  France. 

Dutert,  deceased  (di¬ 
ploma)  .  France. 


Gerhardt,  C.  A.  (diplo¬ 
ma)  .  France. 

Thomas,  A.  T.  F.  (di¬ 
ploma)  . .  France. 


Aivarded  ex  aequo  to  the  ivories  of  the  Historical  Monument  Commission. 


Baudot,  J.  E.  A.  de  (di¬ 


ploma)  .  France. 

Bdrard,  E.  (diploma) ..  France. 
Boas  will  wald,  fils,  P.  L. 

(diploma) .  France. 

Bourmancd,  J.  P.  (di¬ 
ploma)  . Trance. 

12  P  R 


Brune,  E.  (diploma)  ..  France. 
Bruneau,  E.  (diploma)  France. 
Danjoy,  G.  E.  E.  (di¬ 
ploma)  .  France. 

Darcy,  fils  (diploma) ..  France. 
Formigd,  J.  C.  (diplo¬ 
ma) .  France. 


178 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Hiigelin,  V.  F.  (diplo¬ 
ma)  . France. 

Ouradou  (diploma) - France. 


j  Selmersheim,  P.  (diplo- 

j  ma) .  France. 

!  Suisse,  C.  L.  (diploma)  France. 


MEDALS  OF  THE  THIRD  CLASS. 


Ballu,  A.,  fils . 

France. 

Geymiiller,  H.  A.  de. .. 

Switzerland. 

Baudry,  A . 

France. 

Gu^rinot,  A.  G . 

France. 

Bourgeois,  A . 

France. 

Jones,  H . 

Great  Britain. 

Carpentier . 

Belgium. 

Reboul,  A.  C.  J . 

France. 

Fellner  &  Heimer  .... 

Austria-Hungary. 

Seddon  . 

Great  Britain. 

Ferrario,  C . 

Italy. 

Steindl . 

Austria-Hungary. 

Awarded  ex  eequo  to  Architects  of  the  City  of  Paris. 

Billon,  E.  M.  (diploma) 

France. 

H6ret,  L.  A.  J.  (di¬ 

Bourdais,  J.  (diploma) 

France. 

ploma)  . 

France 

Calliat,  P.  V.  (diploma) 

France. 

Huillard,  C.  G.  (diplo¬ 

Chat,  J.  E.  A.  (diploma) 

France. 

ma)  . 

France. 

Deconchy,  J.  J.  (diplo¬ 

Train,  E.  (diploma)... 

France. 

ma)  . 

France. 

Varcollier,  M.  F.  (di¬ 

Gancel,  A.  F.  (diploma) 

France. 

ploma)  . 

France. 

H6din,  A.  (diploma). . . 

France. 

HONORABLE  MENTIONS. 


Arendt,  C .  Luxemburg. 

Benouville,  P.  L.  A _  France. 

Boffi,  L .  Italy. 

Busiri,  A .  Italy. 

Cazaux,  C.  II .  France. 

Coisel,  A .  France. 

Dartcin,  M.  F.  de . .  . .  France. 
Hermain,  J.  A .  France. 


Jackson, T.  G .  Great  Britain. 

Kilning,  C .  Austria-Hungary. 

Muller,  A.,  &  Ulrich, 

C.  C .  Switzerland. 

Neumann,  F . Austria-Hungary. 

Rumeny  Guarini,  H . . .  Spain. 

S6dille,  P .  France. 

Weber,  A . . Austria-Hungary. 


Awarded  excequo  to  Architects  of  the  City  of  Paris. 


Cordier,  E.  (diploma) .  France. 
Marshal,  H.  (diplo¬ 
ma)  .  France. 

Narjoux,  F.  (diploma).  France. 


Soud6e,  A.  (diploma)..  France. 
Villain,  deceased  (di¬ 
ploma)  .  France. 


JURY  ON  CLASS  5  (ENGRAVINGS  AND  LITHOGRAPHS) 


Craig,  Gibson.  . 

Rich . 

Burgers  . 

Delaborde,  Vte 

Gatteaux . 

Henriquel . 

Chauvel . 


Great  Britain. 

United  States. 

Holland. 

France. 

France. 

France. 

France. 


APPENDIX. 


179 


AWARDS  IN  CLASS  5 

GRAND  PRIZES. 

Medals  of  Honor . 

Huot .  France.  I  Redlich .  Russia. 

Jacquemart,  Jules France. 


MEDALS  OF  THE  FIRST  CLASS. 

“  Rappel”  ( confirmation  of  previous  Medal  of  Honor ,  1867  ). 

Bertinot .  . . .  .  France. 

Medals. 

Biot,  G .  Belgium.  Didier,  A .  France. 

Danguin  .  France.  !  Gaillard .  France. 


Blanchard 
Cliauvel. . 
Levasseur 


MEDALS  OF  THE  SECOND  CLASS. 


France. 

France. 

France. 


Rajon . . 

Sonnenleitner 
Weber,  F . 


France. 

Austria-Hungary. 

Switzerland. 


Bour 
Flameng 
Gilbert  . . 


MEDALS  OF  THE  THIRD  CLASS. 


France.  |  Klaus .  Austria-Hungary. 

France.  I  Unger .  Austria-Hungary. 

France.  ;  Waltner .  France. 


HONORABLE  MENTIONS. 


Gilli,  A .  Italy. 

Greux .  France. 

Jacquet,  J .  France. 


Mitchell .  United  States. 

Morse .  France. 

Pannemaker,  St -  Belgium. 


This,  summarized,  shows  that  in  the  first  and  second  classes,  relating  to  paintings, 
there  were  14  grand  prizes  or  medals  of  honor,  30  medals  of  the  first  class,  30  medals 
of  the  second  class,  38  of  the  third  class,  38  honorable  mentions,  and  31  diplomas  of 
deceased  artists,  making  in  all  181  prizes  and  honorable  mentions.  Of  these,  there 
were  awarded  to  the  United  States  1  medal  of  the  second  class,  to  Mr.  Bridgman ;  1 
medal  of  the  third  class,  to  Mr.  Dana ;  and  2  honorable  mentions,  one  to  Mr.  Lafarge 
and  one  to  Mr.  Shirlaw. 

Of  the  third  class,  relating  to  sculpture  and  engraving  on  medals,  there  were  6 
medals  of  honor  (grand  prizes),  10  medals  of  first  class,  18  of  second  class,  19  of  third 
class,  19  honorable  mentions,  5  diplomas  to  deceased  artists,  making  in  all  83  medals, 
none  of  which  were  given  to  America. 

Of  the  fourth  class,  relating  to  designs  and  models  of  architecture,  there  were  five 
medals  of  honor  (grand  prizes),  31  medals  of  first-class,  42  medals  of  second  class,  23 
of  third  class,  and  15  honorable  mentions,  making  in  all  116  medals,  none  of  which 
were  given  to  America. 

Of  the  fifth  class,  of  engravings  and  lithographs,  there  were  3  medals  of  honor,  5 
medals  of  first  class,  6  of  second  class,  6  of  third  class,  and  6  honorable  mentions, 
making  in  all  26  medals,  of  which  there  was  awarded  to  the  United  States  1  honor¬ 
able  mention,  to  Mr.  Mitchell. 


EDUCATION  AT  THE  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


HON.  JOSHUA  L.  CHAMBERLAIN. 


ISl 


[Extract  from  the  Official  Classification.] 

SECOND  GROUP.— EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION,  APPARATUS  AND  PRO¬ 
CESSES  OF  THE  LIBERAL  ARTS. 

Class  6. — Education  of  Children,  Primary  Instruction,  Instruction  of 

Adults. 

Plans  and  models  of  day  nurseries  (creches),  orphan  asylums,  infant  schools,  and 
kindergarten ;  system  of  management  and  furniture  of  such  establishments ;  appliances 
for  instruction  suitable  for  the  physical,  moral,  and  intellectual  training  of  the  child 
previous  to  its  entering  school. 

Plans  and  models  of  scholastic  establishments  for  town  and  country ;  management 
and  furniture  for  these  establishments.  Appliances  for  instruction:  books,  maps, 
apparatus,  and  models. 

Plans  and  models  of  scholastic  establishments  for  adult  and  professional  instruction. 
System  of  management  and  furniture  of  these  establishments.  Appliances  for  adult 
and  professional  instruction. 

Appliances  for  the  elementary  teaching  of  music,  singing,  foreign  languages,  book¬ 
keeping,  political  economy,  practical  agriculture  and  horticulture,  technology,  and 
drawing. 

Appliances  adapted  to  the  instruction  of  the  blind  and  of  deaf  mutes. 

Works  of  pupils  of  both  sexes. 

Libraries  and  publications. 

Class  7. — Organization  and  Appliances  for  Secondary  Instruction. 

Plans  and  models  of  establishments  for  secondary  instruction,  lyceums,  grammar 
schools  (gymnases),  colleges,  industrial  and  commercial  schools.  Arrangement  and 
furniture  of  such  establishments. 

Collections :  classical  works,  maps,  and  globes. 

Appliances  for  technological  and  scientific  instruction,  and  for  teaching  the  fine 
arts,  drawing,  music,  and  singing. 

Apparatus  and  methods  for  instruction  in  gymnastics,  fencing,  and  military  exercises. 
Class  8.— Organizations,  Methods,  and  Appliances  for  Superior  Instruction. 

Plans  and  models  of  academies,  universities,  medical  schools,  practical  schools,  tech¬ 
nical  and  practical  schools,  schools  of  agriculture,  observatories,  scientific  museums, 
amphitheaters,  lecture-rooms,  laboratories  for  instruction  and  research. 

Furniture  and  arrangement  of  such  establishments. 

Apparatus,  collections,  and  appliances  intended  for  higher  instruction  and  scientific 
research. 

Special  exhibitions  of  learned,  technical,  agricultural,  commercial,  and  industrial 
societies  and  institutions. 

Scientific  expeditions. 


182 


REPORT 


ON 

EDUCATION  AS  REPRESENTED  AT  THE  UNIVERSAL 
EXPOSITION. 


Charged  with  the  duty  of  reporting  upon  the  subject  of 
education  as  represented  in  the  Universal  Exposition  of 
1878,  at  Paris,  the  writer  has  found  no  small  portion  of  the 
task  to  consist  in  assigning  some  limit  in  a  field  so  vast,  and 
fixing  upon  some  plan  which  might  secure  valuable  results 
without  involving  a  mass  of  useless  detail. 

If  education  comprehends  all  that  trains  human  powers 
for  the  duties  of  life,  it  would  be  almost  the  work  of  a  life¬ 
time  to  enumerate  these  instrumentalities.  But,  within  the 
limits  of  what  is  regarded  as  the  organized  system  of  in-  vast  array  of 

.  .  educational  mat- 

struction  in  the  diflerent  countries  ot  the  world,  the  vast  ter  and  work  at 
array  of  materials,  works,  and  illustrations  presented  in 
that  brilliant  Exposition  might  well  bewilder  one  who  sought 
to  gather  substantial  results  in  order  to  convey  to  other 
minds  knowledge  of  whatever  valuable  in  matter  or  in 
methods  was  there  exhibited. 

It  was  then  no  small  relief,  on  reaching  that  field  of  obser¬ 
vation,  to  find  an  arrangement  possible  by  which  a  distribu¬ 
tion  was  to  be  made  of  the  several  departments  of  education  Report  prmci- 
recognized  by  the  official  programme  ;  the  part  assigned  to  secondary  in 
the  writer  of  this  report  being  the  organization  and  material s  ructl0n- 
of  secondary  instruction,  while  the  two  other  branches — 
superior  and  manual  instruction — wTere  allotted  to  other 
gentlemen. 

The  official  classification,  however,  did  not  render  our  Limits  of  the 
respective  fields  so  clear  as  could  be  desired,  as  will  appear  on  education  not 
from  the  extract  therefrom  printed  at  the  commencement  of  cleaib (leflned- 
this  report  on  the  opposite  page. 

Many  things  in  this  classification  are  sufficiently  clear  and 
distinct  in  separation ;  but  it  will  be  observed  that,  while 
Class  6  embraces  a  wide  range,  from  the  creches  (nurseries) 
to  technology,  political  economy,  practical  agriculture,  and 
professional  instruction,  Class  7,  embracing  technological 
and  scientific  instruction,  seems  to  trench  upon  the  ground 

183 


184 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Some  notices  in 
relation  to  pri¬ 
mary  instruction , 
included  in  the 
report. 


C  omplete  views 
of  national  edu¬ 
cation  not  at¬ 
tempted,  hut — 


Education  as  it 
appeared  at  the 
Exposition. 


Reference  to  re¬ 
ports:  Paris,  1867; 
Vienna,  1873. 


Partisan  opin¬ 
ions  avoided. 


Report  confined 
to  the  present  as¬ 
pects  of  the  ques¬ 
tion. 


of  both  Class  6  and  Class  8,  under  which  latter  are  ranged 
schools  of  technology,  theoretical  and  applied  ( ecoles  tech¬ 
niques  et  W  application),  and  laboratories  for  instruction  as 
well  as  research;  and  in  this  class  schools  of  agriculture 
again  appear. 

Circumstances  have,  however,  somewhat  relieved  the  case. 
For,  while  the  notes  and  observations  intended  as  the  basis 
of  this  report  have  been  chiefly  confined  as  much  as  possible 
within  the  limits  originally  assigned,  subsequent  changes 
rendered  it  probable  that  there  might  not  after  all  be  a  dis¬ 
tinctive  report  on  the  subjects  embraced  in  Class  6 ;  and,  in 
order  not  to  leave  that  ground  entirely  unnoticed,  the  writer 
has  felt  himself  at  liberty  to  treat  freely  of  matters  which 
could  not  fail  to  come  under  his  notice,  but  which,  enumera¬ 
ted  under  Class  6,  were  not  especially  committed  to  him. 

It  will  be  understood  that  in  this  paper  no  attempt  is  made 
to  present  a  complete  view  of  the  educational  systems  of  the 
world,  nor  of  any  particular  country  represented  in  the  Ex¬ 
position  ;  the  instructions  under  which  it  is  written  being  to 
report  things  as  they  appeared  at  the  Exposition.  Inequali 
ties  in  the  scale  of  treatment  must  therefore  be  ascribed  in 
great  measure  to  deliberate  purpose,  and  to  the  varying 
scales  of  the  exhibits  made  by  different  countries. 

The  writer  also  refrains  from  devoting  time  and  space  to 
extended  presentation  of  matters  concerning  the  general  or¬ 
ganization  of  educational  systems  in  Europe,  which  have 
been  so  fully  and  so  ably  treated  in  many  well  known  works, 
and  particularly  in  similar  reports  on  the  Expositions  of  Paris 
and  Vienna  in  1867  and  1873. 

Nor  does  this  seem  to  be  the  proper  place  for  the  exhibi¬ 
tion  of  personal  predilections  or  opinions  on  questions  that 
are  at  issue  between  partisans  in  religion,  politics,  or  educa¬ 
tion.  Well  settled  judgments,  the  result  of  legitimate  infer 
ences,  may  be  given  in  connection  with  the  facts  to  which 
they  are  related,  and  all  will  be  offered  with  a  view  to  the 
service  and  advantage  of  those  who  are  concerned  in  the 
educational  interests  of  our  own  country.  It  has  seemed 
Avise  also  to  confine  this  paper  for  the  most  part,  except 
where  the  subject  has  not  been  matter  of  previous  report,  to 
the  present  aspects  of  questions,  and  to  the  changes  which 
have  taken  place  in  the  educational  concerns  of  the  countries 
designated  within  the  last  five  or  ten  years,  and  since  the 
previous  reports  were  made. 

No  attempt  will  be  made  to  observe  a  rigidly  logical 
method  in  the  following  observations ;  but,  in  order  to  give 
a  clear  notion  of  the  topics  and  matters  which  will  be  found 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


185 


touched  upon  in  the  several  sketches,  it  may  be  useful  to 
present  here  the  memorandum  of  plan  which  the  author  laid 
out  for  himself  to  guide  his  studies  and  observations. 

To  notice  whatever  was  for  any  reason  remarkable  in  a<£pt“ ci f  lnqmry 
the  exhibit  of  each  Nation  or  Province. 

Where  not  matter  of  a  previous  report,  to  note  the  lead¬ 
ing  points  of  various  educational  systems. 

I.  The  administration :  Civil  or  religious,  and  the 
extent  of  the  control  of  each. 

II.  Organization :  Conditions  and  qualifications  of 
teachers  5  grades  and  divisions  of  schools;  attend¬ 
ance,  compulsory  or  not;  coeducation;  social  dis¬ 
tinctions  as  affecting  schools  and  school  attend¬ 
ance  ;  public  and  free  schools. 

III.  Support :  By  public  treasury,  national,  provin¬ 
cial,  or  municipal;  by  private  associations  and 
individuals ;  subsidies  or  subventions. 

IY.  Methods  and  appliances :  Recitations,  lectures, 
cabinets,  laboratories,  libraries  and  museums, 
educational  excursions. 

Y.  Buildings  and  furniture. 

YI.  Recent  improvements  and  present  tendencies. 

This  memorandum  is  given,  not  as  a  pledge  that  every 
question  which  could  be  asked  under  it  is  answered  in  the 
body  of  the  report,  but  to  indicate  what  matters  were  sought 
for,  and  what  may  generally  be  found  noticed  in  the  course 
of  observations  here  recorded. 

The  Exposition,  in  an  educational  point  of  view,  was  at-  Attractive  char- 
tractive  and  deeply  interesting  as  a  study  in  the  progress  of  position, 
civilization  among  nations,  and  of  the  advancement  of  the 
masses  of  peoples  in  the  masteries  of  life — if,  indeed,  this  is 
not  what  we  ought  to  mean  by  civilization. 

The  several  exhibits  appeared  to  be  in  many  cases  gov-  ^be 

erned  in  their  amount  by  proximity,  not  always  geograph-  different 

ical,  but  often  political  or  commercial.  Thus,  the  exhibit  of 
Russia  was  very  full,  while  that  of  Germany  was  almost 
nothing.  Belgium,  Holland,  and  Switzerland  were  not 
more  impressively  represented  than  Algeria,  Uruguay,  and 
Japan. 

The  exhibit  of  France,  of  course,  predominated  in  every  Exhibits  of 
respect  which  could  captivate  the  eye.  But  the  attention  nSg6  prodom1' 
could  not  fail  to  be  arrested  by  the  multitude  of  pamphlets, 
projects,  pleas  and  exhortations,  prospectuses,  announce¬ 
ments  for  the  meetings  of  societies,  and  for  day  and  evening 


186 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


schools  and  lectures,  which  showed  that  the  educational 
French  interest  interest  in  that  country  was  not  that  of  satisfaction  withex- 

farther  improve-  isting  conditions,  but  that,  underneath  all  this  beautiful  ex- 

ment.  .  7 

pression  of  order  and  skill,  a  deep  agitation  was  going  on  to 
secure  more  satisfactory  results. 

These  rich  and  suggestive  exponents,  everywhere  meeting 
the  eye  at  the  Exposition  and  in  the  city  of  Paris,  awak¬ 
ened  a  very  strong  desire  to  pursue  some  of  these  matters 
beyond  the  degree  afforded  by  such  representations  as  could 
be  presented  in  an  exhibition.  By  the  favor  of  the  Minister 
of  Public  Instruction,  and  the  especial  kindness  of  M.  Greard, 
Facilities  affor- Inspector  General  of  Public  Instruction,  himself  one  of  the 

ded  by  French  .  .  . 

officials.  most  efficient  promoters  of  popular  education  m  France, 

m  Gr6ud  many  facilities  were  afforded  for  personal  observation  of 
institutions  in  the  city  of  Paris  and  the  Department  of  the 
Seine,  and  for  forming  practical  acquaintance  with  edu¬ 
cational  questions  and  parties.  Grateful  mention  should 
also  be  made  of  the  personal  attentions  of  M.  Emile  Cheva¬ 
lier,  one  of  the  most  ardent  friends  of  the  new  education, 
and  of  the  courtesy  of  the  officers  of  the  Ligue  de  VEn- 
seignement ,  which  numbers  among  its  members  Victor  Hugo, 
Henri  Martin,  and  others  of  the  most  distinguished  men  of 
France. 


M.  Chevalier. 


FRANCE. 


FRA*CE-  It  is  natural  that  the  chief  place  in  this  report  should  be 
accorded  to  France. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  at  the  outset  that  the  increase 
Low  rate  of  an- in  population  in  that  country  is  comparatively  less  than  in 
population.  any  state  of  Western  Europe.  It  has  been  diminishing 
steadily  since  1830.  In  that  year,  and  for  the  ten  years  pre¬ 
vious,  the  annual  increase  was  280,000;  in  1870  the  deaths 
exceeded  the  births  by  103,394;  and  in  1871  by  441,889. 
Since  that  year  there  has  been  a  surplus  of  births  over 
deaths ;  but  in  1875  the  rate  of  increase  was  but  2.64  per 
cent. — a  birth  rate  lower  than  that  of  any  country  of  Europe. 
Tendency  of  w e  must  also  take  notice  of  the  fact  that  the  population 

population  to-  x  A 

wards  the  cities.  0f  France,  as  almost  everywhere  else  in  Europe,  is  agglom¬ 
erating  in  the  cities.  Thirty  years  ago  more  than  75  per 
cent,  of  the  population  lived  in  the  country ;  but  at  the  last 
census  it  was  found  that  the  total  rural  population  was 
24,888,904,  and  that  of  the  cities  11,214,017.  It  should  be 
noticed,  however,  that  while  the  rural  population  is  declin¬ 
ing,  more  than  half  the  total  population  still  depends  on 
agriculture  as  a  means  of  living.  It  will  be  necessary  also 
to  mention  the  fact,  officially  reported,  that  in  the  capital, 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


187 


represented  by  the  Department  of  the  Seine,  more  than  a  FRAKCE- 
quarter  of  the  children  born  are  illegitimate. 

The  increase  of  the  population  of  school  age  does  not 
correspond  exactly  with  that  of  the  general  population.  On 
the  contrary  the  relation  of  the  two  is  very  inconstant.  p^pufaUoVof 
Thus,  in  the  city  of  Paris,  in  187 6,  in  the  8th  and  9th  arron-  school  age  and 

71/7  #  that  ot  general 

dissements ,  where  the  increase  of  the  general  population  was  population, 
most  remarkable,  the  proportion  of  children  between  the 
ages  of  3  and  14  years  was  the  lowest  of  that  of  all  the 
quarters  of  Paris $  while  in  the  13th  arrondissement ,  where 
the  general  increase  is  least,  the  proportion  of  the  school 
population  is  among  the  highest  in  the  entire  returns. 

Whether  these  marked  differences  are  to  be  accounted  for 
on  local,  social,  physiological,  or  moral  grounds,  is  a  ques¬ 
tion  which  science  has  not  yet  resolved.  It  can  only  be 
added  here  that  the  8th  and  9th  arrondissements  are  occu¬ 
pied  chiefly  by  the  aristocratic  or  ‘‘higher  class”  of  citi¬ 
zens,  while  the  13th  contains  chiefly  those  who  would  be 
ranked  among  what  are  called  the  “  working  classes.” 

The  Present  Condition. 

The  general  census  of  1872  offered  very  accurate  results  tl£ensus  8tati8‘ 
as  to  the  educational  condition  of  Prance.  In  a  total  of 
36,102,921*  there  were  13,324,800  reported  as  wholly  unable 
to  read  or  write. 

The  following  table  expresses  in  a  convenient  way  the  illiteracy, 
proportions  of  illiteracy  in  groups  of  different  ages : 


Percentage  of  whole  population. 


Degree  of  education. 

Under  6. 

6  to  20. 

Above  20. 

Average 
of  totals 
above  6. 

Unable  to  read  or  write . 

88.  85 
7.  38 
3.  82 

23.  37 
13. 48 
62.  63 

33.  37 
9.  99 
56.64 

i  30. 77 

10.  94 
58.  29 

Able  to  read  only . 

Able  to  read  and  write . 

It  is  thus  seen  that,  in  a  country  whose  institutions  of 
superior  education  have  so  long  been  her  pride  and  boast, 
more  than  a  fifth  of  the  youth  of  both  sexes  under  20  and 
more  than  a  third  of  the  grown  up  population  of  men  and 
women  are  unable  to  read  or  write. 

The  census  of  1872  showed  also  an  extraordinary  differ-  degree  of  imt- 

J  eracy  m  various 

ence  in  the  degree  of  education  between  the  87  departments  departments  of 

1  ranee. 

of  France,  the  percentage  of  ignorance  ranging  between  6 

*The  returns  Of  December  31,  1876,  show  a  total  of  36, 905, 7c8,  the  in¬ 
crease  being  accounted  for  mainly  by  the  immigration  from  the  prov¬ 
inces  ceded  to  Germany  by  the  treaty  of  May,  1871, 


188 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


and  GO;  that  of  Uaute-Marne  being  8.4,  the  Seine  11.4,  Seine - 
et-Mame  20.4,  the  Seine-Inf erieure  28.7,  Maine-et-Loire  32.4, 
Tarn-ct- Garonne  42,  Pyrenees- Orientates  49.G,  and  Haute- 
Vienne  61.8.  These  are  taken  as  generally  illustrative  ;*  the 
main  point  of  interest  for  us  being- the  fact  that,  as  a  rule, 
common  education  is  most  widely  spread  in  the  northeastern 
departments,  and  least  so  in  the  southwestern. 

PBIMAPY  EDUCATION. 


Primary  educa¬ 
tion. 


Creches  or  day- 
nurseries. 


La  Societe  des 
Creches. 


The  first  step  in  what  might  be  considered  public  educa¬ 
tion  in  France  appears  in  an  institution  as  yet  wholly  un¬ 
known  in  this  country — the  creche  or  day-nursery.  It  is  a 
school  for  babes,  where  mothers  who  are  obliged  to  be  absent 
from  their  homes  for  their  daily  labors  may  leave  their  little 
ones  to  be  guarded  and  wisely  cared  for  until  their  return  at 
evening.  These  services  are  often  rendered  without  cost  to 
the  parent,  or  at  a  trifling  recompense.  There  are  now  140 
of  these  institutions  in  the  cities  of  France,  and  upwards  of 
3,000  children  receive  their  care. 

A  highly  respected  and  flourishing  society  (La  Societe  des 
Greches )  is  devoted  to  the  encouragement  of  this  work.  There 
are  many  pleasant  features  of  these  establishments,  one 
being  the  security  which  the  mother  feels  in  regard  to  the 
welfare  of  her  babe ;  and  there  is  in  them  an  air  of  cleanli¬ 
ness,  and  a  manifest  faithfulness  and  sweetness  of  temper 
on  the  part  of  those  in  charge.  There  is  also,  doubtless,  an 
economy  in  the  arrangement.  But,  for  all  this,  a  shadow  of 
sadness  creeps  over  the  mind  of  a  visitor,  and  an  instinctive 
wish  that  there  were  no  need  of  this  mechanism  to  supply 
the  mother’s  care.  One  whose  thoughts  run  into  the  social 
and  political  tendencies  of  institutions  might  fancy  that  he 
saw  in  these  the  seeds  of  communistic  notions.  But  we  would 
prefer  to  look  on  this  measure  as  an  expression  of  that  social 
good-will  which  shows  itself  in  charitable  institutions,  and 
which  rests  upon  a  certain  recognized  responsibility  of  soci¬ 
ety  for  its  individual  members. 

The  next  grade  of  what  may  be  considered  the  educational 
saiies  d'asiie,  or  system  appears  in  the  salles  Wasile — literally  halls  of  refuge, 
or  infant  schools.  These  establishments  are  either  public  or 
free ;  that  is,  they  are  created  by  the  government,  or  founded 
by  private  parties.  They  are  open  to  children  of  both  sexes 
from  2  to  7  years  of  age.  They  are  under  special  regulations 
as  to  their  internal  management,  and  care  is  taken  that  the 
early  instruction  in  them  shall  be  of  a  befitting  character. 


infant  schools. 


*A  full  exhibit  of  this  scale  of  illiteracy  may  bo  found  in  Martin’s 
“Statesman’s  Year-book”  for  1878. 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


189 


A  normal  course,  designed  to  train  directresses  for  these  FRAyCE- 
schools,  has  existed  in  Paris  for  thirty  years.  The  title  of 
model  school  (asile  modelej  distinguishes  those  which  have  Asiie.modiie. 
commended  themselves  for  good  management  and  excellence 
of  instruction.  Eecent  reports  give  the  total  number  of  these 
schools  in  Prance  as  3,774  and  the  number  of  children  attend¬ 
ing  them  4G2,GG7,  of  which  number  8G, 753  attend  the  free 
schools  of  this  grade. 

Attendance  in  the  salles  d1  asile  of  Paris.  Attendance  at 

QnllfiQ  a'n.tnl* 


Laique. 

Congro- 

ganiste. 

Total. 

Boys . . . 

Girls . . . _ . . . 

7,  974 
6,  221 

4,418 

4,224 

12,  392 
10,  445 

14, 195 

8,642 

22, 837 

FREE. 

Boys . : . 

Girls . . 

1,  510 
939 

678 

754 

2, 188 
1,  C93 

2,  449 

1, 432 

3, 881 

TOTAL  PUBLIC  ART)  FREE. 

Bovs . 

9,  484 

5,  096 

14,  580 
12, 138 

Girls . . 

7, 1G0 

4,  978 

16,  644 

10,  074 

26, 718 

Total  boys  and  girls  between  ages  of  2  and  6  years,  census  oi 
Citv  of  Paris _ 

F  1876: 

113, 190 
23+ 

Percentage  of  attendance . 

Elementary  primary  schools.  Elementary  pri¬ 

mary  schools. 

The  third  step  in  the  series  is  the  elementary  primary 
school.  These  schools,  also,  are  either  public  or  free,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  manner  of  their  foundation.  By  the  last  census 
there  were  reported  in  Prance  56,313  public  primary  schools ; 

22,164  being  boys’  schools,  17,461  girls’  schools,  and  1G,GS8 
mixed  schools.  The  number  of  tree  schools  was  13,866,  of 
which  2,355  were  boys’  schools,  10,998  girls’ schools,  and  513 
mixed  schools.  There  were  thus  in  Prance  70,179  schools, 

24.519  of  which  were  boys’  schools,  28,459  girls’  schools,  and 
17,201  mixed  schools. 

The  increase  of  children  of  school  age  is  noticeable.  In  Increase  of  pu- 
1832  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  primary  schools  waspils' 
1,935,824;  in  1840  it  had  increased  to  2,881,679;  in  1863  to 
4,336,368 ;  in  1872,  in  spite  of  a  loss  of  about  180,000  pujuls 
who  were  in  the  3,000  schools  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  the  school 
population  was  still  4,717,654 — 2,444,216  boys,  and  2,273,438 


190 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


FRANCE. 


Classes  of 
schools:  Laique, 
Gong  i  eganiste. 


Programme  of 
instruction. 


Elementary  pri¬ 
mary  schools  of 
Paris. 


girls.  The  number  of  children  paying  tuition  was  2,398,317, 
and  that  of  those  educated  gratuitously  2,324,437. 

The  schools  are  called  laiques  or  congrcganistes ,  according 
as  the  teachers  are  designated  by  the  civil  or  the  religious 
authorities.  Of  the  public  schools  44,253  are  lay,  and 
12,060  congreganist.  Of  the  free  schools  the  lay  are  7,280, 
and  the  congreganist  6,486. 

The  same  programme  of  instruction  is  followed  in  the  lay 
and  in  the  congreganist  schools,  and  embraces  the  following 
subjects : 

1.  Obligatory  studies:  moral  and  religious  instruction, 
reading, writing, the  French  language;  arithmetic,  with  the 
metric  system;  the  elements  of  history  and  geography. 

2.  Optional  studies :  elements  of  geometry,  notions  of  physi¬ 
cal  science  and  natural  history;  notions  of  agriculture,  indus¬ 
try,  and  hygiene;  surveying;  drawing,  linear,  ornamental, 
and  imitative ;  the  living  foreign  languages,  bookkeeping, 
singing,  and  gymnastics. 

The  term  optional,  as  here  used,  implies,  not  that  the 
pupils  may  elect  any  of  these  studies  they  please,  but  that 
the  local  school  boards  may  establish  them  where  there  ap¬ 
pears  to  be  a  proper  demand.  Certificates,  given,  upon  ex¬ 
amination,  to  pupils  who  have  terminated  their  course,  have 
a  happy  influence  in  stimulating  and  spreading  the  desire  for 
education. 

The  elementary  primary  schools  of  the  city  of  Paris  are 
entirely  gratuitous.  Children  are  admitted  from  the  age  of 
6  to  that  of  14.  The  instruction  is  divided  into  three  grades 
or  courses — -primary,  intermediate,  and  higher  (superior1!. 
Each  one  of  these  grades  is  divided  into  as  many  sections 
or  classes  as  numbers  may  require.  As  a  rule,  the  classes  of 
the  superior  course  should  not  contain  more  than  40  child¬ 
ren,  of  the  intermediate  courses  not  more  than  50,  and  of 
the  primary  not  more  than  60. 


Attendance  at  the  public  elementary  primary  schools  of  Paris. 
BOYS. 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


191 


Attendance ,  etc.  —Continued.  France. 

GIRLS. 


Class. 

Average 

age. 

Lay. 

g  5 
o  w 

Total. 

Primary  . . 

8 

13,060 

12,  039 

25,  099 

Intermediate . 

10 

7, 147 

6,  270 

13, 417 

Higher  . 

12 

|  2, 902 

2,  533 

5,  435 

Total  girls . . 

j  23, 109 

|  20, 842 

43,  951 

Attendance  at 
elementary  pri¬ 
mary  schools  of 
Paris. 


BOYS  AND  GIRLS. 


Primary . . 

27,  634 
18, 138 
6,  911 

22,  828 
12, 157 
5,  489 

50, 462 
30,  295 
12,400 

Intermediate . 

Higher  . 

Total . 

52,  683 

40, 474 

93, 157 

Free  primary  schools  of  Paris:  Day  and  hoarding  schools. 
[Grades  not  given.] 


Free  primary 
schools  of  Paris. 


Lay.  j 

1 

Congre- 

ganist. 

Total. 

Boys . 

19,  824 
35,  675 

7,  374 
12,  699 

27,198 

48,  374 

Girls . 

Total . . 

55,  499 

20,  073 

75, 572  Attendance. 

Total  number  of  pupils  in  the  schools, 
public  and  free : 

Boys .  7G,  404 

Girls* .  92,325 


168, 729 

Deduct  pupils  over  14  years* .  3, 475 


Total  between  6  and  14  years .  165,  254 


Children  of  school  age  (G-14  years)  in 
the  city  of  Paris  by  census  of  1876 : 

Bovs  .  .  102, 781 

Girls  . .  106,983 

209,  764 

Percentage  of  children  between  6  and  14 
years  of  age  in  the  primary  schools =78-)-. 


*3,475  of  these  girls  in  free  boarding  schools  are  over  14  years  of  age. 


When  the  children  pass  out  from  the  primary  school  it  is  for  Destination  of 

.  .  .  .  scholars  on  leav- 

their  parents  to  determine  tor  them  the  profession  which  they  ing  school, 
are  to  follow.  Some  remain  with  their  families  and  aid 
them  in  agricultural  labors ;  others  turn  to  the  industrial 
professions  or  enter  into  apprentice  schools  or  professional 
schools,  and  so  continue  their  primary  studies,  which  they 
alternate  with  the  practice  of  learning  a  trade.  To  obviate 
the  dangers  which  too  often  result  from  the  indifference  of 
parents  when  children  have  left  their  school,  the  law  has 
provided,  on  the  one  hand,  for  the  erection  of  half-time  schools,  Half-time 
and  has  prescribed,  on  the  other  hand,  that  every  child  under  schools' 

12  years  of  age  who  is  admitted  into  a  workshop,  shall,  up 
to  that  age,  pursue  school  studies  during  the  hours  free  from 
labor,  and  shall  receive  instruction  at  least  two  hours  a  day, 
if  there  is  a  special  school  attached  to  the  establishment. 


192 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Compulsory 
part  education  of 
working  child¬ 
ren. 


Societies  of 
patronage. 


School  libraries. 


Primary  normal 
schools. 


Mode  of  select¬ 
ing  teachers  for 
normal  schools. 


The  law,  moreover,  provides  that  no  child  before  the  comple¬ 
tion  of  his  fifteenth  year  shall  be  allowed  to  labor  more  than 
six  hours  a  day,  unless  he  can  bring  a  certificate  from  proper 
authority  to  the  effect  that  he  has  completed  elementary 
primary  instruction. 

Societies  of  patronage,  both  lay  and  congreganist,  serve  as 
intermediary  between  apprentices  and  patrons,  and  extend 
their  protecting  care  even  after  apprenticeship. 

In  order  to  promote  the  interest  in  keeping  fresh  the  knowl¬ 
edge  acquired,  and  turning  it  to  use,  much  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  establishment  of  school  libraries.  The  results 
have  been  highly  satisfactory.  The  reports  for  1876  show 
18,404  of  these  libraries,  with  1,827,409  volumes,  of  which 
1,196,332  were  loaned  during  that  year. 

In  order  to  secure  a  constant  supply  of  competent  teach¬ 
ers,  primary  normal  Schools  are  established.  Their  number 
at  present  is  95,  of  which  79  are  for  male  teachers  and  16  for 
females.  There  are,  moreover,  54  courses  for  female  teachers, 
and  2  for  male  teachers,  besides  11  other  courses  especially 
for  Protestants.  The  teachers  at  these  institutions  are,  as  a 
rule,  chosen  from  the  ranks  of  primary  school  graduates,  but 
M.  Fourtou,  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  in  1874  tried 
the  experiment  of  calling  in  the  aid  of  professors  from  the 
grade  of  secondary  instruction  to  be  specially  charged  with 
the  advanced  courses  in  the  physical  and  natural  sciences, 
as  well  as  in  literature,  in  these  primary  normal  schools.  In 
his  circular  announcing  this  step  the  minister  argues  that 
masters  who  have  had  experience  only  of  primary  ranges  of 
study  have  not  the  broad  scientific  and  literary  horizon,  nor 
the  tradition  of  the  methods  of  higher  instruction.  He  says : 


M.  Fourtou.  ‘ 1  Masters  trained  in  the  lyctfes  and  colleges,  nourished  by  solid  studies, 

formed  in  the  faculties  or  special  schools,  by  the  most  distinguished  men, 
possess  that  tradition,  and  apply  it  daily  in  their  lessons.  What  we 
desire  is  that  the  example  of  such  teachers  may  profit  the  younger  one, 
and  that  contact  with  professors  from  another  rank  may  teach  him  better 
methods  and  a  new  spirit,  so  that  he  in  turn  shall  become  the  able 
master  he  sees  before  him.” 

Instruction  in  drawing. 


Drawing.  Drawing  is  tauglit  in  all  the  schools  of  Paris,  whether  of 
boys  or  of  girls.  The  first  elements  of  linear  drawing  are 
taught  in  the  elementary  and  intermediate  courses  by  the 
teachers  of  those  grades.  In  the  superior  course  the  pupils 
are  placed  under  the  direction  of  special  masters  of  drawing, 
and  receive  lessons  six  hours  a  week.  They  draw  from 
relief  models.  Drawing  is  made  an  obligatory  condition  for 
the  11  certificate  of  primary  studies,”  which  is  a  much-prized 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


193 


diploma,  opening  the  way  to  desirable  employments.  No 
one  can  teach  drawing  in  the  schools  of  Paris  without  having 
passed  a  special  examination  and  received  the  appropriate 
certificate. 


FRANCE. 


Sewing  in  girls’  schools. 


tion. 


Sewing  instruc- 


An  interesting  feature  of  the  girls’  schools  is  the  manner 
in  which  the  various  branches  of  the  art  of  the  seamstress 
are  taught.  Two  and  three  hours  a  week  are  devoted  to 
progressive  exercises  in  sewing  through  the  course  of  three 
years.  In  the  superior  course  the  girls  are  obliged,  every 
Thursday,  to  follow  a  regular  course  of  instruction,  given  by  Regular  course, 
special  mistresses,  in  cutting  and  fitting.  Each  lesson  is  for 
three  hours.  The  girls  are  very  bright  at  these  exercises. 

One  is  called  out  to  measure  another,  as  for  a  dress ;  she  Method 
gives  the  proper  numbers  to  a  third,  who  writes  them  on  a 
slate  or  blackboard.  A  fourth  glances  at  these  figures  and 
immediately  begins  to  cut  a  pattern.  A  fifth  girl  then  takes 
the  pattern  and  fits  it  to  the  person  for  whom  it  was  in¬ 
tended.  The  rapidity  of  the  action  and  the  accuracy  of  the 
result  are  quite  interesting  to  witness.  There  can  be  no  vaiue 
hesitation  in  speaking  of  this  branch  of  education  for  girls, 
of  every  station  and  in  every  community,  with  the  highest 
commendation. 


Gymnastics. 


Gymnastics. 


Since  1872  there  are  exercises  of  an  hour  each,  at  least 
twice  a  week,  in  gymnastics,  in  girls’  schools  as  well  as  boys’.  For  girls  and 
These  exercises  are  generally  accompanied  by  a  simple  andbo>s' 
cheerful  song,  which  serves  also  to  develop  the  vocal  or¬ 
gans.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  daily  exercises  of  a  half- 
hour  each  would  be  a  better  arrangement. 


Special  institutions  of  a  primary  character. 


Special  educa 
tional  institu¬ 
tions. 


In  this  category  seem  to  belong  two  institutions  of  great 
value  in  their  respective  fields  of  action  : 

1  The  National  Institute  for  Blind  Youth,  at  Paris,  which  Schools  for  the 
has  served  as  the  model  for  19  establishments  of  this  sort, 
giving  instruction  at  present  to  608  boys  and  girls.  This  in¬ 
stitution  was  organized  nearly  a  century  ago  by  the  celebra-  m.  Haiiy. 
ted  Haiiy,  whose  methods  are  for  the  most  part  adopted 
throughout  the  civilized  world. 

2.  The  Institute  for  Deaf  Mutes,  formed  by  the  Abbe  de  Deaf  mute, 
I’l^pee  in  1791,  and  which  now  counts  54  schools,  with  an  Abbs’derfipee.. 
aggregate  of  4,000  attendants. 


13  P  R 


194 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Musical  train 


Orpheonic  soci¬ 
eties. 


Adult  and  ap¬ 
prentice  schools. 


To  this  account  may  properly  be  added  two  other  classes 
of  educational  institutions: 

3.  The  JScoles  de  Maitrise ,  which  are  strictly  chapel-masters’ 
schools  where  the  children  of  the  choir  of  a  cathedral  receive 
their  musical  education.  These  schools  are  established  in 
most  of  the  episcopal  sees,  where  young  men  may  receive  a 
musical  and  literary  education  which  will  fit  them  for  an 
honorable  career. 

4.  Orpheonic  societies,  intended  to  encourage  popular  mu¬ 
sical  education,  which  now  number  3,243,  and  have  147,600 
members. 


Adult  and  apprentice  schools. 


The  instruction  of  apprentices  and  adults  seems  to  belong, 
both  by  its  grade  and  generally  by  that  of  the  teachers  who 
give  it,  to  elementary  primary  instruction.  Different  means 
concurring  to  the  same  end  have  been  employed  for  the 
Manual  and  special  education  of  apprentices.  It  is  claimed,  on  the  one 

workshop  in-  7 

stmction.  hand,  to  be  possible  to  extend  in  the  workshop  the  educa¬ 
tion  of  the  school,  to  subject  the  manual  education  to  the 
discipline  of  rational  exercises,  and  so  bring  the  pupil  to  the 
best  condition,  at  once  physical,  intellectual,  and  moral.  It 
is  claimed,  again,  that  there  would  be  a  great  advantage  in 
putting  the  pupil  in  a  position  to  recognize  himself  his  pro¬ 
fessional  aptitudes  by  the  practice  of  the  elementary  pro¬ 
cesses  of  the  workshop,  and  that,  moreover,  the  skillfully 
managed  alternation  of  manual  labor  with  study  would 
insure  the  symmetrical  development  of  all  his  faculties. 
m.  Gr6ard.  “  The  school  in  the  workshop,  or  the  workshop  in  the 
school,”  as  M.  Greard  puts  it,  “is  the  double  question  which 
Apprentice is  being  tested,  on  the  one  hand,  in  the  school  annexed  to 

workshops.  °  7  7 

the  apprentice  workshops  of  the  Boulevard  de  la  Villette , 
and,  on  the  other,  in  the  workshop  annexed  to  the  school 
in  the  Rue  Tournefort .” 

Workshop  school  of  La  Villette . 

workshop  The  organization  of  the  school  at  La  Villette  rests  on  the 

school  of  La  Vil-  .  .  .  , 

lette.  following  principles : 

1.  No  premature  admission, — the  physical  not  less  than 
the  intellectual  force  of  the  child  forbidding  the  exacting 
education  of  apprenticeship  prematurely. 

Organization  2.  No  excessive  accumulation  of  pupils, — nothing  being 

-and  regulation.  x  A  7  °  ° 

more  contrary  to  the  attempt  at  intellectual  and  moral  de¬ 
velopment  which  is  proposed. 

3.  No  precocious  specialization, — the  hand,  like  the  mind, 
being  at  this  stage  only  fitted  for  generalities. 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


195 


4.  No  school  fees, — the  institution  being  designed  for  the  FKANCE- 
poorest  classes ;  but  no  boarding-school  system,  as  the  family 

ought  to  preserve  the  charge  and  the  honor  of  following  up 
the  education  of  the  child. 

5.  No  exercises  prolonged  to  the  fatigue  of  the  body  or  the  Regulations  of 
mind, — the  variety  of  exercises  being  one  of  the  indispensa- of  La  vmette. 
ble  conditions  of  a  true  equilibrium  of  the  physical,  intel¬ 
lectual,  and  moral  forces. 

6.  No  scientific  instruction,  properly  so-called, — the  ap¬ 
prentice  school  taking  its  proper  point  of  departure,  not 
from  theories,  but  from  facts,  and  resting  upon  theories  only 
so  far  as  their  material  applications  can  be  pointed  out. 

7.  The  general  course  of  instruction  embraces,  beyond  the  course  of  m- 
obligatory  matter  of  primary  instruction,  some  optional  mat¬ 
ter,  such  as  elementary  physics,  mechanics,  and  chemistry, 

in  their  relations  to  industry. 

To  this  general  instruction  is  added  a  technological  in-  Technical  in¬ 
struction,  embracing  the  study  of  tools,  raw  materials,  pro¬ 
ducts,  processes, — of  everything  in  fact  which  is  material¬ 
ized  in  the  practice  of  the  workshop.  Visits  to  industrial 
establishments,  of  which  the  pupils  are  to  render  written  visits  to  wort- 

7  x  x  shops. 

reports  in  detail,  complete  that  part  of  the  programme. 

The  professional  work  is  divided  into  works  of  jjrepara-  Preparatory  in- 
tory  instruction  and  works  of  actual  execution.  All  the  Actual’  execu- 
pupils  are  exercised  successively  in  the  first  year  in  the  two  10n' 
workshops  of  iron  and  of  wood,  following  a  written  schedule 
of  exercises.  That  sort  of  general  gymnastics  gives  supple¬ 
ness  and  steadiness  to  the  hand.  The  choice  of  a  specialty 
is  not  permitted  until  the  beginning  of  the  second  year. 

Here  the  “work  of  execution”  begins.  No  piece,  no  ma¬ 
chine,  no  part  of  a  machine,  is  executed  without  having  been 
first  exhibited  in  a  drawing  or  working  plan,  so  that  the 
pupil  always  proceeds  understandingly  and  with  exactness 
of  proportions  and  relations. 

The  day’s  work  consists  of  six  hours  of  manual  labor  ofTi“e  dMsion 
for  the  first  two  years  and  eight  hours  for  the  third  ;  four  and  kentai  W 
hours  of  mental  studies  for  the  first  two  years  and  two 
hours  for  the  third ;  and  for  the  three  years  two  hours  of 
rest  daily,  one  of  which  is  devoted,  three  times  a  week,  to 
gymnastics.  The  hours  up  to  3  p.  m.  are  used  in  general 
exercises  the  same  for  all  classes :  From  7  to  8,  study ;  8  to 
11,  workshops;  11  to  12,  recreation,  noon  meal;  12  to  2.30, 
workshops.  At  2.30  lunch  is  had,  and  after  that  the  pupils 
of  the  first  two  years  do  not  return  to  the  shops.  At  and 
after  3  p.  m.  the  exercises  are  varied  for  the  classes  of  dif¬ 
ferent  years,  and  are  arranged  to  give  hourly  change  of  the 


196 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


FRANCE. 


School  of 
Villette. 


Increasing 

portance. 


Extension. 


object  of  attention ;  sucli  as  study,  draughting,  mathemat¬ 
ics,  history,  languages,  and  for  the  third-year  class  the  work¬ 
shop. 

La  The  discipline  at  this  school  is  said  to  be  excellent,  and 
health  and  cheerfulness  seem  to  mark  the  bearing  of  the 
pupils.  This  school  shows  its  good  success  in  the  increas¬ 
ing  attendance,  as  well  as  in  the  demand  for  its  graduates 
in  the  various  mechanical  industries.  Organized  in  Decem¬ 
ber,  1872,  and  with  17  pupils  in  January,  1873,  it  had  on 

im-  the  1st  of  May,  1878,  165  pupils.  It  lias  graduated  three 
classes,  numbering  in  all  74.  Of  these,  70  are  attached  to 
first-class  establishments,  2  have  entered  into  commercial 
employment,  and  2  are  pursuing  higher  studies.  They 
receive  a  daily  pay  of  from  3  francs  to  6.50,  with  an  average 
of  upwards  of  4  francs. 

The  school  is  now  about  to  be  greatly  extended.  The 
workshops,  study-rooms,  and  recitation-rooms  are  to  be  en¬ 
larged,  and  a  dining-room  ( refectoire ),  a  laboratory  of  physics 
and  chemistry,  and  a  room  for  drawing  are  to  be  added. 


School  work- 
skops  of  Eue 
Tournefort. 


M.  Salicis. 


M.  LeveillS. 


M.  Gr6ard. 


Programme. 


The  school  workshops  of  Hue  Tournefort. 

The  workshops  attached  to  the  primary  school  of  the  Rue 
Tournefort  are  due  to  the  experienced  mind,  the  public 
spirit,  and  patriotic  solicitude  of  M.  Salicis,  cantonal  dele¬ 
gate,  professor  at  the  Polytechnic  School,  and  formerly 
captain  in  the  French  navy.  With  characteristic  modesty, 
however,  he  ascribes  the  project  to  M.  Leveille,  professor 
in  the  Law  School  of  France,  and  to  the  powerful  favor  of 
M,  Greard. 

The  personal  kindness  of  M.  Salicis  *  enables  me  to  pre¬ 
sent  the  underlying  ideas  and  the  main  features  of  this 
school,  which,  being  the  only  one  of  its  class,  and  designed 
to  meet  a  want  which  all  populous  cities  must  experience, 
deserves ’special  attention. 

The  general  programme  according  to  which  this  school 
was  organized,  imposed  by  the  u logic  of  facts”  rather  than 
of  ideas,  is  based  on  the  proposition  that,  whatever  be  the 
actual  final  industrial  calling*,  there  are  a  certain  number  of 
leading  topics  common  to  all,  and  to  which  all  instruction 
intended  for  apprentices  should  conform.  There  are : 

1.  The  continuance  of  school  instruction,  somewhat  modi- 


*  The  little  hook  entitled  “ Enseif/nement  Primaire  et-Apprenlmage”  by 
M.  Salicis,  is  one  of  the  best  illustrations  of  the  earnest  interest  and 
solicitude  with  which  many  of  the  best  minds  in  France  are  taking  up 
the  question  of  the  “enfranchisement”  of  the  “ Proletariat  ”  the  lower 
classes  of  society. 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


197 


tied  from  its  present  type ;  the  maintenance  of  examinations  France. 
which  shall  give  the  right  to  the  certificate  of  primary  edu¬ 
cation. 

2.  Study  and  management  of  raw  materials.  School  w-k- 

'  °  shop  of  Rue 

3.  Drawing  from  patterns  in  relief,  modeling,  molding,  Toumefort. 
sculpture  upon  soft  stone,  marble,  and  wood,  graphic  draw¬ 
ing,  and  ink  shadings. 

4.  The  practice  of  general  processes  and  tools ;  work  at 
the  bench,  at  the  forge,  at  the  lathe,  at  the  vise ;  elementary 
specialization  when  the  xmpil  has  in  view  a  particular  in¬ 
dustry. 

5.  General  technical  education,  and  specialization  of  that  Programme  ot 

instruction. 

part  which  bears  on  the  chosen  trade;  bookkeeping;  in¬ 
dustrial  and  commercial  geography ;  first  elements  of 
economy. 

6.  Delineation  with  scale  and  dividers  of  a  piece  of  finished 
work  or  a  machine ;  working  plan  on  a  given  scale ;  sketch 
or  free-hand  drawing ;  reciprocally,  execution  after  a  work¬ 
ing  plan  on  a  given  scale,  or  after  a  rough  draught. 

7.  Invention,  plotting,  execution  of  simple  plans. 

8.  Morals,  duties  of  men,  the  child,  the  laboring  man,  the 
man  of  property,  men  in  mutual  relations,  the  head  of  a 
family,  the  citizen,  and  the  country. 

9.  Habits,  personal  order,  order  in  tools,  order  in  labor, 
order  in  the  shop,  order  in  accounts,  order  in  thought,  spirit, 
and  hence  in  conduct. 

With  these  general  views  account  was  also  taken  of  the 
fact  that,  in  a  great  city,  workmen  of  almost  all  trades  fall 
into  one  or  another  of  the  following  classes : 

1.  Workers  in  art;  modelers,  carvers,  sculptors,  and  work-  Classification  of 

ers  in  ornament.  trades. 

2.  Turners. 

3.  Workers  in  wood;  carpenters,  joiners,  cabinet  makers, 
etc. 

4.  Workers  in  metals;  farriers,  locksmiths,  machinists. 

From  this  results  the  necessity  of  teaching  modeling,  and  Four  distinct 
work  at  the  bench,  the  lathe,  the  forge,  and  the  vise.  Ac- W0lkfell0ps- 
cordingly  there  are  four  workshops  attached  to  the  school, 
corresponding  to  these  four  classes. 

The  regular  course  is  for  three  years.  The  apprentices  of  Course  of  three 
the  first  and  second  year  follow  the  same  methods  as  the ' 
school  of  La  Villette,  all  participating  in  rotation  in  all  the 
exercises.  In  the  third  year  they  divide  into  their  special¬ 
ties, — modeling  and  sculpture,  carpentry  and  cabinet-mak¬ 
ing,  or  the  trades  of  smiths  and  machinists.  One  day  a 
week,  however,  the  apprentices  in  modeling  return  to  the 


198 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


school  work- ing  and  carpentry. 

shops  of  Eue  °  A  ° 

Tournefort.  and  from  1.30  to  3  p.  m. 


Growth  and 
success  of  the 
system. 


bench  and  the  forge ;  the  joiners  and  turners  to  the  forge 
and  to  modeling;  and  the  smiths  and  machinists  to  model  - 
The  shops  are  open  from  9  to  11  a.  m., 
Every  pupil  has  his  work-account 
book  kept  by  a  monitor,  verified  and  approved  by  the  pro¬ 
fessor.  From  1  to  1.30  p.  m.  there  is  a  technical  lesson  on 
raw  materials,  tools,  joints,  mortises,  and  tenons,  and  the 
elements  of  applied  geometry.  All  the  pupils  are  exercised 
Division  of  in  free-hand  drawing  and  plans  with  reference  to  construc- 

school  and  shop  .  .  .  . 

exercises.  tions.  On  Thursday  morning  they  practice  artistic  draw¬ 
ing  ;  in  the  afternoon  in  fine  weather  they  are  taken  to  visit 
the  workshops  and  factories.  The  courses  of  general  in¬ 
struction  are  the  same  as  the  higher  courses  in  all  schools 
of  the  primary  grade,  with  the  addition  of  the  elements  of 
the  physical,  chemical,  and  natural  sciences,  and  of  the 
history  of  industry.  The  apprentice  class  takes  part  each 
year  in  the  examination  for  the  certificate  of  primary  studies, 
and  the  number  of  successful  pupils  is  not  less  than  that  of 
other  schools. 

This  workshop  system  was  inaugurated  in  this  school  in 
1873,  with  13  pupil  s.  It  now  numbers  44.  Of  the  94  who  have 
gone  out  from  it,  nearly  all  have  found  their  appropriate 
places  in  their  trades ;  a  few  are  prosecuting  their  studies 
in  schools  of  a  higher  grade. 

Excellent  Some  of  the  work  seen  in  the  modeling  room  would  be 

modeling. 

surprising  to  one  not  accustomed  to  that  skill  of  hand  which 
characterizes  European  peoples.  Beautiful  figures  of  nat¬ 
ural  objects,  animals,  human  heads,  or  architectural  orna¬ 
ments,  were  modeled  in  clay  from  plane  drawings,  and  often 
were  copied  directly  by  the  eye  from  patterns ;  the  skill  and 
taste  in  the  execution  seeming  to  be  almost  an  instinct.  One 
thing  in  the  carpenters’  shop  appeared  to  be  a  most  useful 
exercise,  and  one  which  could  be  brought  into  our  own  pri- 

ofwoodsT1  study  mary  sch°°ls?  that  is,  the  practical  study  of  woods — not  only 
the  recognition  of  the  different  kinds,  but  a  study  of  their 
fiber,  grain,  susceptibility  of  polish,  their  strength  and  dura¬ 
bility.  This  kind  of  exercise  is  not  an  uncommon  thing  in 
the  schools  of  Europe,  where  people  care  a  great  deal  more 
for  their  woods  than  we  do. 

The  work  in  the  school  and  shops,  and  the  results  of  it, 
carpentry  and  seem  to  be  entirely  satisfactory  to  the  generous  patron  of 
them,  and  it  cannot  be  denied  that  it  is  on  all  accounts  a 
praiseworthy  experiment.  But  it  appeared  to  me  that  in  the 
carpenter’s  shop  and  in  the  metal  shop  some  of  the  work  was 
too  hard,  or  rather  the  boys  were  too  young.  It  is  a  man’s 
work  to  push  the  foreplane  over  such  rough,  hard  woods,  and 


metal  shops. 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


199 


to  swing  the  heavy  hammer  at  the  forge.  Of  course  it  was  France. 
interesting  to  see  boys  in  that  shop  making  the  tools  for  all 
the  shops ;  but,  however  we  may  admire  such  skill  in  boys 
of  14,  we  should  enjoy  it  better  if  they  were  four  years  older. 

At  the  school  De  la  Yillette  the  pupils  seemed  somewhat 
older,  averaging  at  graduation  about  19  years.  Even  at  that 
age  they  would  appear  to  us  too  young. 

j Evening  COUrseS.  '  Evening  eo\ir- 

ses  in  drawing 
and  primary  edu- 

The  regular  school  can,  of  course,  at  the  best,  provide  only  cation, 
for  children.  But,  to  atone  for  the  past  as  far  as  possible,  and 
to  meet  the  cases  of  those  who  appreciate  the  need  or  now 
first  find  the  opportunity  of  education,  evening  schools  are 
opened  for  apprentices  and  adults.  Some  of  these  are  for 
men,  and  others  for  women.  There  are  two  kinds  of  courses : 

1.  Drawing  (which  need  not  here  be  further  described) ; 

2.  Primary  education. 

The  latter  are  usually  taught  by  the  teachers  of  the  day  school  term, 
schools.  They  are  open  every  evening,  except  Thursday  and 
Sunday,  from  October  15  to  June  30.  The  courses  are  di¬ 
vided,  as  in  day  schools,  into  elementary,  intermediate,  and 
superior.  Each  of  these  in  turn  is  divided  into  classes,  so  classes, 
that  not  more  than  50  shall  be  taught  together.  Adults  and 
apprentices  are,  as  far  as  possible,  placed  in  distinct  classes. 

At  the  end  of  each  yearly  course  examinations  are  held  for 
adults  who  desire  the  “  certificate  of  primary  studies.”  There 
are  two  grades : 

1.  The  “restricted”  or  limited  certificate,  for  the  obliga-  Certificates  of 

.  proficiency. 

tory  studies — reading,  writing,  elements  of  the  French  lan¬ 
guage,  arithmetic,  with  the  metric  system. 

2.  The  complementary  or  full  certificate,  for  optional  stud¬ 
ies,  as  living  languages  in  their  commercial  uses,  applica¬ 
tions  of  arithmetic  to  accounts,  elements  of  the  iihysical  and 
natural  sciences,  and  commercial  and  industrial  geography. 

These  schools  are  all  gratuitous,  and  are  very  popular. 

The  generous  interest  of  M.  Duruy,  in  1867,  gave  them  a  m.  Duruy. 
great  impulse,  which  has  by  no  means  subsided.  About 
7,500  men  and  about  4,000  women  avail  themselves  of  this 
great  privilege.  Even  during  the  horrors  of  the  siege,  in  the 
winter  of  1870-’ 71,  4,370  men  and  1,803  women  remained 
steadfast  at  their  studies,  and  solaced  their  sufferings  and 
fears  by  attending  special  courses  of  commentaries  on  the 
history  of  France.* 

*  M.  Gr6ard,  11  Report  on  Primary  Instruction,  Department  of  the 
Seine,”  1878. 


200 


FRANCE. 


Evening  schools. 


Attendance. 


Special  free 
schools  for 
adults. 

Instruction  in 
drawing,  etc. 


Female  teachers. 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Attendance  of  adults ,  men  and  women ,  at  evening  schools ,  1867,  1877. 


Lay. 

Congrega- 

nxst. 

Total. 

1867. 

W omen  . . . . 

2,  751 
724 

2,  809 
1,  095 

5,  560 
1,  819 

1877. 

Men . I.... . . . 

Women . 

3,475 

3,  904 

7,  379 

5,  098 
1,  680 

2,  384 
2,148 

7,  482 
3,  828 

6,  778 

4,  532 

11,  310 

Distribution  among  the  three  grades  of  primary  study  in  the  adult  evening 
schools,  January,  1878. 


MEN. 

WOMEN. 

Adults. 

Appren¬ 

tices. 

] 

Adults. 

Appren¬ 

tices. 

Primary . . 

819 

1,329 

481 

2,  064 

1,  602 
285 

881 

745 

242 

1,  034 
970 
236 

Intermediate  . .  . 

Superior . 

Total . 

2,  629 

3,  951 

1,  868 

2,  240 

6,  580 

4, 108 

Besides  the  encouragement  given  to  public  adult  instruc¬ 
tion,  there  are  also  special  free  schools  for  adults,  particu¬ 
larly  for  the  teaching  of  drawing  and  whatever  is  subser¬ 
vient  to  excellence  in  this,  including  anatomy  and  study  of 
the  human  form.  These  are  often  largely  subsidized  by 
the  city,  and  encouraged  by  prizes  offered  by  individuals. 
There  are  no  public  schools  for  drawing  for  grown-up  wo¬ 
men,  and  hence  much  interest  is  taken  in  these  free  institu¬ 
tions,  which  afford  them  special  preparation  for  useful  and 
honorable  spheres  of  labor  in  a  country  where  artistic  skill  is 
held  in  such  demand. 

Female  teachers. 

There  is  a  tendency  of  late  to  place  young  boys  just  coming 
from  the  salles  Wasile ,  or  infant  school,  under  the  charge 
of  female  teachers,  as  best  suited  and  most  willing  to  guide 
the  little  ones  in  that  transition  period.  The  Director  of 
Primary  Instruction  for  the  Department  of  the  Seine  has 
experimented  in  this  way  with  much  success,  and  he  ably 
supports  his  action  in  his  recent  report.  He  says,  u  Woman 
has  the  instinct  of  education  v — that  is,  that  she  is  the  nat¬ 
ural  teacher.  Doubtless,  for  the  period  of  education  re¬ 
ferred  to,  his  reasons  are  good,  and  the  experiment  success¬ 
ful  because  in  accordance  with  nature.  It  would  not  follow 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


201 


from  this  that  women  are  the  best  teachers  in  every  range  France. 
and  to  every  degree.  But  this,  which  is  so  exceptional  in 
France  as  to  require  a  special  vindication,  is  quite  the  rule 
among  other  peoples.  In  Austria  and  in  Germany,  notably, 
all  the  younger  classes,  boys  and  girls  alike,  are  confided 
to  women  teachers. 

Special  means. 

Among  the  various  works  of  pupils  which  formed  so  pleas-  visits  of  schoi- 

°  1  x  x  ars  to  places  ot 

ant  a  portion  of  the  collections  of  the  Minister  of  Public  In-  interest, 
struction  at  the  Exposition,  one  interesting  class  was  of  a 
kind  not  wholly  unknown  to  us — the  journals  and  reports  of 
visits  made  by  scholars  to  instructive  places  in  the  vicinity 
of  their  schools,  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  study  by 
actual  observation.  It  is  surprising  what  an  amount  of 
seeing  and  knowing  can  be  gained  in  that  way.  It  trains 
the  powers  not  only  of  observation  but  of  accurate  descrip¬ 
tion — two  things  which  are  of  the  first  importance.  Are-  Reports  and 
port  of  this  kind  is  particularly  in  mind,  written  by  a  boyj°urnals' 
of  the  school  of  Saint  Urbain,  near  Domremy,  in  the  Depart¬ 
ment  of  the  Haute-Marne.#  It  is  the  account  of  a  walk  by  a  tour  for  the 
an  upper  class  of  that  school  across  the  canton,  for  the  pur-  phyly  °f  orogra‘ 
pose  of  studying  orography  and  the  valley  region  about  the 
upper  Marne  and  Moselle,  in  the  double  point  of  view  of 
the  physical  constitution  of  the  country,  its  different  sur¬ 
faces,  and  its  agricultural  products.  The  walks  and  talks  are 
almost  a  little  cyclopedia  of  science  and  history.  On  read¬ 
ing  the  story  of  what  they  saw  and  did,  one  must  have  lost 
the  humani  niliil  alienum  not  to  wish  to  have  been  with  them. 

A  pleasant  illustration  of  what  is  sometimes  done  by  pri-  m.  Menier’s 

schools  at  Noi- 

vate  means  is  seen  m  the  group  of  schools  which  form  part  sen. 
of  the  little  u  workingmen’s  city,”  established  at  Noiseil  on 
the  Marne  by  M.  Menier.  He  has  erected  some  very  neat 
and  handsome  buildings  for  the  domestic"  and  social  needs 
of  his  people,  and  he  devotes  the  entire  rent  received  for 
the  dwelling-houses  to  the  support  of  the  schools.  He  ex¬ 
pended  a  million  francs  on  this  little  village,  and  the  rent 
amounts  to  18,000  a  year.  M.  Menier  thinks  it  a  good  in¬ 
vestment  for  him  and  his  workmen,  as  it  assures  him  good 
workmen,  and  assures  them  good  care  and  education  and  a 
good  and  sure  prospect  for  their  children. 

There  is  a  school  for  boys  and  another  for  girls,  and  a  Kindergarten, 
kindergarten  for  the  little  ones.  The  desks  and  seats  are 
peculiar  to  this  establishment,  and  more  comfortable  and 


Furniture. 


*This,  or  one  very  similar,  is  found  in  the  “Bulletin  of  Primary  In¬ 
struction,  Department  of  the  Haute-Marno,”  by  M.  Desprez,  Inspector, 
1876. 


202 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

convenient  than  is  customary  in  Europe,  not  unlike  those 
of  the  best  schools  in  America.  The  light  is  so  managed 
for  that  it  can  be  admitted  on  one  side  or  on  both  at  choice, 

t^rroomementofanc^  an  ingenious  arrangement  of  partitions  the  two 
school-rooms  and  the  hall  for  drawings  and  natural  history 
collections  can  all  three  be  thrown  into  one  grand  hall. 
Library.  There  is  also  a  library  connected  with  the  school,  to  which 
the  workmen  come  in  the  evening  for  recreation  which  at 
the  same  time  is  instruction. 

sohooisandpubUc  Free  and  public  schools. 

Comparing  what  are  now  called  free  schools  with  those 
called,  in  distinction,  public,  the  falling  off  in  the  numbers  of 
the  former  is  quite  noticeable,  as  being  nearly  the  rate  of 
increase  of  the  latter.  The  decrease  in  the  number  of  free 
Decrease  m  schools  in  six  years  has  been  2,261,  while  the  increase  of 

free — increase  in  ^  9 

public  schools,  public  schools  in  the  same  time  has  been  2,356  ;  making  the 
general  increase  of  primary  schools  but  95  in  number,  or  a 
total  of  70,179  as  compared  with  70,084. 

It  ought  to  be  said,  however,  that,  while  the  number  of 
free  schools  has  diminished,  the  total  of  attendance  in  them 
has  at  the  same  time  increased.  To  illustrate  by  the  city  of 
Attendance.  Paris :  while  the  number  of  free  schools  has  fallen  off  from 
1,056  to  973  within  the  ten  years  past,  the  number  of  pupils 
in  the  free  schools  has  increased  from  66,490  to  75,572  5  a 
gain  of  9,082. 

causes  of  the  m.  Greard  thinks  that  this  gain  of  public  schools  upon 

gam  of  the  public  .  7 

schools  upon  the  the  free,  is  to  be  explained  mainly  by  the  rapid  develop¬ 
ment  of  public  instruction,  with  the  minor  and  accidental 
results  of  the  annexation  of  the  suburban  communes,  and 
the  increased  cost  of  living,  which  has  compelled  many  free 
schools  to  sell  out.  But,  on  the  whole,  the  reasons  seem  to 
sum  themselves  up  in  the  natural  “law  of  the  strongest,” 
that  the  organization  of  the  greatest  vitality  will  absorb 
those  of  less  vitality  around  it.  We  must  not  forget,  how¬ 
ever,  that  the  aim  of  the  active  movements  now  going  on  in 
France,  and  especially  in  Paris,  is  to  bring  about  a  perfect 
public  system ;  and  though  for  the  present  they  accept  the 
free  schools  as  better  than  nothing,  they  look  to  merging 
them  as  fast  as  possible  in  the  “ common  cause.” 

But,  looking  at  the  free  schools  which  are  now  most  patron¬ 
ized,  it  seems  to  be  the  general  rule  that  free  schools  are 
sought  by  the  upper  classes,  while  the  laboring  class — 
those  who  live  on  their  daily  labor — send  their  children  to 
the  public  school.  At  all  events  it  is  clear  that  the  free 
schools  flourish  most  in  the  wealthy  quarters,  while  the 
public  schools  find  their  best  fields  among  the  poor.  This 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


203 


may  be  owing  largely  to  the  fact  that  in  the  free  schools  FRAKCE- 
there  is  more  “  freedom”  in  respect  to  management  of  ex¬ 
ceptional  preferences  of  parents  as  to  treatment  and  studies 
than  would  be  allowed  in  a  public  school.  But,  with  the 
growing  sentiment  toward  the  elevation  of  the  masses,  an^’g0^^cgs^u1Coia- 
the  breaking  down  of  all  ranks  and  orders  in  the  social  mon”  schools, 
system,  it  is  perfectly  natural  that  the  public  school  should 
tend  to  become  the  “common”  school  and  the  gratuitous 
school ;  and  that  the  time  should  be  sensibly  drawing  on 
when  the  terms  public  school,  common  school,  and  free 
school  should  mean,  as  in  America,  one  and  the  same  thing. 

This  may  complete  the  view  we  are  able  to  take  here  of  ele¬ 
mentary  primary  instruction  in  France.  For  a  great  major- 1 
ity  of  the  children  of  that  country  this  grade  of  school  is 
the  completion  of  their  education.  Hence  the  deep  interest  obligatory’ 
which  is  felt  in  it  by  thoughtful  and  patriotic  men  in  France, 
and  the  efforts  which  are  so  vigorously  moving  to  make  this 
grade  of  education  unsectarian,  free,  and  obligatory — that 
is,  to  realize  in  France  the  free  public  school  of  America. 

PEDAGOGICAL  ORGANIZATION.  Pedagogical 

organization. 

One  great  lack  in  the  common-school  system  of  France  is 
pedagogical  organization.  The  practice  of  what  is  called 
“mutual  instruction,”  placing  the  pupils  largely  in  the  hands 
of  .monitors,  and  thus  depriving  them  of  the  personal  instruc¬ 
tion  and  influence  of  the  master,  is  an  evil  which  thoughtful 
friends  of  primary  education  have  striven  sedulously  to  cor¬ 
rect.  “Our  aim,”  says  M.  Greard,  “is  to  substitute  for  the 
surveillance  of  monitors  the  authority  of  masters ;  for  the  Monitors. 

,  .  .  Masters. 

mechanism  and  routine  of  usages  ( proceaes )  the  vitalizing  ac¬ 
tion  of  methods.”  In  order  to  this  it  was  essential  to  secure 
good  material  for  teachers  and  to  have  them  well  instructed, 
not  only  in  the  material  of  education,  but  in  its  best  methods. 

With  this  view  two  normal  schools  have  lately  been  es-  Normal  schools, 
tablished  in  Paris,  one  for  masters  (1872),  and  one  for  mis¬ 
tresses  (1873).  In  both,  instruction  is  gratuitous.  Pupils 
are  admitted  only  on  rigid  competitive  examinations,  in 
which,  as  reports  show,  not  more  than  a  quarter  or  a  third  are 
at  the  first  trial  successful.  Candidates  who  have  been  twice 
rejected  lose  their  privilege. 

Pupils  are  followed  up  by  -a  rigorous  system  of  examina-  Examiiiations. 
tions  and  novitiates,  and  everything  is  done  to  secure  a  good 
recruitment  of  teachers,  and  in  this  way  the  better  organi¬ 
zation  of  pedagogy  will  in  time  be  possible.  The  studies  are 
nearly  the  same  as  those  in  the  superior  primary  schools 
hereafter  noticed,  with  the  marked  addition  (as  it  appeared  to 
me)  of  hygiene  and  moral  and  religious  instruction.  “Peda- 


204 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


France.  gogy,”  says  M.  Greard  again,  ais  nothing  else  than  an  ap 
plication  of  psychology  to  education ;  an  application  so  much 
the  more  delicate  in  primary  instruction,  as  it  is  exercised 
on  less  cultivated  natures.”  A  primary  school  of  practice 
{application)  is  attached  to  each  of  these  schools. 

Normal  school  for  girls. 

Normal  schools.  Two  days  spent  in  attendance  on  the  exercises  of  the  nor¬ 
mal  school  for  women  teachers,  on  the  Boulevard  des  Batig- 
nolles ,  gave  an  insight  into  both  methods  and  aims.  This 
school  is  under  the  direction  of  Madame  de  Friedberg,  an 
bCTgad‘  de  Fried  accomP^s^e(i  ancl  noble  lady,  whose  influence  cannot  fail  to 
be  a  power  in  the  important  work  of  a  better  education  for 
girls.  By  her  courtesy,  several  opportunities  were  given  for 
observing  methods  and  for  testing  results  in  exercises  wholly 
outside  of  the  regular  programme.  By  request,  several 
young  pupils  who  had  just  entered  their  third  year  were 
called  up,  without  previous  notice,  to  give  expositions  on  va- 
G-eography.  rious  topics.  Geography  was  the  topic  assigned  to  the  first, 
who  came  forward  to  the  tribune  (or  platform)  and  com¬ 
menced  with  a  voice  and  manner  of  perfect  self-possession, 
first  with  the  form,  and  then  the  substance  of  the  earth.  In 
illustrating  the  latter  subject,  she  dispatched  other  pupils 
Geology.  from  time  to  time  to  the  cabinets  of  natural  history  for  speci¬ 
mens  of  various  rocks  and  earths,  and  afterwards  of  plants 
belonging  to  different  periods.  She  then  took  up  the  forma¬ 
tion  of  continents  and  the  great  geologic  changes,  and  de- 
Admirabie  sys-  scribed  the  several  oceans.  Meantime  she  had  called  out  a 
tem  and  method,  classmate  to  draw  upon  the  blackboard  an  outline  map  of 
France,  on  which  were  indicated  its  great  physical  features. 
These  she  proceeded  to  describe  with  perfect  clearness  and 
logical  method,  and  without  the  least  particle  of  the  air  of 
recitation.  This  discourse  occupied  more  than  half  an  hour, 
and  all  without  a  word  of  suggestion  or  interruption  by  the 
teacher.  Another  was  suddenly  summoned  to  take  up  the 
History.  history  of  France  from  the  earliest  times  known  $  which  she 
did  much  in  the  manner  of  the  former.  Meantime  another 
had  been  sent  to  the  board  to  mark  upon  the  map  of  France, 
already  drawn,  the  march  of  Caesar  in  Gaul,  with  reference 
to  the  physical  features  of  the  country.  The  inroads  of  the 
Germans  and  the  advance  of  Caesar  were  marked  by  differ¬ 
ently  colored  arrow-heads.  This  was  almost  an  exercise  upon 
strategy  and  grand  tactics,  and  it  seemed  not  a  little  strange 
to  hear  such  lessons  from  a  girl  of  sixteen.  At  a  suggestion, 
Madame  de  Friedberg  suddenly  stopped  the  speaker,  and 
called  another  to  take  up  the  thread  of  the  discourse,  who 
tionrenchRevolu'  carried  it  on  unbroken.  The  French  Revolution  was  then 


EDUCATION" :  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


205 


treated,  not  only  as  to  its  facts,  but  as  to  its  principles  and  France. 

forces,  and  in  relation  to  politics  and  morals.  It  was  evident 

that  each  g"il  had  her  own  opinions.  The  French  Bevolu- 

tion  is  made  a  study  for  an  entire  year.  be^a(L  de  Fned‘ 

In  a  similar  manner  and  with  equal  success,  the  subjects 
of  botany  and  physics  were  exhibited.  For  plants,  the  whole 
story  of  life  was  told — birth,  growth,  and  death ;  form,  flower, 
and  fruit.  In  physics,  the  qualities  of  bodies  and  the  laws 
of  forces  were  discoursed  upon,  and  illustrated  by  ample 
apparatus.  In  this  branch  some  discussions  arose  through 
the  criticisms  interposed  by  Madame  Masson,  the  teacher  in  Botany,  physics, 
that  department,  in  which  the  pupil  sustained  herself  or 
yielded  her  point  with  equal  address  and  courtesy.  All  this 
time  the  intelligent  and  riveted  attention  of  every  pupil  to 
the  one  who  was  speaking  was  most  interesting  to  observe. 

Another  pleasant  feature  of  this  visit  was  an  inspection  Model  school 
of  the  methods  in  the  model  school,  or  school  of  application, for  teacliers- 
connected  with  the  institution,  where  the  pupil-teachers  are 
taught  to  teach  under  the  immediate  direction  and  inspira¬ 
tion  of  their  accomplished  head.  In  the  main  school-room 
one  of  the  elder  pupils  is  often  called  to  preside,  as  well  in 
the  presence  as  in  the  absence  of  the  directress. 

It  may  be  permitted  to  add  that  the  manner  of  Madame  Elevating  influ- 
de  Friedberg  toward  her  pupils  was  something  remarkable ;  rectress. 
and  their  manner  toward  her  in  return  showed  how  deep- 
reaching  and  how  elevating  was  its  influence.  Whenever 
she  called  a  girl  to  her  for  some  private  direction  or  remark, 
she  took  the  hand  of  the  girl,  and  often  rested  her  other  hand 
on  the  girl’s  shoulder,  and  thus  drew  her  gently  toward  her, 


as  if  she  were  about  to  intrust  her  with  some  confidential 
message.  The  pupils  love  her,  and  love  to  do  what  she  tells 
them,  and  so  learn  to  love  their  work,  and  to  love  their  own 
pupils  in  turn.  Meantime  the  girl  becomes  a  lady,  and  the 
woman  is  not  lost  in  the  school- mistress. 


SUPERIOR  PRIMARY  EDUCATION.  Superior  pri¬ 

mary  education. 

This  is  a  phrase  used  to  comprehend  various  kinds  of 
instruction  not  yet  by  any  means  classified,  either  scientific¬ 
ally  or  practically.  It  seems  to  cover  all  sorts  of  instruc¬ 
tion  between  the  ordinary  courses  of  the  primary  schools 
and  secondary  instruction.  But  the  lines  are  not  well  enough  Itange  of  its  ju- 
drawn  to  enable  us  to  say  just  what  character  of  instruction risdl0t1011, 
belongs  to  this  title.  It  would  seem  as  if  the  apprentice 
schools  and  some  of  the  courses  of  the  adult  school  already 
spoken  of  should  be  ranged  here;  so  also  those  special 
courses  in  many  of  the  schools  of  France  which  are  organ- 


206 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

ized  in  the  ordinary  primary  schools  to  fit  the  children  for 
the  local  industries  and  the  special  demands  of  various  situ¬ 
ations  ;  as,  for  instance,  in  one  place  commerce,  in  another 
agriculture,  in  another  mining,  or  the  management  of  woods. 
But,  strictly  following  the  prevailing  use  of  the  title  we 
Superior  pri- are  considering,  it  appears  that  we  must  refer  it  almost 

mary  education:  .  1 

exclusively  to  such  schools  as  are  only  to  he  found  in  the 
great  cities,  and  which  aim  at  giving  what  in  this  country 
we  might  call  scientific  courses,  to  fit  young  men  for  those 
branches  of  modern  business  which  demand  preparation  of 
that  kind,  as  manufacturing,  commercial,  or  banking  houses, 
where  capable  and  even  accomplished  subordinates  are 
essential.  We  cannot  much  wonder  at  the  inclination  to 
call  such  schools  institutions  of  special  secondary  instruc¬ 
tion,  instead  of  regarding  them  as  a  species  of  the  primary 
school.  No  one  seems  to  think  of  them  as  belonging  to  the 
Corresponds  to  common-school  system,  and  they  are  certainly  not  charge- 
courseS”ien  1  0  able  with  the  faults  and  evils  which  we  have  seen  to  char¬ 
acterize  the  present  condition  of  that  system.  In  our  way 
of  speaking  we  should  call  these  schools  scientific  high 
schools. 

Ten  years  ago  there  were  only  two  such  schools  in  the  city 
of  Paris.  These  were  the  famous  schools,  the  College  Chap- 
tal  and  the  ficole  Turgot. 

Coucge  chaptai  The  College  Chap  tal  corresponds  very  nearly  with  the  best 
German  Eealschule ,  which  have  for  their  object,  like  the  Gym¬ 
nasia,  a  general  superior  education  for  boys,  but  differ  from 
the  Gymnasia  in  giving  special  prominence  to  modern  lan¬ 
guages  and  the  mathematical  and  natural  sciences.* 

The  College  Chaptai  gives  a  regular  course  of  five  years, 
Curriculum,  comprising  religious  instruction,  the  mathematical,  physical, 
and  natural  sciences,  the  French  language  and  literatur  e, 
the  modern  languages,  history  and  geography,  industrial  and 
artistic  drawing,  music,  gymnastics,  and  military  exercises. 
To  this  course  a  sixth  year  is  added,  especially  designed  for 
pupils  preparing  for  the  Polytechnic  school  or  some  other 
situation  deman  ding  special  mathematical  preparation.  The 
Latin  language  is  optional  from  the  third  year.  The  college 
Prosperity.  has  greatly  prospered  from  the  beginning.  In  1867  it  had 
1,055  pupils ,  in  1878  they  exceeded  1,300.  Thirty  years  ago 
its  yearly  receipts  were  not  100,000  fr. ;  now  they  exceed 
1,100,000,  and  are  largely  beyond  the  expenses. 

School  Turgot.  The  School  Turgot  was  opened  a  few  years  before  the  Chap¬ 
tai,  and  has  had  an  uninterrupted  course  of  development 

*  For  a  clear  definition  of  the  Eealschule ,  see  the  Saxon  law  of  August 
22,  1876. 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


207 


and  prosperity,  The  law  of  1850,  which  suppressed  primary  FRANCE- 
superior  instruction,  did  not  close  this  school,  and  its  pro¬ 
gramme  has  even  had  some  influence  in  shaping  the  lately  School  Turgot, 
proposed  grade  of  special  secondary  instruction.  The  course 
at  the  opening  included  mathematics  applied  to  practical 
operations,  the  elements  of  history  and  geography,  notions  Course, 
of  the  physical  sciences  and  natural  history  such  as  are  appli¬ 
cable  to  the  ordinary  uses  of  life,  drawing  and  music.  These 
studies  extended  through  three  years.  A  preparatory  class 
was  afterward  found  necessary  to  bring  all  the  applicants  to 
one  level  of  preparation  for  the  regular  course ;  and  the  dis¬ 
position  of  pupils  to  remain  and  prosecute  studies  in  which 
they  had  acquired  so  great  an  interest  led  to  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  a  supplementary  year  of  advanced  studies.  Its 
course  has  gradually  enlarged,  so  that  it  now  embraces  geom¬ 
etry,  bookkeeping,  and  the  modern  languages. 

The  School  Turgot  has  never  been  gratuitous $  but  the  tui-  Fees, 
tion  fees  have  always  been  put  within  the  reach  of  families  of 
moderate  means,  for  whose  needs  the  school  was  particularly 
designed.  The  fee  is  18  fr.  a  month,  including  all  extras — 
about  200  fr.  a  year.  With  this  income,  the  school  has  for 
forty  years  met  its  ordinary  expenses,  including  teachers, 
material  of  instruction,  library,  apparatus,  and  collections  of 
natural  history. 

It  is  noticeable,  in  its  statistical  account,  that  the  receipts  statistics, 
most  regularly  meet  the  expenditures  when  the  attendance 
is  from  550  to  650.  Below  that  figure  the  school  cannot  with¬ 
out  difficulty  sustain  its  operations  ;  above  it,  such  are  the 
additional  space,  material,  and  teaching  force  required,  that 
the  expenses  exceed  the  revenue.  This  number  represents 
an  income  of  100,000  fr.  The  Chaptal,  however,  has  shown  income. 

11s  that  a  much  larger  school  may  be  made  to  pay  its  own 
way ;  and  it  is  true,  of  course,  that  schools  on  a  smaller  scale, 
above  certain  limits,  may  be  carried  on  with  good  economy. 

There  is  also  an  upper  limit  beyond  which  a  school  could  not  LimitfOf  ca- 
economically  be  carried  under  one  organization  and  super- &rgement°r  en 
vision. 

The  success  of  the  School  Turgot  has  been  fruitful.  With-  Creation  of  ad- 

°  ditional  schools 

in  the  last  ten  years  three  new  schools  of  this  class  have  of  tMs  class- 
been  created, — the  J^cole  Colbert  in  1868,  in  the  10th  arron- 
dissement ;  Lavoisier ,  in  1872,  in  the  5th  j  Jean  Baptist  Say ,  in 
1873,  in  the  16th.  A  fifth  school,  to  be  called  Boole  Arago , 
has  just  been  provided  for  (1878),  in  the  12th  arrondissement , 
that  populous  region  of  the  southeast  of  Paris  which  has 
hitherto  been  without  means  of  such  instruction  5  and  a  pro¬ 
ject  is  now  on  foot  to  provide  another  in  the  northwestern 


208 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


FRANCE* _ part  of  the  city — the  region  of  the  Batignolles  and  the  Ternes, 

where  numerous  industries  will  furnish  abundant  material 
and  demand.  It  is  hoped  that  something  more  may  soon 
be  done  for  the  population  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine,  in 
the  region  of  Grenelle  and  Plaisance. 
sc£?sUaprlpar°ar  Workshops  of  manual  labor  have  been  opened  for  pupils 
Schools Vf  Arts w^°  are  P^paring  for  the  “Schools  of  Arts  and  Trades.” 
and  Trades.  Although  free  tuition  is  not  the  custom  of  these  schools, 

yet  aids  are  given  by  way  of  scholarships  ( bourses )  from 
various  public  and  private  sources.  There  are  now  115 
bourses  for  Chaptal  and  Turgot;  102  municipal,  5  depart- 
Bourses,  (schoi-  mental,  and  8  received  from  the  liberality  of  General  My - 
aiGen.SMyiius.  lius,  in  which  preference  is  to  be  given  to  applicants  from 
certain  arrondissements.  M.  Greard  ascribes  much  of  the 
remarkable  success  of  these  schools  to  the  aptitude,  spirit 
and  devotion  of  the  instructors,  which  inspires  the  pupils 
with  zeal  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge,  with  self-reliance, 
vigor,  and  ambition  to  perfect  their  powers. 

Two  measures  to  interest  and  profit  those  whose  minds 
are  awakened  to  zeal  for  further  knowledge,  which  have 
lately  been  adopted  in  these  schools,  cannot  be  passed  with¬ 
out  particular  mention  here.  One  is  the  establishment  of 
finishing  courses  (cours  de  perfectionment ),  the  other  of 
journeys  of  instruction. 


Finishing 

courses. 


Business  course. 


Languages. 


Literature. 


Finishing  courses. 

The  former  of  these  instrumentalities,  which  resembles 
and  perhaps  imitates  the  Vorbildungsckule  of  Germany 
and  Switzerland,  is  intended  to  furnish  to  pupils  who  have 
been  obliged  on  graduation  to  engage  immediately  in  their 
professional  work,  the  means  of  completing  their  instruction 
by  evening  courses.  These  courses,  although  not  public  and 
not  gratuitous,  as  many  of  the  evening  courses  given  by  the 
Polytechnic  and  other  great  schools  are,  have  yet  this  great 
advantage,  that  here  the  master  follows  up  his  instructions 
by  giving  his  personal  attention  to  his  pupils  by  way  of  ex¬ 
aminations,  corrections,  and  other  modes  of  private  instruc¬ 
tion.  The  advantages  of  this  cannot  be  too  highly  appre¬ 
ciated.  The  courses  for  1877-’78  were  largely  attended, 
having  in  all  335  pupils.  Besides  the  ordinary  courses, 
such  as  bookkeeping,  geography,  the  English  and  German 
languages,  by  the  particular  desire  of  the  pupils,  courses 
in  commercial  arithmetic  and  political  economy  were  added 
to  the  programme  of  instruction.  Lectures  were  also  given 
on  the  master-pieces  of  literature  and  pregnant  and  decisive- 
epochs  in  the  march  of  civilization. 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


209 


These  courses  are  open  to  all,  but  have  been  organized  FRANCE- 
with  special  reference  to  the  wants  of  former  pupils  of  the 
primary  superior  schools,  who  constitute  the  great  body  of 
attendants.  The  fee  is  5  fr.  a  month  for  a  single  course,  Fees, 
and  10  fr.  for  all  the  courses. 

Vacation  excursions.  Vacation  ex¬ 

cursions. 

The  vacation  journeys  of  instruction  have  become  an  insti¬ 
tution.  Fifty  pupils  selected  from  each  of  the  primary  supe¬ 
rior  schools  on  account  of  their  diligence  and  proficiency  are 
taken  under  the  charge  of  a  director  or  a  professor,  to  visit  the 
great  centers  of  industry  or  interest.  The  Municipal  Coun¬ 
cil  appropriates  12,000  fr.  a  year  for  this  purpose,  and  vari¬ 
ous  reductions  from  the  regular  fares  of  railways  and  hotels 
are  easily  effected  for  the  encouragement  of  this  enterprise. 

The  exceedingly  interesting  report  of  the  director  of  the  n^v^rirsion  to 
school  Turgot,  giving  a  detailed  account  of  a  recent  vacation 
visit  of  that  school  to  Havre,  is  well  worth  being  transcribed 
at  length,  both  to  show  what  masterly  use  can  be  made 
under  skillful  guidance  of  the  opportunities  afforded  by  a 
great  commercial  center  like  that,  for  the  practical  study  of 
actual  works,  and  also  to  set  in  clear  light  the  value  of  a 
measure  which  might  be  so  successfully  employed  for  the  in¬ 
struction  of  young  people  in  this  country.  The  limits  of  this 
paper,  however,  will  permit  only  the  bare  mention  of  some 
of  the  subjects  of  observation  in  that  visit.  Cosmographv,  Subjects  of  ob- 
physical  astronomy,  illustrated  in  tides  and  waves,  and  other 
phenomena  of  the  sea  and  river  mouths ;  marine  zoology; 
geography ;  the  machinery  and  system  of  meteorological  ob¬ 
servatories  and  the  signal-service;  light-houses;  the  har¬ 
bors,  basins,  dry-docks ;  the  handling  of  ships  to  pass  the 
jetty ;  the  inspection  of  ocean  steamers  and  their  compli¬ 
cated  machinery,  and  of  sailing  vessels ;  the  variety  of  works 
and  machines  employed  in  ship-building;  the  warehouses 
containing  products  and  works  from  every  quarter  of  the 
earth, — these  are  some  of  the  objects  which  afforded  not 
merely  an  interesting  experience,  but  also  matter  for  intelli¬ 
gent  study  with  valuable  and  lasting  results. 

The  objective  points  of  the  vacation  studies  for  1879  were,  po9  tbs\n  °i879Vof  ‘ 
for  the  College  Cliaptal ,  Havre;  for  the  school  J.  B.  Say,  ^ousgeChaptai. 
Bayeux,  the  site  of  the  venerable  cathedral,  of  the  u  Bayeux  School  j.  b.  say., 
tapestry,”  as  well  as  of  the  more  modern  factories  of  lace, 
damask,  and  calicoes,  and  of  porcelain  ;  for  the  school  Col-  School  Coiberi 
bert ,  Belgium  and  Holland,  with  Brussels,  Antwerp,  Rot¬ 
terdam,  and  Amsterdam  as  principal  stations ;  for  the 
school  Turgot ,  Auvergne,  with  Clermont-Ferrand  for  a  cen-  School  Turgot, 
tre — the  seat  of  varied  institutions  of  learning,  and  sur- 
14  P  R 


210 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


France.  rounded  by  volcanic  formations  of  the  most  diversified  as¬ 
pect,  celebrated  also  in  pagan  as  well  as  in  Christian  his¬ 
tory, — whence  visits  are  projected  to  Puy  de  Dome,  Mt.  Rog- 
non  and  the  plateau  of  Gergovie,  the  works  of  Pontgibeau, 
Mont  Dore  and  Puy  de  Sancy,  Roy  at,  and  Puy  de  Gavenoire. 
*ieSrCh°°l  Lavoi'  The  school  Lavoisier  visits  London,  and  studies,  among  other 
interesting  things,  the  Palace  of  Parliament,  Westminster 
Abbey,  St.  Paul’s,  the  Kensington  Museum,  the  British  Mu¬ 
seum,  the  parks,  the  Zoological  Garden,  the  Tower  of  London 
the  docks  and  works  of  the  Thames,  the  Crystal  Palace  of 
Sydenham,  Hampton  Court,  Windsor,  Greenwich,  and  Wool¬ 
wich. 

It  would  not  be  easy  to  mention  all  the  good  effects  of  this 
system  of  vacation  studies  5  but  it  is  easy  to  see  that,  when 
well  organized  and  conducted,  scarcely  anything  can  be  more 
valuable  to  those  who  are  prepared  to  appreciate  them. 


Salaries  of 
teachers. 


Salaries  of  teachers. 

The  following  table  indicates  the  main  points  in  respect 
to  teachers’  salaries  in  France,  as  fixed  by  the  law  passed  by 
the  Rational  Assembly  in  1875: 


Service. 

Principals 
(Titulaires) . 

Men. 

Women. 

From  the  first  year . . 

900 

700 

After  5  years . 

1,000 

800 

After  10  years . 

1, 100 
•  1, 200 

900 

After  15  years . - . 

Assistants' 

(Adjoints). 

In  charge  of  country  schools . 

800 

650 

Attached  to  classified  schools . 

700 

600 

These  are  minimum  rates.  They  are  increased  by  various 
considerations.  Those,  in  each  of  the  classes  given  above, 
who  have  a  complete  certificate  of  qualification  have  an 
Additional  com- addition  of  100  francs.  Those  who  have  received  certain 

;pensations.  . 

prizes  have  also  an  increase  of  100  francs.  These  salaries 
may  also  be  increased  by  evening  classes,  or  by  other  consid¬ 
erations  in  certain  cases,  such  as  residing  in  the  neighbor¬ 
hood  of  the  school. 

The  following  tables  show  the  rules  now  in  force  for  the 
yearly  salaries  of  teachers  and  school  officers  of  various 
grades  of  lay  schools  in  the  city  of  Paris : 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


211 


Salaries  in  Salles  d’asile. 


FRANCE. 


Directress. 

Assistant. 

Minimum  . - .  . 

Francs. 

2, 200 
2, 400 
2,  600 

Francs. 

1,  600 
1,  800 
2,  000 

After  3  years  . . . . 

After  6  years  .  . . . . . . . 

Salaries 
saUes  d'asile. 


in 


Salaries  in  Primary  schools.  Salaries  in  pri¬ 

mary  schools. 


Service. 

MEN. 

WOMEN. 

m  ^ 

Po3  § 

.8*5* 

3  S 

•Si 

oa 

1! 

00  O 

If 

Ph.£ 

'8  a 

l! 

®  * 

CO 

rig 

00  O 

03 

From  first  year . 

After  3  years . 

Francs. 

2, 800 
3, 200 
3, 600 
4,  000 

Francs. 

2,  000 
2,  200 
2, 400 

Francs. 

2,  600 
2, 900 
3, 200 
3,  500 

Francs. 

1, 800 
2, 000 
2, 200 

After  6  years . 

A  fter  9  years  .  . 

Salaries  of  officers  of  the  primary  superior  schools  of  Paris. 


Directors. 

Prefects  (inspectors 
of  studies). 

Agents  (who  keep  the 
business  accounts, 
or  overseers), 

*  Professors’  annual  salary 
for  each  hour  with  class. 

Tutors  (Repetiteurs). 

First  grade. 

Second  grade. 

Francs. 

Francs. 

Francs. 

Francs. 

Francs. 

Francs. 

Minimum . 

7,  000 

4,000 

2, 400 

200 

150 

1,  600 

Lodging,  commutation 

value  . 

1,  000 

600 

600 

Total  of  triennial  in¬ 

crease  .  ........ 

2,  000 

2,  000 

1, 200 

100 

100 

800 

Maximum . 

10, 000 

6,600 

4, 200 

300 

250 

2,  400 

Salaries  in  pri¬ 
mary  superior 
schools  of  Paris. 


*  Professors  of  the  first  grade  are  those  who  teach  mathematics,  the  physical,  chem¬ 
ical,  and  natural  sciences,  languages,  history,  geography,  and  drawing.  Those  of  the 
second  grade  teach  penmanship,  singing,  and  gymnastics. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION.  catSm*^17  ^ 

Secondary  instruction,  classical  or  special,  provides  for  the 
needs  of  children  who  are  preparing  for  the  great  schools 
of  the  government,  or  whose  parents  intend  to  fit  them  for 
industrial  or  commercial  pursuits.  This  instruction  is  given 
by  the  State  in  the  lycees  and  colleges — which  are  of  the  grade  Lycees,  colleges, 
of  our  best  high  schools  and  academies — and  by  private 
parties  in  the  free  institutes  of  secondary  instruction,  lay  or 
congreganist.  The  schools  of  this  grade  comprise  at  pres-  Number  of  such 
ent  81  lycees ,  252  communal  colleges,  803  free  institutions 
(lay  or  ecclesiastical),  and  27  Jesuits’  schools.  There  are, 


212 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Professional 

schools. 


France.  moreover,  many  smaller  seminaries,  under  tlie  authority  of 
the  bishops,  which  give  secondary  instruction  in  all  degrees, 
increase  of  Within  the  last  ten  years  there  has  been  an  increase  of 

iycees  find  ool* 

leges.  11,645  pupils  in  the  Iycees ,  of  5,139  in  the  colleges,  and  of 

only  159  in  the  free  institutes — the  present  number  in  the 
Iycees  being  40,995 ;  in  the  communal  colleges,  38,236  ;  in  the 
free  institutes,  78,065.  In  view  of  this  constant  increase  of 
numbers,  the  government  is  preparing  to  open  six  new  grand 
Iycees ,  and  the  departments  and  communes  are  each  year 
voting  funds  to  open  new  colleges. 

Special  instruction  is  given  in  almost  all  the  public  estab- 
Grand  iycees,  lishments,  except  certain  of  the  grand  Iycees  of  the  capital — 
Louis  le  Grand,  Fontanes,  Saint  Louis,  Henri  IY,  Yanves. 
school  of  cim!yal  special  normal  school,  founded  at  Cluny,  in  1865,  is  no 

longer  sufficient  to  supply  the  demand  for  teachers. 

Numerous  professional  schools  in  the  great  industrial  and 
commercial  centers,  founded  by  individuals  or  under  the 
patronage  of  government,  are  intended  to  meet  local  needs, 
schools  of  iwn  Examples  of  these  are  the  Industrial  School  at  Eouen,  and 
and  Spinal  that  of  Fpinal.  The  interior  system  and  discipline,  the  per¬ 
sonnel  of  administration  and  of  instruction,  are  uniform  in 
all  these  public  establishments ;  the  methods  are  the  same ; 
the  programmes  are  obligatory  for  all  the  Iycees  and  colleges. 
The  regulations  of  the  Superior  Council  of  Public  Instruction, 
official  pro-  jn  1874,  fixed  the  programmes  now  in  force  for  special  and  for 

grammes. 

classical  instructions.  Hew  and  progressive  methods  of  in¬ 
struction  have  received  an  impetus  from  the  free  lay  estab¬ 
lishments.  In  this  respect  great  praise  is  to  be  given  to  the 
Ecoie  Aisacienne.  Ecole  Alsacienne  and  the  Ecole  Monqe,  whose  fruitful  inno- 

Ecole  Monge.  ' 

vations  have  already  produced  important  results. 

In  the  public  institutions  the  teaching  of  the  living  lan¬ 
guages  and  of  geography  has,  within  the  few  years  past, 
made  great  advancement.  Chairs  have  been  established  in 
fo?dSiesment8  tyc®es  au(l  colleges.  The  law  of  July,  1874,  requires 

the  knowledge  of  at  least  one  living  foreign  language  for 
the  Bachelors’  degree.  Many  styles  of  maps,  both  plane 
and  in  relief,  and  terrestrial  globes,  sent  to  all  these  estab¬ 
lishments,  encourage  a  more  thorough  study  of  geography. 
Much  attention  is  given  in  these  schools  to  physical  educa- 
Physicai  educa-  tion.  Besides  recreative  sports  in  the  open  air,  promenades 
and  excursions  to  various  points  of  interest,  there  is  a  well- 
considered  and  progressive  system  of  gymnastic  exercise. 
Hygiene.  The  hygiene  of  the  Iycees  and  colleges,  the  ventilation  and 
general  cleanliness  of  the  premises,  have  been  objects  of  the 
serious  and  watchful  attention  of  the  authorities  in  all 
places  of  instruction. 


tion. 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


213 


The  term  u  college/’  it  will  be  noticed,  has  a  very  different  prance. 
application  in  Europe  from  that  which  it  has  in  this  coun¬ 
try.  With  us  the  term  is  applied  to  institutions  above  the  The  term  “cof- 
grade  of  the  lycees  of  France,  for  example.  There,  colleges  amf in  America.6 
(petits  colleges )  are  erected  within  all  the  lycees 5  Bor¬ 
deaux,  Lyons,  Marseilles,  Montpellier,  have  their  own  little 
colleges  outside  of  the  city,  in  the  country.  Examples  of 
this  are  the  free  colleges  of  Sainte  Barbe  des  Champs  (which  th^t|/<glation  to 
made  a  very  noticeable  exhibit  at  the  Exposition),  and  the 
Lycees  of  Vanves,  connected  in  this  way  with  the  lycees 
Louis  le  Grand  at  Paris.  Many  lycees  of  less  importance 
have  still  their  petit  college  in  the  form  of  a  special  quarter 
reserved  for  young  children. 

The  normal  school  of  Cluny.  Normal  school 

J  J  of  Cluny. 

The  special  normal  school  of  Cluny  seems  to  be  a  special 
school  of  secondary  instruction,  rather  than  of  superior  pri¬ 
mary.  It  is  intended  to  train  masters — 

1.  For  instruction  in  the  applied  sciences. 

2.  For  instruction  in  literature  and  the  economic  sciences,  object. 

3.  For  instruction  in  literature  and  the  modern  languages. 

A  special  college  annexed  permits  pupils  about  graduat- ,  Special  classes 

x  ^  for  practice  in 

mg  to  have  classes  in  which  they  learn  the  practice  of  teach-  teaching 
ing,  while  the  pupils  of  the  college  profit  by  having  thus  a 
numerous  corps  of  ardent  adjunct  professors  to  second  the 
regular  ones. 

Independently  of  its  special  object,  the  school,  by  the 
variety  of  its  studies,  furnishes  appropriate  instruction  for 
youth  who  desire  to  devote  themselves  to  agriculture,  indus¬ 
try,  arts,  or  commerce. 

This  school  is  placed  in  the  celebrated  abbey  of  Cluny, 
occupying  extensive  grounds,  and  with  buildings,  dormi-  grounds- 
tories,  refectories,  class-rooms,  work-rooms,  and  chapel, 
spacious  and  airy.  The  young  men  have  at  their  disposi¬ 
tion  a  library,  scientific  collections  of  all  sorts,  a  cabinet  of 
physical  apparatus,  laboratories,  studios  for  the  execution  ^Facilities  for 
of  models,  portfolios  of  various  studies  for  drawings,  exten¬ 
sive  gardens  which  may  be  used  for  botany  or  for  culture,  a 
technological  museum  composed  of  prime  materials  em¬ 
ployed  in  the  arts  and  manufactures,  products  obtained 
from  these  materials,  and  samples  characteristic  of  the  prin¬ 
cipal  transformations. 

The  course  of  study  is  for  three  years $  but  pupils  are  Term  of  study* 
only  admitted  to  the  third  year  after  a  successful  examina¬ 
tion  at  the  end  of  the  second. 


214 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


France.  Students  are  classed  in  two  sections,  the  literary  and  the 
scientific. 

of^ciany1  8cl1001  Literary  section. — During  the  first  year  all  the  studies  are 
Literary  sec-  common  to  pupils  of  that  section ;  they  embrace  the  French 

tion:  7  u 

Eirst  year.  language  and  literature,  history,  geography,  morals,  legisla-. 

tion,  modern  languages,  and  some  lessons  in  physics,  ma¬ 
thematics,  and  accounts. 

In  the  second  year  the  students  are  divided  into  two 
groups,  the  economic  group,  and  that  of  modern  languages. 
For  these  two  groups  the  studies  of  morals,  French  language 
Second  year,  and  literature,  history,  geography  and  science,  continue  to 
be  common  $  but  each  one,  as  his  tastes  and  aptitudes  shall 
have  determined,  devotes  himself  to  his  specialty — either 
legislation  and  political  and  rural  economy,  or  the  modern 
languages. 

In  the  modern-language  group  those  who  have  proved 
themselves  qualified  to  pass  to  the  third  year,  instead  of 
Third  year,  remaining  at  the  school,  are  sent  by  the  administration  dur¬ 
ing  that  third  year,  and  possibly  for  a  fourth,  to  England  or 
Germany,  to  perfect  themselves  in  the  language  which  they 
are  studying,  and  at  the  same  time  to  familiarize  themselves 
with  the  pedagogical  methods  pursued  abroad. 

Scientific  section. — During  two  years  of  study  the  courses 
are  obligatory  for  all  students ;  but  at  the  expiration  of  the 
First  and  sec-  second  year  practical  exercises  and  manipulations  are  divided 
into  two  groups,  according  to  each  one’s  specialty :  the  group 
of  mathematicians  and  that  of  physicists  and  naturalists. 

Instruction  in  these  two  years  comprises  morals,  the 
French  language  and  literature,  history  and  geography, 
mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  mechanics,  and  natural 
history,  with  their  principal  applications. 

Pupils  authorized  to  complete  a  third  year  are  not  obliged 
to  follow  the  courses  of  general  studies,  but  may  do  so  either 
wholly  or  partially.  They  are  placed  under  the  particular 
Third  year,  direction  of  certain  professors  of  the  school,  whose  duty  it 
is  by  daily  familiar  lessons  to  indicate  to  them  a  plan  of 
work,  to  follow  their  progress,  and  to  designate  portions  of 
the  course  which  it  is  useful  for  them  to  pursue.  Pupils, 
moreover,  receive  the  counsel  and  assistance  of  all  the  pro¬ 
fessors,  as  they  have  need,  for  their  complete  initiation  into 
the  details  of  practical  work. 

Entrance  age.  Students  are  received  between  the  ages  of  18  and  25  years, 

and  only  upon  examination,  which  is  competitive  for  appli¬ 
cants  for  scholarships  (bourses).  These  are  offered  by  the 
State,  by  the  departments,  by  the  communes,  and  by  indi¬ 
viduals.  Applicants  for  them  are  to  present  a  diploma  of 


Scientific 

tion: 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


215 


bachelor  of  letters  or  science,  or  a  certificate  of  having  com¬ 
pleted  some  course  at  least  equal  to  that  of  superior  primary 
instruction.  They  also  pledge  themselves  to  devote  at  least 
ten  years  to  teaching  in  the  public  schools. 

The  fee  for  paying  pupils  is  800  fr.  a  year,  with  an  outfit 
of  300  fr.  These,  with  an  incidental  charge  of  25  fr.  a  year, 
include  all  expenses.* 


State  aid. 

The  feeling  largely  prevails  in  France  that  it  is  proper  for 
the  State  to  come  to  the  aid  of  meritorious  families  whose 
resources  will  not  permit  them  to  educate  their  children 
suitably.  The  common  method  of  dispensing  these  bounties 
is  the  establishment  of  scholarships  (bourses),  or  canceling  Bourses. 
in  part  or  wholly  the  expenses  of  schooling,  which  is  at  the 
same  time  a  sort  of  subsidy  given  to  the  institution  itself. 

The  departments,  the  communes,  and  even  individuals 
support  these  scholarships  in  the  public  institutions.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  the  latest  statistics  the  number  of  pupils  who  re¬ 
ceive  secondary  instruction  gratuitously  appears  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  table : 


CO  I 

| 

I 

© 

© 

to 

<D 

ci 

1,  690 
317 

Department  schol¬ 
arships. 

'o 

A 

o 

to  • 
to 

1-1  .& 

§  t 

a * 
a 

o 

O 

Individual  schol¬ 
arships. 

Number  of  free 
scholarships. 

to 

p< 

a 

© 

H 

Lyc6es .  - . 

425 

335 

749 

150 

36 

118 

7,  512 

3, 282 

Colleges . . . 

Total . 

2,  007 

760 

899 

154 

10,  794 

The  progress  made  in  study  is  tested  in  the  public  schools 
by  weekly  examinations ;  the  final  success  certified  by  distri¬ 
butions  of  prizes;  and  in  a  more  perfect  manner  by  the 
general  competitive  examinations  of  the  lycees  and  colleges 
of  Paris  and  Versailles  compared  with  those  of  other  depart¬ 
ments.  The  successful  completion  of  the  secondary  studies 
is  attested  by  the  bachelor’s  degree  for  the  classical  course, 
and  the  diploma  of  studies  or  certificate  of  capacity  for  the 
special  course.  These  academic  titles  open  the  way  for  the 
young  men  to  their  chosen  professions  or  to  the  more  pro¬ 
found  studies  of  the  course  of  superior  instruction. 


Examinations. 

Prizes. 

Competitive 

examinations. 


Degrees. 

Diplomas. 


*Tliis  account  is  condensed  from  tlie  programme  published  by  the  gov¬ 
ernment  in  1871. 


216  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

FRANCE-  Industrial  and  commercial  schools, 

industrial  and  These  are  more  especially  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 

C  O  HI  TIT  6  r  C  1  ft  1  ^ 

schools.  Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Commerce,  who  has  under  his 

control  and  care  the  Conservatory  and  the  Schools  of  Arts 
and  Trades,  the  National  School  of  Horology  at  Cluses,  and 
the  superior  schools  of  commerce  and  technical  instruction, 
over  which  presides,  under  the  title  of  Superior  Council,  a 
permanent  commission,  with  advisory  powers  on  all  ques¬ 
tions  touching  the  interests  of  this  grade  of  instruction. 
des°ArteVet°m-  rl^e  Conservatoire  dcs  Arts  et  Metiers  is  certainly  the  most 
tiers.  remarkable  institution  which  comes  into  this  class.  Its  his¬ 

tory  is  equally  interesting,  whether  we  regard  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  idea  upon  which  it  is  founded,  or  the  material, 
the  buildings,  and  the  very  earth  itself  on  which  it  is  built. 
It  would  not  be  proper  to  present  either  of  these  in  a  paper 
like  this.  But  one  may  not  wholly  free  himself  from  the  as¬ 
sociations  which  rise  up,  impressive  as  they  are  vague,  when 
he  considers  that  this  institution  occupies  premises  which 
'  were  for  more  than  seven  hundred  years  a  monastery,  and 
bore  the  name  of  the  Royal  Priory  of  St.  Martin  des  Champs 
until  its  supiiression  a  century  ago.  It  is  known,  too,  that 
Historical  asso- long  before  the  year  1000  there  was  on  this  spot  some  relig- 
site  ious  establishment  contemporary  with  the  earliest  ages  of 

Christianity  in  Gaul.  And  conjecture  is  busy  with  the  ques¬ 
tion  whether  there  was  here  one  of  those  subterranean 
chapels  such  as  the  earliest  apostles  were  wont  to  found,  or 
whether,  perchance,  a  Christian  basilica  here  rose  upon  the 
ruins  of  a  pagan  temple.  But  surely  a  mysterious  awe 
which  blends  strangely7  with  the  interest  one  feels  in  the  great 
machines  now  stored  here  to  tell  of  modern  industry  and 
skill  and  masteryr  of  nature,  comes  over  him  when  he  walks 
over  the  stone  floors  of  that  grand  old  church,  and  thinks 
how  many  venerated  priors  of  the  monastery  and  remarka- 
and  tiie  building.  personages  0f  many  successive  centuries  slumber  here 
beneath  his  feet. 

Descartes’  plan,  it  is  said  that  Descartes  first  conceived  the  thought  of 
opening  public  courses  of  instruction  for  workmen.  His 
plan  consisted  in  building  great  halls  for  each  trade  of  work¬ 
men,  and  attaching  to  each  of  these  halls  a  cabinet  for  the 
collection  of  mechanical  instruments  useful  to  the  arts  to 
be  taught  here,  with  an  able  professor  capable  of  respond¬ 
ing  to  all  questions  of  the  artisans,  and  of  making  them 
able  to  understand  the  processes  which  they  were  daily  called 
upon  to  put  in  practice.  But  it  was  more  than  a  century 
before  any  attempt  was  made  to  realize  his  conception.  It 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


217 


was  the  Convention  in  1794  which  decreed  that  there  should  France. 
be  formed  in  Paris,  under  the  name  of  Conservatory  of  Arts 
and  Trades,  a  public  depot  of  machines,  models,  tools,  draw-  organSg^  the 
ings,  descriptions,  and  books,  upon  all  arts  and  trades,  the  AHs^mtifrs^8 
construction  and  employment  of  which  should  be  explained 
by  three  demonstrators  and  a  draughtsman  attached  to  the 
establishment.  The  end  proposed  by  the  founders  was  the 
practical  instruction  of  workmen.  Their  motto  was  “they 
must  be  made  to  see,  rather  than  to  speak.”  Four  years 
later  the  ancient  priory  was  opened  for  this  great  work,  opening  m  1798. 
Such  was  the  beginning  of  an  institution  which  has  engaged 
the  interest  of  some  of  the  greatest  men  of  France,  and 
which  has  rendered  so  great  service  to  industry  in  illus¬ 
trating  and  explaining  the  applications  of  science  to  the 
arts.  It  has  to-day  a  costly  library  of  24,000  volumes  re-  Library, 
lating  to  science,  art,  and  industry ,  installed  in  the  ancient  re¬ 
fectory,  now  splendidly  restored,  and  which  disputes  with 
Sainte  Chapelle  the  distinction  of  being  the  most  elegant 
and  graceful  monument  of  Gothic  architecture  which  ex 
ists  in  France.  This  library  is  open  every  day  from  10  a. 
m.  to  3  p.  m.,  and  from  7  to  10  p.  m.  The  Conservatoire  has 
a  collection  of  objects  appropriate  to  its  design,  the  mere  Model  room, 
titles  of  which  fill  a  volume  of  400  closely-printed  pages. 

At  present  there  are  fourteen  chairs  of  instruction  in  the  chairs  of*n 
Conservatoire.  It  may  be  well  to  give  their  designations 8tructl0n- 
and  the  names  of  the  professors  occupying  them : 

Geometry  applied  to  ike  Arts  :  Colonel  Laussedat.  Professors. 

Descriptive  Geometry  :  De  La  Gonrnerie. 

Mechanics  applied  to  the  Arts :  Tresca. 

Civil  Constructions:  Trelat. 

Physics  applied  to  the  Arts  :  Becquerel. 

General  Chemistry  in  its  relations  to  Industry :  P61igot. 

Industrial  Chemistry :  Girard. 

Chemistry  applied  to  the  Industries  of  Dyeing,  Ceramics,  ana  Glass¬ 
working  :  De  Luynes. 

Agricultural  and  Analytical  Chemistry :  Boussingault  and  Schloes- 
sing. 

Agriculture:  Moll. 

Agricultural  Works  and  Rural  Engineering :  Mangon. 

Spinning  and  Weaving  :  Alcan. 

Political  Economy  and  Industrial  Legislation :  Wolowski  and  Levas- 
seur. 

Industrial  Economy  and  Statistics :  Burat. 

The  course  of  instruction  is  not  unlike  that  at  the  Sor-  Course  of  in- 

struction. 

bonne,  the  College  of  France,  and  the  Museum  of  Natural 
History.  The  lectures  are  public  and  free  to  all — foreigners  Lectures  free, 
and  citizens  alike.  It  is  a  deeply  interesting  scene  for  an 
American  to  sit  amidst  that  motley  auditory,  sometimes 
numbering  nearly  a  thousand,  all  listening  intently  to  the 
masterly  yet  simple  expositions  of  men  like  Becquerel,  Bu¬ 
rat,  Girard,  and  Levasseur,  of  all  conditions  and  ages,  from 


218 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878 


Angers, 

Aix. 


Courses 

study, 


and  labor. 


of 


France.  the  hoy  of  twelve,  first  waking  to  the  thought  of  the  possi¬ 
bilities  in  the  great  world  before  him,  to  the  dim-eyed  sire 
of  eighty  years,  now  at  last  realizing  what  might  have  been. 
There  are  as  many  as  160,000  of  these  auditors  each  year. 
Schools  of  arts  The  schools  of  arts  and  trades  are  designed  to  train  super- 
intendents  and  foremen  of  workshops,  and  well-instructed 
and  skillful  artisans  in  the  working  of  iron  and  wood.  There 
Marnelous  sur  are  ^  these  in  France  j  at  Chalons-sur-Marne,  at  Angers, 
and  at  Aix.  There  are  at  each  of  these  300  pupils,  admitted 
upon  competitive  examinations.  They  are  bet  veen  the  ages 
of  15  and  17  years.  These  pupils  live  in  the  school  build¬ 
ings. 

The  course  of  study  extends  through  three  years.  The 
theoretical  teaching  comprises  arithmetic,  geometry,  elemen¬ 
tary  algebra,  rectilinear  trigonometry,  descriptive  geometry, 
mechanics,  physics,  and  chemistry,  drawing,  geography, 
grammar,  and  accounts.  Seven  hours  of  labor  a  day  are  devo¬ 
ted  to  practical  instruction  given  in  four  workshops — carpen¬ 
try  and  modeling,  foundery,  forging,  and  adjusting.  Diplo- 
Dipiomas  and  mas  and  silver  medals  certify  to  the  aptitudes  of  the  pupils 
and  serve  as  recompenses  at  the  end  of  the  course. 

Their  exhibits  The  exhibits  of  these  three  schools  attracted  considerable 

i  n  the  Exposi¬ 
tion.  interest.  Steam-engines  of  various  sorts,  machines  for  use 

in  wood  and  iron-work,  showed  the  theoretical  and  practical 
mastery  attained  by  the  pupils.  Their  drawings  and  other 
exercises  were  also  highly  creditable. 
o^Horoiogy?11001  The  National  School  of  Horology  at  Oluses  (Haute- Savoie) 
is  designed  to  furnish  workmen  for  the  different  parts  of 
watch-making,  and  to  provide  the  instruction  necessary  for 
those  who  are  proposing  to  become  repairers,  inspectors,  or 
watch-makers.  This  school  receives  about  80  day -pupils, 
from  14  to  20  years  of  age,  placed  by  their  parents  with  cor¬ 
respondents  living  in  the  commune  of  Cluses,  after  exami¬ 
nations  showing  a  sufficient  proficiency  in  primary  instruc¬ 
tion.  The  course,  at  once  theoretical  and  practical,  lasts  two 
years.  Tuition  is  free.  Certificates  of  skill  are  given  to 
pupils  who  are  judged  worthy  of  them,  at  the  end. 


Technical  in-  Technical  instruction .* 

strnction. 

Most  of  the  industrial  and  manufacturing  centers  have  cre¬ 
ated  institutions  for  technical  instruction  suitable  to  form  a 
transition  from  the  primary  schools  to  the  workshop,  and  by 
which  the  artisans  of  both  sexes  are  enabled  to  raise  the 
standard  of  practical  knowledge  by  means  of  mechanic  and 
scientific  notions.  These  institutions  in  various  forms  are 

*  See  also  Report  of  Commissioner  Eliot  C.  Jewett,  infra.  [Editor.!. 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


219 


under  the  care  of  industrial  societies  and  local  commissions,  France. _ 

and  are  sustained  by  the  departments,  the  cities,  and  spe¬ 
cial  endowments.  Technical,  artistic,  or  industrial  drawing  Drawing, 
forms  the  basis  of  these  courses  of  instruction.  The  valua¬ 
ble  collections  of  the  Conservatory  of  Arts  and  Trades  afford 
reproductions  which  serve  for  models  suited  to  their  needs. 

Annual  reunions,  local  expositions  and  the  powerful  organ¬ 
ization  of  the  u  Central  Union  of  the  Fine  Arts  applied  to 
Industry,”  develop  and  multiply  these  foundations  which 
seem  destined  to  render  great  service. 

Superior  commercial  schools.  Superior  com- 

mercial  schools. 

In  no  field  of  action  has  the  advance  in  the  general  inter¬ 
est  of  education  within  the  last  ten  years  been  more  signally 
marked  than  in  the  sphere  of  what  we  might  call  business 
education.  Although  this  type  of  education  partakes  some¬ 
what  of  a  professional  character,  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
the  range  of  studies  in  this  class  of  schools  embraces  sub¬ 
jects  of  the  utmost  interest  and  value  to  the  citizen  and 
man  of  action. 

In  respect  to  the  special  demand  for  such  courses  of  in¬ 
struction,  the  progress  of  civilization,  the  enlarging  of  the 
scale  of  business,  the  extension  of  commercial  relations,  and 
the  multiform  competitions  of  the  present  epoch,  undoubt¬ 
edly  require  more  solid  and  broader  pr  eparations  than  in 
times  when  industry  and  trade  were  comparatively  simple. 

For  men  now  who  are  engaged  in  commerce  or  indeed  in  Complicated 
manufactures  of  wide  demand,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  under-  cations  and  reia- 
stand  the  home  market  and  home  prices  and  conditions tlons' 
merely ;  they  must  take  some  account  of  each  country  with 
which  they  are  to  come  in  relations ;  they  should  know 
what  it  jiroduces  and  consumes ;  of  what  exchanges  its 
external  commerce  is  made  up  ;  by  what  methods  of  com¬ 
munication  these  exchanges  are  effected  ;  what  obstacles 
there  may  be  in  tariffs,  and  what  facilities  in  treaties  of 
commerce.  It  is  important  also  to  be  able  to  get  at  the 
prime  cost  of  articles,  and  to  understand  the  systems  of 
weights  and  measures,  and  of  money  and  exchange  in  the 
principal  countries  brought  into  commercial  relations  $  and 
to  be  familiar  with  the  great  questions  of  credit  and  finance 
which  hold  so  large  a  place  in  the  modern  world.  It  is  even 
well  to  have  a  certain  knowledge  of  the  political  questions 
which  so  largely  affect  business  interests,  in  order  that  they 
may  recognize  the  dark  spots  which  now  and  then  appear 
above  the  horizon. 


220 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


French  encour¬ 
agement  of  com¬ 
mercial  interests. 


Blanqui’s  school 
of  commerce. 


Commercial 
scnools  of— 

Mul  house, 
Havre, 

Kouen, 

Lyons, 

Lille, 

Marseilles, 

Bordeaux. 


Programme. 


Special  topics. 


Commerce  is  now  a  vast  field,  and  a  commercial  career 
lias  a  high  place  in  public  estimation.  The  time  is  now  far 
past  when  the  masters  of  political  and  social  science  might 
not  unjustly  speak  with  scorn  of  merchants  as  mere  traders, 
who  lived  by  getting  all  they  could  out  of  the  labor  of 
others,  without  adding  anything  whatever  to  values  or  to 
human  welfare.  The  striking  exhibition  of  the  zeal  with 
which  this  interest  is  promoted  in  France,  and  the  bene¬ 
ficial  results  of  this  enterprise,  may  justify  me  in  presenting 
this  topic  more  fully  than  some  others  the  importance  of 
which  has  been  more  generally  seen  and  acknowledged. 

A  superior  school  of  commerce  was  founded  in  Paris,  in 
1820,  by  Blanqui,  and  in  1869  came  into  the  hands  of  the 
Chamber  of  Commerce.  This  school  has  been  of  great  ser¬ 
vice  in  promoting  the  ends  for  which  it  was  founded.  But, 
as  its  programme  of  studies,  while  giving  a  large  place  to 
commercial  matters,  has  been  necessarily  made  to  embrace 
much  matter  of  a  more  general  character,  the  Paris  Cham¬ 
ber  of  Commerce  has  recently  decided  to  create  a  new  com¬ 
mercial  school,  strictly  confined  to  its  specialty,  and,  for  the 
execution  of  this  purpose,  has  purchased  extensive  premises 
near  the  beautiful  Parc  Monceau. 

Commercial  schools  were  established  at  Mulhouse  in  1866 ; 
at  Havre  and  Bouen,  in  1871;  at  Lyons,  Lille,  and  Mar¬ 
seilles,  in  1872 ;  and  at  Bordeaux ;  and  it  is  well  wTorth  re¬ 
marking  that  the  prime  movers  and  founders  of  these  schools 
were  the  merchants  and  business  men  themselves,  who  know 
both  the  value  of  money  and  the  value  of  such  schools.  This 
liberality  was  attested  at  Mulhouse  by  a  foundation  of  100,000 
fr. :  the  merchants  of  Havre  subscribed  220,000;  those  of 
Bouen,  250,000.  Still  more  was  done  at  Lyons,  Marseilles, 
and  Bordeaux.  Owing  to  the  co-operation  of  the  Chambers 
of  Commerce,  the  municipalities,  and  various  learned  socie¬ 
ties,  the  first  of  these  cities  raised  for  its  Superior  School  of 
Commerce  a  capital  of  1 ,200,000  fr. ;  the  second,  450,000 ; 
and  the  last  an  annual  endowment  of  50,000  fr. 

Owing  to  the  loss  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  the  school  at  Mul¬ 
house  has  been  abandoned,  or  rather  absorbed  into  that  of 
Lyons. 

These  schools  are  all  constitued  on  the  same  model,  follow¬ 
ing  the  programme  elaborated  by  the  Industrial  Society  of 
Mulhouse  and  successfully  practiced  there  while  that  school 
lasted.  There  are,  however,  in  some  of  them  accessory 
courses  to  meet  special  local  demands,  as  at  Havre,  maritime 
topics;  at  Marseilles,  hygiene  and  the  Arabic  and  modern 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


221 


Greek  languages ;  at  Lyons,  the  duties  of  the  merchant ;  at  France. 
Rouen,  microscopy  and  railroad  tariffs. 

It  may  he  of  interest  to  present  a  more  detailed  account 
of  the  school  at  Havre — as  a  better  opportunity  to  observe 
the  methods  of  this  school  has  afforded  the  materials  for  so 
doing — which  may  be  taken  as  a  type  of  the  schools  of  this 
class. 

Superior  school  of  commerce  at  Havre.  Havre  School  of 

-*•  Commerce. 


Term  of  study. 
Course  of  study. 


Applicants  for  admission  are  expected  to  have  received  ad^Xon 68  for 
bachelors7  diplomas,  and  are  to  pass  an  examination  upon 
the  French  language,  the  elements  of  mathematics,  geogra¬ 
phy,  physics,  and  chemistry,  to  show  that  their  general  prepa¬ 
ration  is  sufficient.  Pupils  are  admitted  at  the  age  of  15;  Age  of  entrance, 
the  average  of  those  at  this  school  is  between  17  and  18 
years.  At  that  period  of  life  young  men  begin  to  form  the 
habit  of  self-direction ;  but  the  care  and  counsel  of  the  direc¬ 
tor  never  abandon  the  young  men,  and  he  is  always  ready  to 
point  out  to  them  honorable  families,  where  they  may  find 
proper  lodging  and  board. 

The  course  of  study  is  for  two  years. 

The  basis  of  instruction  is  the  Commercial  Bureau.  This 
employs  twelve  hours  a  week  in  each  year.  In  the  first  year  First  year, 
are  taught  elementary  notions  of  commerce  and  accounts, 
then  practical  arithmetic,  invoicing,  account  of  sales,  com¬ 
mercial  bills,  memoranda,  interest,  different  methods  of  treat¬ 
ing  accounts-current,  etc.,  up  to  bookkeeping,  including 
cash-book,  journal,  gmd  ledger,  and  single  and  double-entry. 

In  the  second  year  they  take  up  schedules  and  inventories ; 
they  familiarize  themselves  with  the  operations  of  exchange, 
and  buying  and  selling  of  stocks,  cost  of  production,  usages 
of  commerce,  and  the  moneys,  weights,  and  measures  of  dif¬ 
ferent  countries.  At  the  end  they  carry  on  the  correspond¬ 
ence  of  supposed  establishments  in  France  and  foreign  coun¬ 
tries,  involving  commercial  and  financial  transactions. 

Commercial  geography  is  treated  in  the  most  thorough 
manner.  It  has  for  its  object  the  products,  agricultural,  min¬ 
eral,  and  manufactured,  of  different  countries;  industrial  and 
commercial  centers,  seaports,  railways,  rivers,  and  canals ; 
imports  and  exports — in  a  word,  the  commerce  of  the  world 
Each  country  is  studied,  not  only  in  its  individual  character, 
but  as  to  the  comparative  place  it  holds  for  each  one  of  the 
elements  which  make  up  the  great  commercial  currents  of 
the  world.  This  subject  occupies  two  hours  a  week  for  the 
entire  course. 


Second  year. 


Commercial 

geography. 


222 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


fkance.  In  the  matter  of  general  merchandise  and  raw  products, 
Havre  School  no  city  is  more  favorably  situated  than  Havre,  which  is  a 
of  Commerce,  universal  port  of  entry.  Each  product  is  studied,  not  only 
as  to  its  distinctive  qualities  and  its  employments,  hut  still 
more,  in  respect  to  the  manner  in  which  it  gets  into  com¬ 
merce,  and  the  methods  of  agents  in  estimating  its  value 
and  fixing  its  price.  The  professor  points  out  and  compares 
the  different  centers  of  production,  exchange,  and  consump¬ 
tion,  for  each  material,  and  thus  gives  clear  and  complete 
ideas  to  his  pupils.  To  give  these  studies  a  practical  turn, 
visits  to  docks  the  students  are  taken  on  frequent  visits  to  the  quays,  docks, 
and  warehouses.  an(^  iarge  warehouses.  Three  hours  a  week  are  given  to  this 
course  for  the  two  years. 

Two  hours  a  week  through  the  entire  course  are  given  to 
political  econ- instruction  and  recitation  in  political  economy,  in  order  to 
make  the  student  acquainted  with  the  fundamental  princi¬ 
ples  of  production,  circulation,  consumption  and  credit  in 
their  economic  aspect,  and  that  they  may  understand  the 
rights  and  duties  flowing  from  commercial  legislation. 

The  course  in  equipment  occupies  two  hours  a  week  in 
the  second  year.  Its  purpose  is  to  give  a  general  notion  of 
construction,  gauging,  and  fitting  out,-— in  a  word,  the  gen¬ 
eral  commercial  direction  of  ships,  whether  sailing  or  steam 
vessels. 

Great  attention  is  given  in  this  school  to  good  hand-writ¬ 
ing.  This  may  seem  a  small  affair  in  a  school  of  this  grade  5 
but  it  is  found  to  be  of  sufficient  importance,  as  it  is  usually 
the  means  by  which  a  young  man  first  attracts  attention  at 
a  commercial  or  banking  house,  to  warrant  the  attention  of 
one  or  two  hours  a  week  for  the  two  years. 

The  modern  languages  also  hold  a  large  place  here.  Of 
course  they  are  studied  with  the  practical  view  rather  than 
the  literary.  Commercial  men  ought  to  be  able  to  under¬ 
stand  the  questions  of  a  foreign  visitor  or  correspondent $ 
and  to  express  their  thoughts  to  him  in  reply.  The  English 
language  is  so  indispensable  in  business,  that  this  school 
deems  it  a  good  use  of  time  to  devote  four  hours  a  week  to 
this  language  during  the  entire  course.  It  requires  also  that 
each  student  should  study  for  three  hours  a  week,  during 
ia^rman’  sPan-  both  years,  either  German  or  Spanish. 


Course  in  equip¬ 
ment. 


Hand-writing. 


Modern 

guages. 


English 

guage. 


lan- 


lan- 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


223 


It  may  be  advantageous  to  give  some  of  these  matters  in 
tabulated  form. 


FRANCE. 


Departments  of  study. 


Hours  a  week. 


Table  showing 
course  of  study  in 
Havre  School  of 
Commerce. 


Commercial  bureau . 

Commercial  geography . 

Merchandise  and  raw  materials . 

Commercial  legislation  and  political  economy 

Equipment  ( armement )  ..  . 

Penmanship  . . 

English  .  . 

fpaS^-tive . 

Study . 


12 

4 

3 

2 


2 

4 

3 

16 


12 

3 

2 

2 

1 

4 

3 

16 


Total  occupation  of  hours  a  week 


46 


46 


During  the  year  the  pupils  are  frequently  examined  on  Examinati 
the  subject  treated,  and  written  examinations  are  held  three 
times  a  year.  At  the  end  of  the  second  year  a  general  ex¬ 
amination,  written  and  oral,  is  conducted  by  a  jury  composed 
of  the  professors  of  the  school,  members  of  the  council  of 
administration,  and  delegates  of  the  chamber  of  commerce 
and  of  the  municipality.  Pupils  who  pass  this  examination 
successfully  receive  a  u  diploma  of  capacity,’* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7  the  value  of  Diploma, 
which  will  be  more  and  more  appreciated  by  heads  of  busi¬ 
ness  houses  in  consequence  of  the  increasing  rigor  of  the  ex¬ 
aminations. 

The  thoroughness  of  the  work,  and  the  consequent  value 
of  the  diplomas,  may  be  illustrated  by  specimens  of  the 
programme  of  examination  for  1877. 


PROGRAMME  OF  EXAMINATION. 
Geography. 

1.  France :  Agricultural  products. 

French  colonies  in  America  and  Asia. 

2.  Mineral  products  of  France. 

French  colonies  in  Africa. 

3.  Industries  of  France. 

Egypt. 

4.  Interior  communications  of  France. 

Ports  and  commerce  of  China. 

5.  Ports  and  lines  of  navigation  of  France. 

Mineral  products  and  industries  of  the  United  States. 

6.  Commerce  and  customs  system  of  France. 

Interior  communications  of  the  United  States. 

7.  Alsace-Lorraine. 

Ports,  commerce,  and  customs  system  of  the  United  States. 


Programme  of 
examination. 


Geographical 
and  industrial. 


224 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


FRANCE. 

t - 


Programme 
examination 
Havre  School 
Commerce. 


Commercial. 


Legislative. 


8.  Agricultural  and  mineral  products  of  England. 

British  North  America. 

9.  Industries  and  railways  of  England. 

British  colonies  in  Africa. 

10.  Ports  and  lines  of  navigation,  commerce,  and  customs  system  of 

England. 

British  colonies  in  Australasia. 

11.  Switzerland. — Italy. 

Mexico. 

of  12.  Belgium. 

^  Agricultural  products  of  the  United  States. 

13.  Sweden  and  Norway. 

Dutch  colonies. — Commerce  and  ports  of  Brazil  and  La  Plata. 

14.  Germany,  its  industries,  agricultural  and  mineral  products. 
Indo-China 

15.  Railways,  ports,  lines  of  navigation,  and  commerce  of  Germany. 
India. 

16.  Austria-Hungary. 

Turkey  in  Asia. 

17.  Portugal  and  Spain. 

Spanish  colonies. 

Merchandise  and  raw  products. 

1.  Copper,  palm,  indigo. 

2.  Iron,  brass,  and  steel,  piassava  (Brazilian  palm),  cashoo  (Japan 

earth),  gambier. 

3.  Tin,  lead,  and  zinc ;  tobacco,  caoutchouc,  and  gutta-percha. 

4.  Petroleum,  tea,  and  ordinary  resins. 

5.  Potash  and  soda,  anise-seed  and  star-anise,  gum-lac. 

6.  Sulphur,  cacao,  and  camphor. 

7.  Nitrate  of  soda,  coffee,  palm-oil. 

8.  Turmeric,  cotton,  cocoa-oil. 

9.  Saltpetre,  dry  fruits,  raw  sugar. 

10.  Archil,  corossol  (custard  apple),  salt  meats. 

11.  Bast,  wheat,  lard. 

12.  Cinnamon,  oleaginous  grains,  wax. 

13.  Hemp  and  similar  products,  pepper  and  allspice,  horns. 

14.  Quercitron,  rice,  wools. 

15.  Peruvian-bark,  dye-woods,  tallow,  horse  grease,  neat’s-foot  oil. 

16.  Cabinet-makers’  woods,  leathers,  quillay  (soap  tree  of  Panama.) 

17.  Cereals  other  than  wheat,  hair,  fish-oils. 

Legislation. 

1.  Of  competency  in  general  and  specially  commercial  competency. 

2.  Of  merchants,  consequences  of  the  mercantile  function. 

Summary  motions  on  the  contract  of  marriage. 

Publication  of  the  marriage  contracts  of  merchants. 

3.  Of  evidence  in  civil  causes. 

4.  Of  evidence  in  commercial  cases,  and  especially  commercial  books. 

5.  Of  societies. 

6.  Of  commercial  middle-men,  brokers,  and  commission  agents. 

7.  General  notions  on  letters  of  exchange ;  sight  bills. 

8.  Of  provision,  indorsement,  guarantee,  and  joint  and  several  liability. 

9.  Acceptance  and  payment ;  interventions ;  duties  of  the  holder  at 

maturity. 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


225 


10. 

11. 

12. 

13. 


14. 

15. 

16. 
17. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 


11. 

12. 

13. 

14. 


Loss  of  letter  of  exchange  ;  of  prescription  in  general  and  specially  France. 

in  matters  of  commercial  hills.  Accounts  current. 

Of  declaration  of  insolvency  and  its  effects.  Programme  of 

Administration  of  insolvency  and  verification  of  credits.  Ha^^School  of 

Discharges  in  insolvency.  Certificates  in  insolvency ;  deeds  of  agree-  Commerce, 
ment  closing  for  insufficiency  of  assets.  Bankruptcy  and  reha¬ 
bilitation. 

Of  ships  and  their  personnel. 

Chartering,  bottomry,  maritime  hypothecation. 

Marine  insurance  averages. 

Of  commercial  bailment :  General  warehouses  and  warrants. 


EQUIPMENT.  Equipment. 

( Questions  strictly  relative  to  ships. ) 

Regulation  papers  with  which  every  ship  ought  to  he  provided  on 
going  to  sea. 

Influence  of  the  model  of  construction  upon  the  marine  and  com¬ 
mercial  qualities  of  a  ship. 

Influence  of  tonnage. 

Influence  of  the  special  relations  between  the  three  principal  dimen¬ 
sions. 

Influence  of  the  nature  of  the  materials  of  the  hull. 

Sketch  of  a  ship. 

Gauge,  legal,  transitional  and  new,  for  sailing  vessels  and  steamers. 

Description  of  a  ship’s  hull  in  wood.  General  characteristics  of  a 
good  construction. 

Description  of  a  ship’s  hull  in  iron.  General  characteristics  of  a 
good  construction. 

Direction  and  conduct  of  a  ship  during  her  voyage. 

( Questions  relative  to  motive  apparatus  of  steamers.)  Steam  marine. 

Description  of  a  model  steam  boiler  with  its  accessories.  General 
characteristics  of  a  steam  boiler  in  good  condition. 

The  economic  work  of  double  expansion  engines. 

General  formula  to  calculate  the  real  and  nominal  force  of  steam 
engines. 

General  relations  between  size,  speed,  motive  power,  and  consump¬ 
tion  of  coal. 


The  tuition  fees  for  these  courses  may  seem  rather  high,  Tuition  fees, 
amounting  as  they  do  to  GOO  fr.  a  year.  This  may  he  one  rea¬ 
son  why  there  are  not  more  than  50  students  in  attendance 
here.  However,  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  has  voted  in 
favor  of  this  school  4  scholarships  (bourses),  the  municipality  Bourses. 

5,  the  General  Council  2,  the  Minister  of  Commerce  3. 


School  buildings.  ingsh°o1  build' 

Very  many  of  the  common  schools  of  France,  particu¬ 
larly  in  the  cities,  are  held  in  rooms  and  buildings  badly 
lighted  and  ventilated  and  drained.  Where  buildings  have 
been  recently  erected,  however,  the  case  is  better,  but  still 
not  always  satisfactory  in  regard  to  light  and  ventilation. 

15  p  R 


226 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


School 

togs. 


Exorcise 

grounds. 


D  r  a  w  i  n 
school. 


B-  One  feature  worthy  of  attention  and  high  commendation 
is  the  preau  convert ,  or  covered  court,  for  exercise  in  bad 
weather.  This  is  a  rectangular  space,  often  walled  in  by 
build*  buildings,  and  always  immediately  connected  with  the  school 
building,  large  and  airy  and  well  lighted  from  above.  Even 
where  there  is  ample  open  ground  for  exercise,  such  a  fea¬ 
ture  as  the  preau  convert  is  an  admirable  and  almost  essen¬ 
tial  addition. 

An  interesting  model  for  a  drawing  school  was  shown  in 
the  Exposition,  intended  for  a  school  of  instruction  com¬ 
prehending  drawing  after  plane  pattern,  after  relief,  and 
after  nature;  mechanical  and  architectural  drawing;  per¬ 
spective,  modeling,  and  sculpture,  with  a  view  to  the  wants 
of  apprentices  and  adult  workmen,  in  every  category  of 
industry  and  industrial  art.  The  school  consists  of  a  rec¬ 
tangular  grand  hall  for  drawing  after  flat  copy  and  relief, 
geometrical  drawing,  and  modeling ;  with  two  semi-circular 
annexes, — a  hall  for  drawing  after  nature,  and  an  amphi¬ 
theater  for  oral  lessons  in  geometry  and  perspective.  In 
addition  to  these  are  the  magazine  of  models  and  the  cab¬ 
inet  of  the  director.  The  arrangement  is  such  as  to  enable 
pupils  to  work  together, — those  who  are  drawing  from  the 
plane  copy  and  from  relief,  and  those  who  are  modeling, 
plane  copy.  from  ^ie  pupils  drawing  from  the  plane  copy  have  the  model 
placed  before  them  in  a  frame ;  they  are  seated,  each  upon 
an  independent  and  movable  stool ;  they  rest  on  the  bar  of 
the  model-holder  their  sketch,  which,  on  the  other  end,  rests 
on  their  knees.  Those  who  are  drawing  from  relief  are 
arranged  in  a  semicircle  around  the  model.  They  are  seated, 
and  rest  their  drawing  upon  an  iron  bar  fixed  in  the  form 
of  a  semicircle.  Behind  these  are  placed  the  modelers ; 
they  work  sitting  on  revolving  stools  fixed  to  a  continuous 
Geometrical  phitform,  with  their  model  beside  them.  Pupils  in  geomet¬ 
rical  drawing  are  seated  before  a  slightly  inclined  table. 

This  is  certainly  an  economy  of  space,  however  the  effect 
may  be  of  so  many  different  works  and  workmen  together. 


From  relief. 


Model  tot 


drawing. 


Scbodl  if ur na¬ 
ture. 


School  furniture  and  boolcs. 


I)  c  sits 
seats. 


As  to  school  furniture,  in  the  old  schools  it  is  poor  and 
primitive.  Long  hard  benches  without  backs  are  the  rule. 
Only  in  comparatively  few  and  new  schools  are  found  as 
audyet  the  single  desks  and  comfortable  seats  so  common  in 
America.  But  many  excellent  models  were  shown  at  the 
Exposition.  Among  other  things,  the  model  of  a  magazine 
.of  school  furniture  attracted  attention.  The  design  is  that 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


227 


here  everything  movable  necessary  for  the  furnishing  of  a  France. 
school  shall  be  constantly  on  hand. 

The  school  books  in  France  are  not  so  well  bound  as  ours  Schoolbooks, 
are,  and  the  paper  is  sometimes  too  coarse.  But  in  one 
respect  they  are  vastly  superior  to  those  which  the  rivalry 
of  the  great  publishing  houses  is  crowding  into  fashion  in 
this  country.  The  paper  in  French  books  is  agreeably 
tinted  off  from  glaring  white,  and  has  a  soft  surface  devoid 
of  the  hard  and  polished  glazing  which  makes  our  fashion¬ 
able  books  so  trying  to  eyes  young  and  old. 

Education  a  n  d  no  Itiica  l  a  {fa  irs.  Education  and 

1  M  political  affairs. 

It  has  never  been  the  custom  in  France  to  regard  educa¬ 
tion  as  unfitting  men  for  practical  affairs  and  for  high  po¬ 
litical  responsibilities.  Some  of  her  high  places  can  scarcely 
be  obtained  except  by  passing  through  a  certain  course  of 
superior  education.  On  the  other  hand  her  statesmen  have 
been  her  instructors.  They  could  pass  from  the  cabinet  to 
the  lecture  room  with  equal  confidence  and  equal  honor. 

No  government  has  lacked  ministers  able  to  conduct  their 
departments  with  credit  and  success. 

Great  as  the  interest  has  been  in  social,  political,  and  impulse  Riven 
economical  science  in  France,  the  circumstances  of  the  times,  fr^g^lvtTsal  sul' 
especially  the  exercise  of  universal  suffrage,  have  given  a 
new  impulse  to  those  studies.  What  have  been  problems 
for  thought  are  now  living  questions  at  every  man’s  door. 

Provision  for  study  and  instruction  in  those  branches  is 
spreading  more  widely  every  day. 

It  might  seem  to  verge  too  closely  upon  ground  which  is  to 
be  occupied  by  another  to  speak  at  any  length  of  instrument¬ 
alities  of  this  kind,  which  from  .their  height  and  scope  belong 
properly  to  superior  education.*  It  is  difficult  not  to  men¬ 
tion  so  significant  a  fact  as  the  revival  of  the  chair  of  con- ,  chair  of  consti- 

&  tutional  law. 

stitutional  law  (suppressed  under  the  later  empire)  in  the 
law  school  of  France.  Even  more  interesting  and  a  marked 
step  in  advance  is  the  establishment,  within  a  year  or  two, 
of  the  u  School  of  Political  Sciences,”  of  which  M.  Bautmv.  school  of  pom- 
is  the  director.  Some  of  the  branches  included  in  the  ample 
programme  of  this  school  have  been  taught  in  different 
chairs  at  various  universities,  not  only  in  France  but  in 
Germany,  Italy,  and  England.  But  here  are  gathered  into 
an  organized  corps  all  the  sciences  which  bear  upon  a  fitting 
preparation  for  any  and  all  of  the  great  offices  of  govern¬ 
ment.  Although  a  private  institution,  it  is  likely  to  be  in 


*Tliis  seems  to  mean  in  France,  supreme,  or  highest,  education. 


228  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

France.  its  SCope  and  efficiency  the  great  civil  service  school  of  the 
State. 

Scarcely  any  better  service  could  be  rendered  than  to 
present  here  the  entire  programme  and  organization  of  this 
school,  both  to  indicate  what  we  in  this  country  so  greatly 
lack  and  to  see  before  us  a  model  which  we  might  well  imi- 
itate.  But  we  may  expect  a  full  and  able  presentation  of 
this  subject  in  the  report  on  superior  education.* 

movement  in  Educational  movement  m  France. 

France. 

Reflecting  on  the  whole  education  exhibit  of  France, 
whether  presented  in  the  best  and  brightest  expression  at  the 
Exposition,  or  sought  in  those  observations  of  actual  works 
to  which  the  former  invited,  we  are  forced  to  say  that  that 
which  attracts  us  most  deeply  is  not  what  has  been  done, 
but  what  is  about  to  be  done.  The  present  case  is  far  from 
erased  progress  satisfactory.  Admitting  that  greater  progress  has  been 
ot  late  years.  ma(ie  within  the  last  five  or  ten  years  than  for  the  whole 
century  before,  the  best  that  can  be  said  is  that  the  right 
spirit  is  at  last  awakened,  and  is  at  work  in  the  right  direc¬ 
tion,  It  is  by  a  bitter  lesson  that  France  has  been  taught 
her  weakness  and  forced  to  look  for  the  causes  of  it.  She 
has  had  the  courage  to  do  this,  and  to  confess  the  result. 
Sbe  sees  that  popular  education  is  fundamental  to  the 
strength  of  the  modern  state. 

French  court  Times  are  much  changed  since  M.  Louis  Rene  de  Oaradeuc 

opinion  of  tho  0 

last  century.  de  la  Chalotais,  Procurator  of  the  King  at  the  Parliament 
of  Brittany,  as  a  reformer  of  national  education,  complained 
of  the  tendencies  of  the  times  a  hundred  years  ago.  He 
says : 

Desire  to  keep  u  The  people  even  want  to  study!  The  Christian  brothers,  whom  we 
classed  ?n  igno-  call  ‘ ignoranlins’,  have  come  in  to  complete  the  destruction  of  every- 
rance.  thing.  They  are  teaching  a  set  of  people  to  read  and  write  who  are  fit 

only  to  be  taught  the  handling  of  the  plane  and  file,  but  who  will  do  so 
no  more.  The  well  being  of  society  demands  that  the  knowledge  of  the 
people  shall  extend  no  further  than  their  occupations.  Every  man  who 
looks  beyond  his  own  dull  trade  will  never  fulfil  it  with  courage  and 
patience.  In  the  lower  ranks  of  life  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  know 
how  to  read  and  write,  except  for  those  who  live  by  those  arts,  or  whom 
those  arts  help  to  live.”  t 


*  President  A.  D.  White’s  report,  following.  [Editor.] 

Repeated  in  f  Has  not  Ireland  suffered  from  the  same  cause?  It  is  only  within 
this  last  year  that  Cardinal  Cullen,  giving  testimony  on  the  Irish  ques¬ 
tion  before  the  House  of  Commons  of  England,  argued  against  “giving 
more  education  to  the  ploughman  than  would  fit  him  for  the  plough, 
or  to  the  blacksmith  than  would  enable  him  to  hammer  his  iron,  lest 
they  should  grow  discontented  with  their  lot.” 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


229 


Times  have  changed,  and  men  with  them.  Better  doc-  FBAKCE- 
trines  of  humanity,  of  economy,  and  now  at  last  of  politics, 
have  led  to  a  different  doctrine  of  education.  The  State  state  stands  on 
stands  on  its  schools.  France  has  been  smitten  to  the  earth lta  sc1aools 
because  of  those  teachings  of  a  century  ago  and  the  bigotry 
which  has  alone  been  permitted  to  modify  them.  When  she 
rises  again  she  will  stand  strong  in  the  strength  of  her  com¬ 
mon  schools,  and  will  begin  a  new  life. 

The  fact  seems  to  be  that,  while  her  superior  and  secondary  French  pri- 

7  •*-  .  mary  education 

education  deserve  the  fame  they  have  long  held,  the  pn-  defective, 
mary  education — the  school  of  the  people — is  unworthy  of 
a  nation  which  claims,  and  perhaps  justly  in  some  respects, 
to  have  led  the  march  of  modern  civilization.  Sincere  praise 
is  due,  however,  and  in  abundant  measure,  to  those  far-see¬ 
ing  and  noble  men  and  women  *  who  have  taken  up  the 
great  task  of  making  real  the  ideals  which  they  have  done 
so  much  to  inspire,  but  who  still  feel  that  almost  everything 
they  have  longed  and  labored  for  yet  remains  to  be  done. 

We  ought  to  understand  them,  and  the  nature  of  the  ques¬ 
tions  in  which  they  have  joined  issue,  and  the  ends  they 
set  before  them,  so  that  we  can  give  them  the  sympathy 
they  deserve  and  need.  u  The  United  States”  is  the  example 
by  which  they  shape  their  efforts,  and  the  watchword  by 
which  they  rally  their  support.  This  is  seen  everywhere, 
from  the  item-corner  of  the  country  newspaper  to  the  elab¬ 
orate  exhibits  of  official  documents. 

The  United  States  the  example.  state? 

ample. 

It  may  be  safely  said  that  nothing  more  noteworthy  in  its 
subject  and  more  remarkable  in  its  execution  appeared  at 
the  Exposition  than  the  report  upon  the  primary  education 
of  the  United  States  by  M.  F.  Buisson,  a  man  already  hon-  uM.  Buissous 
ored  by  high  trusts  in  the  direction  of  educational  affairs  in  port  on  primary 
France,  and  destined  no  doubt  to  exercise  still  higher  ones,  united  Sates. 
He  was  president  of  the  commission  sent  by  the  French 
Government  to  examine  into  the  subject  of  education  as  pre¬ 
sented  at  our  Centennial  Exhibition  in  1876,  and  this  work 
is  the  report  of  his  observations.  It  is  in  every  way  a  study. 

As  a  model  of  reports  of  that  class,  its  perfection  is  almost 
discouraging ;  but  as  a  collection  of  most  valuable  informa¬ 
tion  and  sound  discussion  in  regard  to  educational  interests 

*  The  eloquent  tribute  to  the  character  and  services  of  Madame 
Meunier,  offered  by  M.  Earnest  Brelay  at  the  last  session  of  the  Ligue 
de  l’Enseignement,  shows  what  a  power  in  well-doing  a  great-hearted 
woman  can  be. 


230 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


FRANCE. 


United  States 
educational  ex¬ 
hibit  presented 
to  the  French. 


in  the  United  States,  we  have  nothing  in  our  own  language 
to  compare  with  it.  Its  influence  upon  the  measures  and 
directions  of  the  educational  advance  of  France  will  be  in¬ 
calculable. 

Another  illustration  of  the  value  attached  to  everything 
concerning  popular  education  in  the  United  States  is  seen 
in  the  fact  that  almost  everything  in  our  educational  ex¬ 
hibit  was  earnestly  sought  for  not  only  by  the  representatives 
of  various  countries,  but  by  the  French  Government  itself ; 
and  through  the  efforts  of  Dr.  Philbrick  nearly  the  entire  col¬ 
lection  was  presented  to  M.  Bardoux,  the  French  Minister 
of  Public  Instruction,  and  a  hall  in  the  Palais  Bourbon  was 
set  apart  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  here  a  permanent 
exhibition  of  American  education. 


Evils  to  be  corrected. 

o^schoiar^into  evils  and  shortcomings  in  the  present  school  system 

“paying”  and  0f  France  are  many.  For  one  thing,  the  schools  are  divided 
classes.  practically  by  it  into  two  great  classes,  the  rich  and  the  poor. 

The  fact  that  in  most  places  those  who  are  able  are  obliged 
to  pay  tuition  fees  makes  a  wide  and  a  bad  gulf  of  separa¬ 
tion.  The  charity  scholars  suffer  from  a  sense  of  inferiority, 
which  is  constantly  irritated  by  the  ill-concealed  jjride  or 
brutal  abuse  of  those  whose  independence  makes  them  be¬ 
lieve  they  are  better  than  others.*  The  children  of  the  poor 
are  thus  driven  or  shamed  from  the  school,  t 
condition1  of  ^he  Perhaps  the  comparative  condition  of  the  two  classes  can 
classes.6 ctive  best  be  seen  a  graphic  view.  The  following  tables  will 
serve  the  purpose  well ;  they  are  those  of  M.  Salicis,  taken 
from  the  little  book  already  referred  to,  on  education  and 
apprenticeship : 

*  The  teachers  have  sometimes  set  hut  a  poor  example.  This  has  more 
han  once  been  matter  of  notice  by  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction, 
who  has  in  published  orders  pointedly  reproved  the  teachers  in  a  great 
number  of  congreganist  girls’  schools  for  taking  pains  to  separate  those 
who  did  not  pay  tuition  from  the  paying  pupils,  and  giving  them  infe¬ 
rior  instruction  and  attention.  See  circular  of  September  22,  1845,  by 
M  fhiruydl'  Salvandi,  and  that  of  January  1866,  by  M.  Duruy.  The  latter  says 
that  nothing  of  the  kind  is  seen  in  the  lay  schools.  * 

t  Workingmen,  not  in  France  alone,  but  in  Germany  and  in  England, 
have  told  me  they  would  starve  themselves  rather  than  send  their  chil¬ 
dren  to  a  gratuitous  school,  or  fail  to  pay  full  tuition  for  them  at  the 
public  school,  because  they  would  not  have  tlicir  children  called  pau¬ 
pers. 


TABLE  OF  COMPARATIVE  ORGANIZATION  OF  INSTRUCTION. 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


231 


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Table  of  .in¬ 
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232 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Small  percent¬ 
age  of  children 
who  go  beyond 
the  primary 
school. 


Causes  of  with- 
drawal  from 
study. 


Evils  of  perpet¬ 
uated  ignorance. 


Poor  appreci¬ 
ation  of  rural 
teachers. 


Separation  of 
the  sexes  in 
schools. 


The  striking  thing  in  these  tables  is  that  there  is  practi¬ 
cally  nothing  for  the  children  of  the  u  working  classes ” 
after  the  primary  school.  Eecent  returns  show  that  out  of 
5,000,000  children  of  school  age  in  France  less  than  150,000 
—not  3  per  cent. — ever  go  beyond  the  primary  school.  For 
4,850,000,  then,  there  is  no  hope  nor  care  to  get  above  that 
Low  level.  Xor,  indeed,  do  they  by  any  means  reach  the 
best  which  the  primary  school  could  give.  At  the  u  first 
communion,”  usually  at  the  age  of  12,  the  children  desert 
the  school,  and  consider  their  education  complete.  Many 
are  often  kept  out  or  entirely  taken  away  from  school  by 
their  parents,  who  either  need  their  aid  in  the  labors  of  the 
field,  or  through  ignorance  and  indifference  suffer  their  chil¬ 
dren  to  absent  themselves  on  slight  pretexts.  So  the  pic¬ 
ture  which  M.  Salieis  draws  is  even  darker  for  the  country 
than  it  is  for  the  city.  The  pupil  does  not  carry  his  studies 
to  any  degree  which  would  specially  instruct  him  in  matters 
of  agriculture,  and  enable  him  to  make  use  of  improved 
methods  and  inventions.  This  perpetuated  ignorance  may 
be  among  the  reasons  why  French  farmers  are  so  slow  to 
introduce,  or  even  accept,  improved  implements  and  ma¬ 
chines.  Many  friends  of  popular  education  make  bold  to 
point  out  plainly  existing  evils.  They  complain  that  in  many 
cases  the  teachers  are  too  old,  or  at  any  rate  that  their  ways 
and  methods  are.  They  demand  the  retirement  of  teachers 
over  55  years  of  age.  They  reproach  the  local  inspectors 
for  not  visiting  the  schools  and  not  caring  for  them,  and  the 
priests  for  domineering  over  them.  They  picture  the  pro¬ 
verbially  dejected  air  of  the  schoolmaster,  owing  to  his 
isolation,  through  the  severity  or  neglect  of  his  superiors, 
the  despotism  of  the  cure,  and  the  caprices  of  parents, 
against  which  there  is  no  law  and  no  protection.* 

There  is  one  thing,  however,  which  the  tables  do  not  show. 
There  is  a  prevalent  feeling  in  France  that  children  of  the 
two  sexes  should  not  attend  the  same  schools.  But  it  is 
obvious  that  in  small  villages,  even  if  they  were  able  pecu¬ 
niarily  to  sustain  two  schools,  such  small  schools  would  not 
be  advantageous  on  many  accounts.  Thus  it  happens  that 
practically  there  are  mixed  schools  in  small  country  villages. 
A  law,  passed  in  1867,  requires  communes  of  more  than  500 
inhabitants  to  sustain  at  least  one  public  girls’  school ;  and 
in  thus  organizing  primary  instruction  for  girls,  the  law  pro¬ 
vided  for  the  creation  of  10,000  new  schools.  The  courses 


*  The  vigorous  little  hook  “  Ce  que  sont  nos  coles,”  by  M.  ISmile 
Lef&vre,  is  a  good  specimen,  among  many,  of  these  faithful  reproofs. 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


233 


of  instruction  for  the  country  schools  embraced  domestic  France. 
sewing,  mental  arithmetic,  the  various  writings  called  for  courses  for 
by  a  farmer’s  life,  notions  of  agriculture  and  rural  economy  country  schools‘ 
suited  to  their  situation,  the  care  of  a  fruit  garden,  kitchen 
garden,  poultry  yard,  and  the  general  laws  of  domestic 
hygiene.  For  the  city  schools  the  courses  comprised  indus-  For  city  schools, 
trial  sewing,  industrial  and  ornamental  drawing,  arithmetic, 
commercial  papers,  hygiene,  and,  according  to  situation, 
some  one  of  the  professional  arts  which  a  girl  might  prac¬ 
tice  at  home,  such  as  painting  upon  porcelain,  wood  engrav¬ 
ing,  and  artistic  embroidery.  In  all  schools  the  French  lan¬ 
guage  and  national  history  were  to  be  taught. 

But  in  spite  of  the  laudable  efforts  of  the  government,  it 
has  been  difficult  to  secure  the  best  results.  The  people 
need  to  be  made  to  see  their  need. 

It  is  noticeable  that  in  the  tables  no  mention  is  made  of  .Lac£  °f  provi¬ 
sion  tor  girls  m 

instruction,  either  in  the  primary  or  secondary  grades,  for  stances0 ircum 
girls  of  families  in  good  circumstances.  No  place  seems  to 
be  given  to  them  in  the  public  system.  Their  education  is 
mostly  carried  on  in  private  institutions,  where  the  lack  of 
inspection  and  of  responsibility  doubtless  permits  the  growth 
of  many  evils,  particularly  in  the  boarding-schools.*  Sckoois.b°ard^s 

As  to  any  higher  education,  little  has  been  done  as  yet  Higher  educa¬ 
tor  the  education  of  girls  of  any  class.  That  is  an  evil,  and tlon  of  girls‘ 
leads  to  evil.  But  the  matter  has  engaged  the  attention  of 
earnest  men  who  will  not  suffer  things  to  remain  long  as 
they  are.  A  powerful  article  by  M.  Georges  Lafargue,  w.o.Lafargue. 
recently  published  by  the  Society  for  the  Advancement  of 
the  Sciences,  expresses  some  decided  views  in  very  strong 
language  on  this  subject,  in  which  he  is  supported  by  many 
eminent  men.  He  concludes  his  topic  with  the  remark  that 
“  the  establishment  of  secondary  education  for  girls  is  one 
of  the  most  essential  elements  of  our  regeneration.” 

But  there  is  a  veritable  preaching  of  a  crusade  now  spread¬ 
ing  all  over  France  against  all  the  existing  evils.  The  main  Extension  of 
point  urged  is  the  extension  of  popular  education — the  pri-  SondemandedC.a 
mary  school.  Other  points  are  the  improvement  of  its 
methods,  and  finally  its  entire  reorganization. 


*The  remarkable  study  in  physio-psychology  lately  presented  by  M.  M.  Deville. 
Sainte  Clare  Deville  before  the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences 
in  Paris,  was  followed  by  an  earnest  discussion,  participated  in  by  many 
of  the  most  distinguished  members,  which  brought  grave  charges 
against  the  whole  boarding-school  system,  “that  deplorable  institu¬ 
tion,”  says  M.  Lafargue,  “fatal  to  study,  to  health,  to  morals,  and  to 
discipline.” 


234  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

FRANCE-  Obligatory  education. 

Obligatory  ed¬ 
ucation.  The  great  reason  which  rests  at  the  bottom  of  the  prin¬ 

ciple  of  popular  education  seems  to  justify  the  demand  that 
when  the  public  treasury  and  private  benevolence  are  ex¬ 
pending  so  much  to  provide  opportunity  for  the  common 
education  of  youth,  they  should  be  required  to  avail  them¬ 
selves  of  it.  This,  accordingly,  is  one  of  the  main  points 
aimed  at  by  the  progressive  party  in  France.  The  phrase 
so  often  used  in  this  country — u  compulsory  attendance  ” — 
does  not  suit  the  American  ear,  and  does  not  carry  pleasant 
suggestions.  But  the  expression  “obligatory  education” 
carries  its  explanation  and  justification  in  itself.  It  presents 
the  end  sought,  which  no  one  can  consider  as  other  than 
good,  and  which  makes  it  easy  to  receive  the  suggestion  of 
obligation  or  duty  connected  with  so  worthy  an  end. 

Provision  of  At  present  each  commune  is  required  by  law  to  establish 
puisory,  but  at-  a  primary  school ;  but  no  one  is  obliged  to  go  to  it.  The 

tendance  is  op-  17  '  °  ° 

tionai.  law  ot  187 4,  before  referred  to,  does  indeed  provide  that  chil¬ 

dren  below  the  age  of  12  years  cannot  be  employed  as  appren¬ 
tices  or  by  a  “patron,”  unless  they  attend  school  during  the 
time  free  from  labor.*  But  this  does  not  meet  the  case. 
Much  has  to  be  done  to  break  up  an  apathy  which  had  be¬ 
come  so  inveterate,  and  the  friends  of  popular  education 
take  on  themselves  the  task  first  of  providing  the  schools, 
then  of  creating  an  enlightened  popular  demand  for  them, 
and  then  of  seeing  to  it  that  the  demand  is  made  constant 
by  required  attendance. 

Free  education.  Gratuitous  education. 

What  they  want  in  France  is  our  American  “free  school.” 
This  term  everywhere  in  Europe  is  nowT  applied  to  schools 
which  have  a  private  foundation,  as  distinguished  from  the 
public  school  which  is  founded  by  government.  But  the 
evils  which  have  been  seen  to  flow  from  a  system  in  which 
the  poor  are  either  kept  away  for  lack  of  means,  or,  if  they 
attend  as  charity  students,  are  driven  away  or  “frozen  out” 
as  paupers,  lead  to  a  demand  for  the  removal  of  tuition 
fees  entirely  from  the  common-school  system.  Moreover,  it 
might  reasonably  be  argued  that  obligatory  education  ought 
to  be  gratuitous. 


Attendance  of  *  Another  article  of  this  law,  not  before  cited,  provides  that  no  child 
ed^in  Lbo™Pl°^'  helow  the  age  of  15  years  shall  he  allowed  to  work  more  than  six  hours 
a  day,  unless  he  can  produce  the  certificate  of  a  teacher  or  school  inspec¬ 
tor,  attested  by  the  mayor,  that  he  has  completed  the  course  of  primary 
instruction. 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain.  235 

At  the  Exposition  the  fact  was  made  prominent  that  edu-  gBANCB- 
cation  was  both  gratuitous  and  obligatory  under  the  laws  Education  gra- 
of  Holland,  Switzerland,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway j  gatoly  fndm°any 
and  that  Enssia,  which  is  making  such  marvellous  strides  Eu?ope.ries  °f 
in  the  elevation  and  moralization  of  her  people,  has  already 
recognized  the  force  of  these  ideas,  and  put  them  into  prac¬ 
tice  in  many  of  her  provinces. 

Nor  was  there  anything  which  attracted  more  interest 
among  the  curious  crowd  about  our  American  educational 
section  than  the  legend  inscribed  on  the  walls,  u  IHmtrue- 
tion  publique  est  gratuite  dans  tons  les  JEtats  de  V Union” 

Doubtless  that  simple  statement  did  much  to  help  forward  .  Free  education 
the  common-school  of  France.  This  illustrates  the  influ- states, 
ence  of  these  great  international  Expositions, — or,  to  use  our 
homely  but  expressive  phrase,  u  World’s  fairs.” 

These  ideas  have  already  had  recognition  in  high  quar¬ 
ters,  and  forcible  expression.  In  1877  M.  Waddington,  ast0^‘  Waddmg* 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  proposed  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  a  bill  authorizing  and  enabling  every  commune  in 
France  to  establish  absolute  gratuity  in  its  schools.  M.  Ma-  m.  Marion, 
rion,  deputy  from  Isere,  went  a  step  farther,  and  proposed 
a  bill  to  make  primary  instruction  not  only  gratuitous  but 
obligatory  also  in  all  the  communes  of  France. 

M.  de  Lacretelle,  deputy  from  Saone  and  Loire,  struck  all  teJ£.  de  Lacre’ 
the  notes  of  the  chord  at  once,  and  proposed  that  instruc¬ 
tion  should  be  gratuitous,  obligatory,  and  unsectarian  ( la’ique ) 
in  all  the  schools  of  the  Eepublic,  for  girls  as  well  as  for  boys. 

Lay.  or  unsectarian  education.  unsectarianed- 

This  brings  us  to  another  question  now  assuming  formida¬ 
ble  proportions  in  France.  The  census  returns  showing  prop0rtion  of 
35,387,703,  or  over  98  per  cent,  of  the  population  to  be  Eoman  SiT^roteSts 
Catholics,  while  580,757  or  1.6  per  cent,  are  Protestants,  and in:France- 
only  something  less  than  135,000  are  of  other  forms  of  relig¬ 
ious  belief,  we  can  readily  understand  why  it  is  that  to  so 
large  an  extent  public  education  has  been  in  the  hands  of  the 
Eoman  Catholic  clergy. 

There  is  a  powerful  reaction  against  this  control,  which  is  J.®sta 
growing  so  important  as  to  become  an  element  in  the  politics  contro1- 
of  the  country.  The  lines  are  not  drawn,  it  is  true,  by  the 
profession  of  loyalty  or  disloyalty  to  the  prevailing  religious 
system,  but  the  question  at  issue  is  the  enfranchisement  of 
education, — its  deliverance  from  sectarian  trammels.  Many 
who  do  not  protest  against  the  Eoman  Catholic  religion,  do 
protest  against  Eoman  Catholic  control  of  schools.  Some 
indeed  who  regard  many  of  the  evils  under  which  the  coun- 


236 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Two  differing 
opponents  of  the 
clerical  party. 


Control  of  pop¬ 
ular  education  in 
Prance  a  question 
of  political  power 
and  rule. 


The  Romish 
system. 


try  has  suffered  as  the  direct  result  of  the  domination  of  that 
church,  strain  their  logic  to  the  degree  of  regarding  Roman- 
ism  and  Christianity  as  identical,  and,  carrying  their  protest 
against  Christianity  itself,  demand  that  the  schools  shall 
be  shrouded  in  an  almost  atheistic  atmosphere. 

So  we  see  two  movements,  differing  in  their  reasons  and 
ultimate  aims.  One  seeks  the  extension  of  popular  educa¬ 
tion  ;  the  other  seeks  the  entire  separation  of  church  and 
school.  Each  has  its  distinctive  adherents ;  but  as  against 
the  domination  of  caste  and  church,  the  two  generally  con¬ 
cur  and  coincide. 

The  question  of  popular  education  in  France  is  not  merely 
nor  mainly  one  of  liberty  of  conscience.  It  is  more  a  ques¬ 
tion  of  political  power  and  rule.  The  warfare  still  waged 
against  the  Jesuits,— who,  although  by  law  excluded  from 
teaching  and  even  from  residing  in  France,  manage  never¬ 
theless  in  their  quiet,  patient,  and  skillful  way,  both  to  stay 
and  to  teach, — is  not  wholly  in  view  of  the  moral  effects  of 
their  peculiar  teaching,  but  of  its  political  effects.  So  the 
protest  reaches  ultimately  the  whole  Romisli  clerical  system 
as  grasping  at  political  control.  The  schools  can  be  used  as 
mighty  instruments  in  favor  of  liberty  and  light,  or  they  can 
be  so  managed  as  to  bind  the  people  in  fetters  and  darkness. 
The  school  party  of  France  understand  this  very  well.  So 
they  want  free  schools ;  free  in  every  sense,  from  fees  that 
oppress  the  poor,  and  from  ecclesiastical  domination  that 
would  overmaster  all. 

The  legend  on  the  advancing  banner  is,*  uThe  schools , 
secular ,  gratuitous ,  and  obligatory a  motto  not  necessarily 
communistic,  although  the  communists  generally  adopt  it ; 
nor  necessarily  atheistic,  although  the  atheists,  of  course, 
help  to  swell  the  party.  It  naturally  has  the  favor  of  the 
Protestants,  believing  as  they  do  that  freedom  of  conscience 
in  the  schools  will  not  make  France  the  less  a  Christian 
country,  and,  though  few,  they  lend  weight  to  the  movement; 
and  it  inevitably  commands  the  support  of  Republicans,  who 

Secularization  ''‘This  secularization,  or  rather  neutralization,  of  the  schools,  seems  to 
natedinHoUaml!  have  originated  in  Holland,  whence  it  passed  to  Scotland  and  Ireland. 

It  is  most  difficult  to  secure,  of  course,  in  countries  where  there  is  an 
established  religion  of  the  state,  but  it  is  precisely  for  this  reason  that 
it  is  most  demanded  in  those  countries.  At  present  it  is  a  much  agi¬ 
tated  question  in  Belgium,  Germany,  and  Switzerland,  and  is  coming 
to  be  so  in  England,  and  even  in  the  United  States.  In  these  two  latter 
countries  Christianity,  being  part  of  the  common  law,  takes  neither 
an  agressive  nor  offensive  part  in  the  discipline  or  instruction  of  the 


The  supporters 
of  the  free,  non- 
sectarian  school 
system. 


claiming  to  be  higher  than  the  state,  the  question  stands  on  wholly 
different  grounds. 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


237 


see  that  the  only  permanent  elevation  of  the  masses  must  be  FRAJTCE- 
through  their  enlightenment,  and  hence  regard  the  schools 
obligatory  upon  all,  but  free  for  all,  as  the  prime  force  in 
the  regeneration  of  France. 

St-ill  the  party  of  popular  education  has  its  •  troubles,  ^^SdeVEn- 
even  with  its  friends.  Thus  the  Ligue  de  VEnseignment ,  seignment. 
which  began  its  work  under  the  empire,  has  been  much  im¬ 
peded  by  government  influence  or  authority  under  the 
new  republic.  They  complain  that  their  schools  and  libraries 
have  been  closed  and  public  courses  interdicted,  and  that 
owing  to  official  interference  they  have  only  been  able  to 
hold  two  general  reunions  for  the  lash  seven  years  $  one  in 
1876  and  one  in  1878. 

The  statutes  of  this  society  declare  its  object  to  be  the  x§Slecls  of  the 
spread  of  education,  chiefly  among  the  rural  populations. 

It  seeks  to  accomplish  this  end  by  stimulating  individual 
initiative,  by  promoting  the  foundation  of  schools,  gratui¬ 
tous  courses,  and  public  conferences,*  by  favoring  the 
creation  of  popular  libraries,  and  by  employing  all  means 
that  lead  to  the  general  diffusion  of  education.  It  declares 
that  it  belongs  to  no  party  in  politics  or  religion.  It  has 
but  one  doctrine — “that  society  should  consist  of  men  and 
not  of  brutes.”  But  it  soon  finds  itself  in  opposition  to  the 
“ Syllabus ,”  and  it  is  nothing  strange,  perhaps,  that  it  next  The  Syllabus- 
finds  itsel  f  out  of  favor  with  the  government,  f  Said  the  pres¬ 
ident,  M.  Jean  Mace,  at  the  meeting  of  January,  1878,  M- Mac6, 
“Scarcely  six  weeks  ago  we  had  less  liberty  than  under  the 
empire.”  He  takes  this  bitterly,  when  the  Ligue  so  heartily 
supported  the  republic.  But  he  goes  on  to  speak  of  the 
better  state  of  things,  which  from  that  time  bids  fair  to  hold 
its  course. 

“There  are  now,  in  fact,  but  two  parties  in  France,”  con¬ 
tinued  the  president  in  his  uncompromising  style,  “and  they 
are  now  face  to  face — those  who  accept  universal  suffrage,  and 
those  who  do  not  accept  it,  or  who  accept  it  only  that  it 
may  subserve  their  ends.”f 

The  society  has  a  powerful  organization,  and  its  roots  and 
branches  are  widely  spread. §  It  has  its  auxiliaries  in  all 

*  Familiar  conversational  lessons  given  by  a  professor. 

tit  was  doubtless  his  sympathy  with  the  aristocratic  and  clerical 
party  which  led  to  the  necessity  of  Marshal  MacMahon’s  resignation. 

He  was  good  soldier  enough  to  obey  when  he  could  not  command. 

t  His  phrase  is  even  stronger,  “qu’il  se  laisse  escamoter ’’ — “on  condition 
that  it  will  allow  itself  to  bo  juggled.” 

§This  Ligue  had,  in  1878,  over  400  societies  in  various  parts  of  France,  Extent  of  the 
with  a  membership  of  35,000.  It  had  founded  400  libraries,  and  aided  Ligue- 
numerous  schools  all  over  France,  expending  for  that  purpose  $75,000. 


238 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1873. 


France.  parts  of  France,  and  its  co-ordinates  in  all  the  moving  world. 

The  u  Education  League”  is  at  work  in  Belgium,  Holland, 
Italy,  Algiers,  and  even  Egypt,  and  in  England  and  Cali¬ 
fornia.  The  published  reports  of  these  works  afford  a  stir¬ 
ring  picture  of  the  educational  movement  abroad,  and  the 
forces  in  action  and  counteraction. 

ikie.8ace  L°r  France  lost  with  Alsace-Lorraine  the  most  educated  por¬ 
tion  of  her  inhabitants.  It  was,  however,  the  reflection,  or 
rather  the  re-awakening,  produced  by  the  results  of  the 
Franco- Prussian  war,  which  gave  a  new  and  remarkable  im¬ 
petus  to  the  movement  for  educational  reform  and  extension. 
That  issue  has  stirred  France  to  tne  depths  of  her  heart  and 
mind.  Friends  of  education  and  of  liberty  seize  the  oppor¬ 
tune  moment  to  enforce  the  true  lesson. 

3llature  Individuals  are  at  work  ;  citv  and  country  are  sown  thick 
with  tracts  and  vest-pocket  volumes,  plain,  frank,  and  potent 
of  suggestion.  Many  modest  little  books  are  put  forth  adapt¬ 
ed  to  the  new  education,  chiefly  eliminating  the  Bomanist 
element  with  which  school  literature  was  imbued,  and  often 
the  Christianity  along  with  it.  It  is  curious  to  see  these  codes 
of  morals  without  religion,  and  what  systems  of  natural 
ethics  can  be  generalized  from  the  aspect  of  uman  as  he  is,” 
rather  than  the  11  a  priori  ”  and  unscientific  u  man  as  he  ought 
to  be.”  These  works,  however,  are  not  without  value.  The 
depth  of  sincerity  in  the  isolated  stand  point,  the  restless 
groping  of  the  human  mind,  seeking  in  itself  the  standard 
of  highest  good  and  highest  right,  touches  us  almost  to 
pain. 

But  light  will  come  to  all  true  seekers ;  and  it  will  come  to 
France. 

•SSJche/ M‘ Among  the  most  broadly  conceived  and  carefully  consid¬ 
ered  of  the  works  now  spread  among  the  people,  it  is  impos¬ 
sible  not  to  remark  the  collections  of  essays  and  exhortations 
entitled  “  Elementary  Studies ,  Political ,  Social ,  and  Philosoph¬ 
ical”  written  by  M.  Charles  DeSouches,  and  dedicated  to  the 
working  people  of  France — from  which  rank  he  himself 
sprang.  His  book  is  distributed  to  be  used  in  the  free  lay 
schools.  With  rare  good  sense  and  the  wonderful  eloquence 
of  simplicity,  he  treats  here  very  many  questions  that  “come 
home  to  men’s  business  and  bosoms.”  His  point  is  that  the 
only  barrier  to  the  enfranchisement  of  the  masses  is  the  lack 
of  instruction  and  of  education.  He  gives  matter  for  a  great 
deal  of  both  in  his  book ;  and  exhorts  all  right-minded  men 
to  work  with  zeal,  to  found  schools  and  libraries,  to  write 
books,  to  visit  the  workingmen,  and  to  aid  in  all  possible 
ways  to  lift  them  out  of  their  misery.  After  quickening  every 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


239 


noble  thought  and  impulse  in  his  readers,  he  makes  his  cli-  fiance. 
max  by  seizing  on  the  feeling  so  natural  to  France  in  her 
present  case— revenge. 

“We  will  have,”  he  says,  “a  notable  revenge.  We  will  The  Republic 
show  to  the  world  what  a  people  can  avail  which  rises  above  France, 
the  low  level  of  ignoble  passions.  We  are  resolved,  cost 
what  it  may:  we  are  ready.  What  will  we  do,  is  it  asked  ? 

The  most  simple  thing.  For  this  famous  revenge  is  already 
begun.  It  is  born,  full  of  life ;  and  it  will  grow  and  flourish 
if  we  but  give  it  faith  and  patriotism  and  resolution  ;  if  each 
one  especially  will  put  into  it  courage  and  patience  and  self- 
abnegation.  Our  revenge  is  the  Republic.” 

A  lesson  good  for  other  meridians  than  that  of  France. 

The  whole  motive  and  argument  is  summed  up  in  the  Jules  Simon, 
terse  phrase  of  Jules  Simon:  “The  people  which  has  the  The  best 
best  schools  is  the  first  people;  if  it  is  not  so  to-day,  it  wdl  people9- fchetirst 
be  to-morrow.”* 

Tne  schools  are  not  ends;  no  more  is  the  church  an  end,  school, church, 
nor  even  the  st  *te.  All  are  means,  each  good  and  necessary  —not  ends, 
in  its  place,  for  the  well-being  and  perfectionment  of  man. 

Each,  in  fact,  needs  the  sympathy  and  light  of  the  other. 

But  among  the  means  and  forces  ot  advancement  the  The  school 
school  is  prime  and  fundamental.  Without  it,  neither  the  means, 
church  nor  the  state  could  long  remain  free  institutions. 

Whoever  controls  the  schools  is  the  real  sovereign,  if  the  Education  a  ne- 
people  are  to  rule,  the  people  must  be  educated.  This  is  the 
only  way  which  France  now  sees  to  save  herself  from  the 
effects  of  her  former  errors  and  misfortunes. 

Hence  this  wide  recruitment  in  the  forward  movement  for  intense  inter- 

.  ,  .  est  and  progress- 

the  schools,  this  thoughtful  taking  ot  position,  tins  organ!  ivc spirit, 
zation  of  liberal  and  progressive  minds  in  behalf  of  popular 
education,  this  earnest  and  all-pervading  spirit  of  a  common 
cause  rising  to  an  intensity  which  recalls  the  times  of  rev  o- 
mtion. 

The  question  of  popular  education  in  France,  therefore,  is  Theschooimas- 
involved  in  considerations  that  are  deep  and  wide  and  far-  <iueror  at  Sedan, 
reaching.  “It  is  the  school-master  who  conquered  at  Se¬ 
dan,”  is  the  watchword  ot  the  new  revolution  and  the 
prophecy  of  the  new  revenge  with  which  France  is  about  to 
redeem  her  past,  and  vindicate  a  better  glory. 

BELGTUM.  Belgium. 

The  educational  exhibit  of  Belgium  had  evidently  been 
made  the  object  of  much  attention  on  the  part  of  national 

*  “Le  peuple  qui  a  les  meilleures  dcoles  est  le  premier  peuple :  s’il  ne 
l’tst  pas  aujourdhui,  il  le  sera  demaiii.” 


240 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Belgium.  as  well  as  locals  authorities,  and  may  perhaps  dairly  (be 
taken  as  evidence  of  a  considerable  and  somewhat  new 
degree  of  interest  in  popular  education.  Belgium  has  by 
no  means  been  noted  for  the  diffusion  of  common  education 
illiteracy.  among  her  people.  Becent  official  returns  show  that  about 
30  per  cent,  of  her  population  are  unable  to  read  and  write. 
Among  the  44,000  young  men  of  nineteen  who  are  annually 
called  upon  to  draw  lots  for  military  service,  and  who  would 
probably  give  the  most  favorable  showing  in  this  regard,  it 
appears  that  only  about  73  per  cent,  are  able  to  read  and 
write.  The  several  provinces  with  respect  to  the  numbers 
who  have  acquired  these  elements  of  a  common  education, 
Eoiativeiiuter-come  in  the  following  order,  from  best  to  worst:  Luxem- 
mces.  bourg,  Namur,  Antwerp,  Lfoge,  Brabant,  Limbourg,  Haiu- 

aut,  West  and  East  Flanders. 

Primary  educa-  The  Belgian  exhibit,  as  has  been  intimated,  ws  i  particu- 
sented.  larly  interesting  on  account  of  the  extent  and  variety  with 

which  primary  instruction  was  represented;  the  attention 
given  to  this,  and  even  the  space  occupied  by  it,  in  the  fine 
building  devoted  to  the  educational  exhibit,  being,  at  least, 
twice  as  great  as  that  given  to  both  secondary  and  superior 
education  taken  together.  The  objects  exhibited  consisted 
largely,  of  course,  of  the  various  works  of  pupils,  copy¬ 
books,  albums,  drawings,  needle- work,  and  ceramics.  The 
Minister  of  the  Interior,  in  whose  hands  is  the  direction  of 
public  instruction,  made  a  very  full  exhibit  with  reference 
to  the  organization,  material,  and  methods  of  public  instruc¬ 
tion.  Many  schools,  moreover,  were  represented  by  plans 
and  models  of  their  buildings  and  specimens  of  school  fur¬ 
niture  and  material  of  instruction.  An  object  of  special 
Ligue  de  vEn -  interest  was  the  model  school  established  by  the  Ligue  de 
VJEnseignement  at  Brussels  in  1875.  A  complete  class-room 
was  exhibited,  with  its  entire  furniture  and  school  material. 
Upon  a  tablet  upon  the  wall  were  written,  perhaps  with  a 
pardonable  pride,  those  terms  of  the  Belgian  constitution 
which  express  the  essential  principles  governing  public  in¬ 
struction  : 

Principles  gov-  “  Education  is  free  ;  all  restrictive  measures  are  prohibited ;  the  re- 
struction11  in*  Bel-  pression  of  offenses  is  regulated  only  by  law. 

£ium.  “  Public  instruction  given  at  the  expense  of  the  State  is  equally  regu¬ 

lated  by  law.” 

Comparison  of  This  school- room  attracted  many  visitors,  and  was  cer- 

Belgian  and  °  7 

American  school-  tainly  superior  in  many  respects  to  the  average  school-room 
of  Europe.  It  was,  however,  by  no  means  beyond  what  we 
see  in  many  schools  of  America.  The  pupils7  seats  and 
desks  were  not  so  pleasant  to  the  eye,  and  probably  not  so 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


241 


comfortable  and  convenient  for  use. as  ours.  The  teacher’s  bslgipm. 
desk  was  in  one  corner,  and  a  large  platform  was  at  one  end 
of  the  room.  Each  of  the  four  corners  was  cut  off  for  a  ven¬ 
tilating  apparatus,  the  efficiency  of  which  in  actual  practice 
there  was  no  opportunity  of  testing.  The  blackboards 
were  in  sets  of  three,  and  hung  on  weights,  so  that  they 
could  be  conveniently  written  upon  and  then  all  exhibited 
in  one  column. 

Other  interesting  plans  of  large  school  buildings  were  ex-  school  rooms, 
hibited,  the  good  features  of  which  are  that  such  are  built 
on  three  sides  of  a  parallelogram,  affording  good  light,  and 
having  thus  a  large  preau  coiivert,  with  a  gallery  on  the  second 
story,  all  lighted  from  above,  as  well  as  at  the  free  end.  The 
works  of  the  pupils  were  of  good  quality,  especially  the 
needle-work. 

The  “Normal  School  of  Humanities”  at  Liege  showed of^i™aln§-cs001 
some  very  good  themes  in  Latin,  English,  and  German,  as 
well  as  in  French  and  Flemish. 

PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION.  ■  Primary  in¬ 

struction. 

The  primary  schools  include  the  communal  or  public  ^.Schools  of  three 
schools  founded  and  supported  by  the  communes,  the  “pri-  Public. 

•  , ,  .  ’  1  Private  adopt- 

vate  adopted”  ( agreees )  schools,  substituted  for  the  com-ea. 

,  i  ..  .  Private  denom- 

munal,  and  receiving  government  aid,  and  private  denomi-  inationai. 
national  schools.  To  these  the  poor  are  admitted  gratuit¬ 
ously.  The  law  provides  that,  of  schools  supported  by  the 
State,  there  shall  be  at  least  one  in  each  commune,  conve¬ 
niently  situated,  unless  there  is  already  sufficient  provision 
for  primary  instruction  through  private  schools. 

Primary  instruction  embraces  religion  and  morals,  read-  Course  of  pri- 

.  ...  tit  n  7  mary  instruction. 

mg,  writing,  the  legal  system  of  weights  and  measures,  the 
elements  of  numbers,  and,  according  to  the  needs  of  locali¬ 
ties,  the  elements  of  the  French,  Flemish,  or  German  lan¬ 
guage.  The  instruction  in  religion  and  morals  is  given  religious 

i  jiT-  n  °  teaching. 

under  the  direction  of  the  ministers  of  the  faith  professed 
by  the  majority  of  the  pupils.  Those  who  do  not  belong  to 
the  prevailing  religious  communion  are  not  required  to  be 
present  at  these  exercises. 

As  nearly  the  entire  population  of  Belgium  is  Roman  n  ,x  .. 
Catholic,  education  is  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  theuance- 
clergy  of  that  church,  and  largely  in  that  of  the  Jesuit 
order. 

The  supervision  of  schools  as  to  instruction  and  adminis-  Supervision  of 

....  ,  schools. 

tration  is  exercised  by  the  communal  authorities  and  by 
cantonal  and  provincial  civil  inspectors.  The  ministers  of 
16  p  R 


242 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


School  hooks. 


Allotment  of 
expenses. 


Snhsidies. 


worship  and  their  delegates  have  always  the  right  to  in¬ 
spect  the  school. 

The  books  designed  for  primary  instruction  in  schools 
subjected  to  the  double  inspection,  civil  and  ecclesiastic,  are 
examined  by  a  central  commission  composed  of  the  civil 
provincial  inspectors  presided  over  by  the  Minister  of  the 
Interior,  and  are  approved  by  the  government.  Books, 
however,  employed  exclusively  for  instruction  in  morals  and 
religion,  are  approved  by  the  religious  authorities  alone. 
Beading-books,  which  serve  at  the  same  time  for  instruction 
in  religion  and  morals,  are  submitted  to  the  approval  of 
both  the  civil  and  religious  authorities. 

The  expense  of  primary  instruction  is  borne  by  the  com¬ 
munes.  When  it  appears,  however,  that  a  commune  has 
contributed  to  this  purpose  all  that  could  reasonably  be  de¬ 
manded  of  it,  the  province,  and  in  the  last  resort  the  State, 
will  make  up  the  remainder.  Bo  school  can  receive  or  re¬ 
tain  a  subsidy  or  any  assistance  whatever  from  the  State, 
the  province,  or  the  commune,  unless  the  director  submits 
his  institution  to  the  regulations  of  the  double  inspection, 
civil  and  religious,  and  complies  with  all  the  essential  con¬ 
ditions  of  the  laws. 

The  teachers  meet  at  least  once  in  three  months  in  can¬ 
tonal  conferences,  to  consider  whatever  may  promote  the 
interests  of  primary  instruction. 

Competitive  examinations  between  the  different  primary 
schools  are  held  each  year.  Participation  is  required  of 
communal  schools,  and  of  those  which  take  the  place  of 
them,  and  is  optional  for  others. 

Normal  schools.  Normal  primary  instruction  is  given  in  the  state  normal 
schools  and  sections,  or  in  private  normal  schools  which 
have  been  adopted  by  the  government.  Almost  all  of  these, 
especially  those  of  the  State,  are  conducted  on  the  boarding- 
school  plan.  General  regulations  for  the  management  of 
these  schools  and  the  encouragement  of  pupils  are  made  by 
law  or  by  royal  order.  Among  these  are  the  following : 
Conditions  of  ]?or  admission  to  a  normal  school  applicants  must  unite 
normal  schools,  certain  determinate  conditions  of  age,  character,  conduct, 
health,  and  freedom  from  any  infirmity  incompatible  with 
the  free  exercise  of  instruction.  They  are  to  engage  to  hold 
themselves  at  the  disposition  of  the  government  for  five 
years  after  graduating  from  the  normal  school,  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  engaging  in  instruction.  In  the  “adopted”  schools 
for  boys,  this  condition  is  imposed  only  on  those  who  have 
received  scholarships  at  the  public  expense.  These  schol- 
Schoiarships.  arshipa,  of  200  francs  and  upwards,  are  placed  at  the  dispo- 


Teachers 

meetings. 


Competitive 

examinations. 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN 


243 


sition  of  the  government  each  year  by  the  legislature,  to  be _ 1!KLG™ _ 

given  to  normal- school  pupils  of  slender  pecuniary  resources 
and  of  aptitude  for  teaching.  They  may  be  continued  for  Normal  schools, 
three  years  after  leaving  the  school  to  those  who  have  re¬ 
ceived  the  diploma  and  are  engaged  in  teaching  in  a  com¬ 
munal  school. 

The  course  of  studies  in  these  schools  extends  through,  course  of  stud- 
three  years,  to  which  there  are  three  corresponding  divis¬ 
ions  of  pupils.  The  final  examination  comprises  written, 
oral,  and  practical  tests,  which  bear  upon  the  entire  course. 


In  respect  to  the  ages  of  the  pupils,  primary  instruction  struc£onnary  in' 
has  a  wide  range,  including  the  infant  schools,  kindergar¬ 
ten ,  or  salles  d’asile ,  and  the  schools  for  adults.  The  former  Salles  d'a8lle- 
class  usually  called  in  Belgium  Scales  gardiennes  (guardian  ennfscoles  gardi~ 
schools)  are  established  to  afford  to  poor  children  not  yet 
old  enough  to  be  admitted  into  the  primary  schools  the 
first  notions  of  instruction  and  education.  The  law  does  not 
require  communes  to  establish  these  schools,  but  makes  it 
the  duty  of  government  to  apply  part  of  the  subsidy  voted 
annually  for  primary  instruction  to  encourage  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  guardian  schools,  especially  in  populous  localities 
and  manufacturing  districts. 

The  schools  for  adults  are  particularly  designed  for  work-  atlultsScl,ools  for 
men  who  wish  to  keep  up  or  to  extend  the  instruction  which 
they  began  to  receive  at  the  primary  school,  or  who,  not  hav¬ 
ing  had  the  opportunity  to  attend  the  primary  school  in 
their  youth,  wish  to  acquire  the  knowledge  and  education 
indispensable  to  all  successful  work  in  life.  The  la  w  does 
not  require  the  communes  to  establish  these  schools ;  but  it 
provides  that  a  part  of  the  subsidy  voted  for  primary  in¬ 
struction  shall  be  devoted  to  the  encouragement  of  evening 
schools  and  Sunday  schools  for  adults.  In  order  to  secure 
these  results  the  government  will  insist  in  the  concurrence 
of  the  provinces  and  communes. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  schools  and  of 
pupils  in  them,  respectively,  which  may  be  classed  under 
the  head  of  primary  instruction  : 


Number. 

Kind  of  institution. 

Tupils. 

268 

Infant  schools  (111 coles  gardiennes). 

Communal  (public)  schools .  . 

30,  244 

298 

Private,  submitted  to  inspection* . 

38,  880 

363 

Private,  entirely  freet . 

28,  258 

929 

97,  382 

Table  of  pri¬ 
mary  instruction. 


fdcoles  gardi 
ennes. 


*  See  pages  241-2. 

tit  will  be  seen  that  the  term  “free  ”  means  exemption  from  public  inspection  and 
control. 


244 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


BELGIUM. 


Table  of  pri¬ 
mary  instruc¬ 
tion. 

Primary 

schools. 


Number. 


Kind  of  institution. 


Pupils. 


Primary  schools. 


4,157 

457 

15 

958 


Communal,  including  boys’  and  girls’  schools 

Adopted  schools  ( agreees ) . 

Private,  submitted  to  inspection . 

Private,  entirely  free .  . 


489, 168 
67,  955 
3,  214 
92.  320 


5,587 

Adult  schools.  ~ 


Adult  schools. 


649,  657 


1, 623 
112 
880 


Communal . . 

Private,  submitted  to  inspection. 
Private,  entirely  free . 


66,  979 
7, 688 
130,  006 


2,  615 

Normal  -  ■  ■■ — - 

schools. 

3 

5 

8 

22 


Normal  schools. 


State  normal  schools . 

State  normal  sections  . . 

Adopted  ( agreees )  for  men  . . . 
Adopted  ( agreees )  for  women 


204,  673 


312 

321 

482 

1,300 


38 

Other  primary  ===== 
grade  schools. 

430 

101 

270 


Other  schools  of  primary  grade. 

Charitable  work-schools,  public  and  free . 

Schools  for  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind,  orphan  asylums,  and  reform 

schools . 

Primary  boarding-schools . 


2, 415 

22, 181 

7,144 
16,  535 


801 


45, 860 


Statistics.  Total  number  of  institutions  of  primary  grade .  9,970 

Total  number  of  pupils  of  primary  gracle .  1,  002,  987 


It  will  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  latter  figure  includes 
others  than  children  of  school-age ;  those  in  the  primary 
schools  jiroper,  as  shown  in  the  second  section  of  the  table 
above,  together  with  a  portion  of  those  in  the  last  section 
(fifth)  of  the  table,  say  45,000,  make  up  the  total  of  children 
of  school  age  attending  primary  schools  in  Belgium,  amount¬ 
ing  to  about  694,657. 

Secondary  in-  SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION. 

struct  ion. 

incharge ofthe  Educational  establishments  of  the  secondary  class*  are 

government.  ^ 

immediately  and  solely  in  the  hands  of  the  government. 
This  class  includes  institutions  of  two  grades :  the  higher, 
called  royal  athenaeums,  and  the  lower,  called  secondary 
schools,  ( Ecoles  moyennes.)  There  are  ten  royal  athenaeums 
and  fifty  secondary  schools. 

subsi£ea.ditional  The  ^aw  permits  the  provinces  and  the  communes  to  es¬ 
tablish  or  support  secondary  schools,  and  to  have  the  full 
and  free  administration  of  them.  The  government  is  au¬ 
thorized  to  grant  subsidies  to  these  schools  on  condition 
that  their  programme  be  conformed  to  that  of  the  govern¬ 
ment,  and  that  the  books  used,  the  interior  regulations,  and 
the  accounts  of  receipts  and  expenditures  be  submitted  for 


*  The  term  “intermediate”  ( moyen )  is  applied  in  Belgium  to  this  grade 
of  education,  as  it  stands  between  the  primary  and  the  superior.  It  cor¬ 
responds,  however,  with  what  is  called  in  France  secondary  education. 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


245 


the  approval  of  the  government.  These  provincial  and _ Belgium. 

communal  establishments  are  to  have  an  organization  simi¬ 
lar  to  that  of  the  government  schools,  and  are  to  be  known  8chool8Seconaary 
as  provincial  or  communal  colleges,  or  provincial  or  com¬ 
munal  secondary  schools.  The  provinces,  however,  have 
not  as  yet  undertaken  the  establishment  of  schools  of  this 
grade. 

The  royal  athenaeums  and  state  secondary  schools  receive 
only  boarding-pupils.  The  board  of  burgomasters  and 
municipal  officers  of  the  communes  where  these  institutions 
are  situated  may  arrange  with  individuals  for  the  keeping 
of  the  boarding-houses  annexed  to  them. 

The  direction  of  these  institutions  belongs  to  the  govern-  Governmental 
ment,  which  appoints  the  officers  of  instruction  and  man¬ 
agement,  and  exercises  superintendence  over  them  by  the 
agency  of  inspectors  and  local  bureaus  of  administration.  Local  bureaus. 
The  bureau  gives  advice  upon  the  nomination  of  the  per¬ 
sonnel,  arranges  estimates  of  expenses,  keeps  the  money 
accounts,  and  performs  various  other  advisory  duties.  The 
personnel  is  divided  into  the  administrative  branch — the  sec-  Personnel, 
retary,  treasurer,  directors  of  study,  and  overseers;  and 
the  teaching  branch,  prefect  of  studies  and  professors  in 
the  athenaeum — directors,  regents,  and  teachers  in  the  sec¬ 
ondary  schools. 

No  one  can  be  appointed  member  of  the  teaching  corps  of  Qualifications 
in  an  athenaeum  or  in  a  communal  college  unless  he  is  pro¬ 
vided  with  the  diploma  of  professor  agrege  of  secondary 
instruction  of  the  higher  grade.  No  one  can  be  director  or  Directors  and 

°  Regents. 

regent  of  a  secondary  school  unless  he  has  the  diploma  of 
professor  agrege  of  secondary  instruction  of  the  lower 
grade.  Exception  is  made  only  in  favor  of  doctors  of  phi¬ 
losophy  and  letters  and  doctors  of  science. 

The  city  or  commune  where  an  athenaeum  or  secondary  Provision  &r 

i  -|  •  *i  ...  _  „  .  school  buildings. 

school  is  established  furnishes  the  buildings  and  furniture 
and  provides  for  keeping  them  in  order.  For  the  athe¬ 
naeum,  it  contributes,  moreover,  to  the  expenses  by  a  subven-  Subventions, 
tion,  which  is  not  to  be  less  than  a  third  of  the  entire  ex¬ 
pense.  For  the  secondary  school,  it  may  in  case  of  need  af¬ 
ford  a  subvention,  which  is  not  to  exceed  the  third  without 
its  free  consent. 

There  are  in  each  athenaeum  two  courses :  lhat  of  the  hu-  Athenaeum 
inanities  and  the  professional  course.  The  law  permits  as courses' 
an  annex  to  the  secondary  school  a  preparatory  section,  in 
which  are  taught  the  matters  regularly  belonging  to  the 
primary  school.  council  on 

A  council  of  improvement  ( perfectionnement )  is  charged  }££k8  an<1  8totl 


246 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Belgium.  with  the  duty  of  giving  its  advice  upon  the  programme  of 
studies,  of  examining  the  books  to  be  used  or  given  as 
prizes.  It  proposes  the  instructions  to  be  given  to  inspect¬ 
ors,  takes  cognizance  of  their  reports,  and  deliberates  upon 
all  the  objects  which  concern  the  progress  of  studies. 

Competitive  Each  year  there  is  established  at  the  expense  of  the  State 
a  general  competitive  examination,  participation  in  which 
is  obligatory  upon  all  institutions  subjected  to  the  inspec¬ 
tions  required  by  law,  and  optional  for  others. 

institutions  of  Many  other  institutions,  usually  of  science  applied  to  in¬ 
science  an<l  in-  '  . 

<i»stry.  dustry  and  the  arts,  naturally  come  into  this  grade,  if  we 

are  to  recognize  only  the  three  official  grades  of  primary, 
secondary,  and  superior. 

A  more  particular  description  of  those  establishments 
need  not  be  given  here,  as  they  correspond  very  nearly 
to  similar  institutions  of  France,  already  described. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  institutions  of 
the  secondary  grade,  with  the  attendance  in  them  respect¬ 
ively,  as  gathered  from  the  latest  official  reports  available  : 


Table  of  V; 
secondary  insti- 
tntions.  g 

a 
ft 


Kind  of  institution. 


Secondary  instruction. 


Athenaeums  10 
and  colleges.  17 


18 

11 

96 


State  royal  athenaeums . 

Communal  colleges  . . . 

Colleges  under  patrons . 

Colleges,  free,  founded  by  bishops . 

Colleges,  free,  founded  by  religious  corporations 
Colleges,  free  and  lay  (not  controlled  by  church) 


3,  679 
1,543 
1, 432 

8, 290 
1,860 

16,  804 


Secondary  50 
schools.  17 

8 
8 
10 
9 

102 

Normal  schools. 


State  secondary  schools . 

Communal  secondary  schools  . 

Secondary  schools  under  patrons  . . 

Freo  institutions  founded  by  bishops . 

Free  institutions  founded  by  religious  corporations 
Free  institutions,  lay  (not  controlled  by  church)  . . . 


Secondary  normal  schools. 


9,  857 
3, 521 
974 

3,  338 
1, 719 

19,  409 


2  State  normal  schools 
2  State  normal  sections 


4 


27 

18 

40 


Scientific 
and  industrial 
schools.  1 

31 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 
2 

180 


220 


Applied  science  and  industrial  instruction. 


Provincial  School  of  Commerce,  Industry,  and  Mines  (Hainaut) . 

Industrial  schools  subsidied  by  State  . . . . 

Commercial  Institute  (Antwerp)  . . . . 

State  schools  of  navigation . 

Elementary  course  (communal)  of  navigation  (Nieuport) . 

Agricultural  Institute  (G-embloux) .  . 

School  of  Veterinary  Medicine . 

Schools  of  horticulture  and  arboriculture  . . . 

Communes  where  conferences  are  given  on  agriculture,  horticulture, 
vegetable  gardening,  zoology,  and  farriery . 


119 
7,  559 
136 
51 
20 
53 
78 
67 

18, 663 


26, 736 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


247 


Number.  1 

Kind  of  institution. 

,  DELGIUM. 

"fl  © 

©  © 

S  g 

Art  instruction . 

_ 

Art  schools. 

76 

Academies  and  schools  of  fine  arts  or  drawing  (subsidized)  . . 

9,  992 

24 

Academies  entirely  free . 

3,  300 

71 

Conservatories  or  schools  of  music . . 

6,  955 

145 

Free  institutes  of  music . 

14,  600 

316 

34,  847 

The  educational  establishments  above  given  exclude  what 
properly  belongs  to  superior  education.  They  also  probably 
fail  to  embrace  all  that  might  be  considered  as  a  part  of  the 
actual  educational  work  within  the  limits  of  the  secondary 
grade. 

We  can  only  sum  up  in  the  most  general  terms,  or  rather 
we  must  consider  the  figures  we  arrive  at  in  this  way,  as 
showing  the  minimum  number  of  schools  and  attendants  of 
this  grade. 


Whole  number  of  institutions  of  secondary  grade .  . .  738  Statistics. 

Whole  number  of  attendants . .  97,  841 


This  presentation  of  the  educational  state  of  Belgium  in  Movement  for 
the  two  lower  grades  is,  of  necessity,  made  up  largely  of  ma-  tiou  not  very  Pro- 
terials  which  appeared  at  the  Exposition.  It  is  evident  that, 
however  much  the  government  desire  to  promote  the  educa¬ 
tion  of  the  people,  the  popular  movement  for  the  general  dif¬ 
fusing  of  education  has  not  yet  gained  the  decision  and  force 
which  it  has  in  France  and  England  and  many  other  Euro 
pean  countries  within  theTast  ten  years. 

Belgium  is,  however,  very  susceptible  to  the  influence  of  Probable  influ 
France,  and  we  cannot  doubt  that  the  spirit  now  effecting  progressive  spir- 
such  marvelous  changes  in  that  country  will  soon  demand  a 
new  common  school  system  for  Belgium. 

THE  NETHERLANDS.  Netherlands. 

In  this  country,  as  in  most  others  of  the  Old  World,  we  see  Education 

.  .  1  spreading  from 

education  diffusing  itself  by  descent  from  higher  to  lower,  above  downward. 
The  present  movement  is  toward  popular  education.  The 
aim  seems  to  be  to  reach  as  many  as  possible,  rather  than,  as 
h  eretofore,  to  reach  as  high  as  possible  for  the  few.  Education, 
therefore,  is  spreading  downwards  in  Holland,  and  has  not 
as  yet  reached  the  lower  classes.  In  the  rural  districts,  one-  illiteracy, 
fourth  of  the  grown-up  men  and  one-third  of  the  women  can 
neither  read  nor  write. 

The  year  1848  was  an  epoch  in  the  organization  of  in-  Epoch  of  1848 
struction  in  the  Netherlands.  The  new  constitution,  adopted 


248 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Netherlands.  jn  that  year,  proclaimed,  among  other  things,  u  the  liberty 
of  teaching.”  Among  the  principles  there  enunciated  are 
the  following : 

Principles  an-  “  Public  instruction  shall  be  the  object  of  the  constant  care  of  the 
nonnced  m  1848. 

government. 

11  Public  instruction  is  to  be  organized  by  a  law  in  such  manner  as  not 
to  wound  the  religious  convictions  of  any. 

u  There  shall  be  given  throughout  the  kingdom,  under  the  care  of  the 
proper  authority,  a  sufficient  public  instruction. 

“  Instruction  is  free  from  restraint,  except  the  control  of  the  proper 
authority;  and,  with  reference  to  secondary  and  primary  instruction,  ex¬ 
cept  the  guarantees  of  capacity  and  morality ;  all  to  be  regulated  bylaw.” 


Separation  of 
secular  and  sec¬ 
tarian  instruc¬ 
tion. 


Definition  of 
limits  of  second¬ 
ary  and  superior 
instruction. 


Events  follow¬ 
ing  the  political 
changes  of  1813. 


Training  in 
virtue,  without 
dogma. 


Changes  pro¬ 
posed  in  1833. 


The  second  of  these  propositions  proclaims  the  entire  sepa¬ 
ration  between  religious  instruction  of  a  sectarian  and  dog¬ 
matic  character,  and  the  literary  and  scientific  instruction 
properly  belonging  to  the  public  schools.  The  third  propo¬ 
sition  makes  it  the  duty  of  the  proper  authority  to  take  care 
that  there  be  a  sufficient  public  instruction — that  is,  that 
there  be  a  number  of  schools  proportionate  to  the  public 
need — but  it  does  not  say  whether  this  authority  shall  be 
the  State,  the  province,  or  the  commune.  The  fourth  propo¬ 
sition  proclaims  the  liberty  of  teaching,  which  up  to  that 
time  had  only  been  accorded  to  superior  instruction ;  with 
this  restriction,  however,  that  those  who  desire  to  give  pri¬ 
mary  or  secondary  instruction  shall  be  obliged  to  furnish 
guarantees  of  capacity  and  character,  such  as  the  law  may 
determine. 

This  restriction  made  it  necessary  to  fix  x>reciselv  the 
limits  between  secondary  and  superior  instruction.  Many 
other  difficult  questions  remained  to  be  settled  in  putting  the 
principles  of  this  constitution  into  practice.  No  one  of  them 
has  excited  a  livelier  controversy  than  the  religious  ques¬ 
tion. 

From  the  separation  of  this  country  from  Belgium  in  1813, 
the  aim  had  been  to  make  the  public  schools  neutral  in  mat¬ 
ters  of  religion.  They  were  in  fact  open  to  all  children  with¬ 
out  distinction  as  to  religious  opinions.  The  course  of  in¬ 
struction  did  not  embrace  dogmatic  religious  teachings,  but 
was  so  organized  that  the  pupils  should  be  trained  to  the 
exercise  of  all  the  social  and  Christian  virtues.  After  a 
period  of  about  forty  years  the  growing  sentiment  of  relig¬ 
ious  liberty  expressed  itself  in  a  proposed  practical  advance 
in  realizing  the  liberal  principles  expressed  in  the  constitu¬ 
tion.  It  was  proposed  in  1855  to  modify  existing  laws  so 
that  they  should  read  as  follows : 

“The  course  of  instruction  should  tend  to  encourage  moral  and  relig¬ 
ious  ideas  among  the  pupils.  Teachers  should  abstain  from  teaching, 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


249 


doing,  or  tolerating  anything  which  could  wound  the  religious  convic-  Netherlands. 
tions  of  the  churches  or  sects  to  which  the  children  of  the  schools  be¬ 
long.  Religious  education  is  to  he  left  in  the  hands  of  communities, 
which  to  that  end  may  make  use  of  school  premises  outside  of  regular 
school  hours,  but  only  for  those  who  attend  the  schools.” 

A  great  debate  sprung  up  on  this  in  the  legislative  cham-  Debate  on  the 

0  x  0  x  0  propositions  of 

bers;  the  extreme  Protestant  party  maintaining  that  the  1855. 
public  schools  should  be  imbued  with  positive  Christian  prin¬ 
ciples,  and  demanding  that  there  should  be  separate  public 
schools  for  the  different  religious  sects,  and  under  the  con¬ 
trol  of  the  ecclesiastical  authorities.  Others  declared  them¬ 
selves  satisfied  with  the  law  as  it  had  been  before,  which  re¬ 
quired  that  children  should  be  trained  to  all  the  Christian 
virtues  as  one  of  the  principal  ends  of  primary  instruction. 

The  great  majority  of  members  were  of  opinion  that  the  law  Question  as  to 
could  in  no  way  concern  itself  with  religious  teaching,  as  law  with  reii- 
that  was  no  proper  part  of  the  instruction  that  should  be  S10US  tcachmg' 
given  at  the  general  expense.  There  was  danger,  it  was  Dancer  of  pro- 

°  '  pacanuisminsee* 

said,  that  the  schools  would  become  in  the  hands  of  differ-  tarian  schools, 
ent  religious  bodies  instruments  of  propagandism — a  danger 
to  be  avoided  at  any  cost.  The  establishment  of  separate 
public  schools  for  different  sects  was  declared  to  be  contrary 
to  the  spirit  and  the  letter  of  the  constitution,  which  had 
prescribed  that  instruction  should  be  so  organized  as  not  to 
wound  the  religious  convictions  of  any. 

But  it  was  urged  on  the  other  hand  by  the  extreme  Prot-  claims  of  es- 
estants  that  the  proposed  measures  injured  their  religious  ants, 
interests  j  and  a  powerful  party  so  appealed  to  the  govern¬ 
ment  in  remonstrance  that  the  Minister  who  had  brought 
forward  the  measure  resigned  his  office.  His  successor  pro¬ 
posed  a  new  bill,  which,  maintaining  the  same  general  ground 
as  the  other,  made  some  concessions  to  the  complaints  of  the 
petitioners.  The  chief  of  these  was  that,  in  case  of  religious  Proposed  con- 

'  0  cessions 

scruples  of  parents  preventing  the  attendance  of  their  chil¬ 
dren  on  the  public  school,  the  government  would  grant  a 
u  subvention  v  in  aid  of  a  free  school,  if  it  should  appear  that 
the  ground  of  these  complaints  would  be  removed  by  the 
establishment  of  such  a  school. 

In  presenting  this  scheme,  the  government  took  open  Government 
ground  against  the  establishment  of  public  schools  for  dif-  rBn°Sand  favors 
ferent  sects,  and  in  favor  of  the  mixed  school,  neutral,  and  school’s, 
accessible  to  all.  Emphasis  was  also  given  to  the  political 
motive,  as  the  reunion  of  children  in  the  same  school  could 
not  but  strengthen  the  bonds  of  union,  mutual  tolerance,  and 
good  will,  so  necessary  to  the  well-being  of  citizens. 

‘‘The  proper  encl  of  instruction,”  the  Minister  proceeded,  “is  to  de-  Object  of  in- 
velop  the  intellectual  faculties  of  youth,  to  give  them  useful  knowledge,  struction* 


250 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Netherlands,  and  to  cultivate  and  guide  their  affeetional  and  moral  sentiments,  and 
encourage  them  to  virtue  and  piety.  To  secure  the  latter  ends  the  ulti¬ 
mate  resort  must  be  in  religion.  But  what  religion  ?  is  the  question. 
Up  to  what  point  can  we  introduce  religious  principles  into  schools,  and 
how  indicate  the  limits  which  must  not  be  passed?” 

down^by8  the  sdnilar  discussions  are  now  engaging  public  attention 
Minister  of  Pub-  in  this  country,  it  may  be  worth  while  to  present  somewhat 
fully  the  arguments  and  results  in  the  case  of  Holland. 
Three  principles  were  laid  down  by  the  Minister : 
no?bcItau8htuld  The  sc^°°l  is  no^  designed  to  give  religious  instruc¬ 

tion  properly  so  called— that  is,  to  teach  the  dogmas  of  any 
religious  sect. 

Schools  acces-  2d.  It  should  be  accessible  to  children  of  all  religious 
ing  nothing  con-  faiths,  and  should  teach  nothing  contrary  to  these  faiths. 
Sasyof°anyesects  The  teacher  should  respect  them  and  inculcate  upon  the  pu¬ 
pils  the  same  respect,  and  seek  to  inspire  them  with  a  spirit 
of  tolerance. 

Religious  m-  3d.  Whatever  of  the  religious  element  is  brought  to  bear 
fined  to  general  upon  school  instruction,  ought  to  be  as  much  as  possible  m 
m°eSts  oi  agree'  harmony  with  the  religious  opinions  of  the  people. 

Now  the  great  majority  of  the  nation  is  Christian,  either 
Consideration  Protestant  or  Catholic.  The  first,  it  is  true,  are  subdivided 
limits6  nof eSreE  into  many  and  very  different  sects,  but  there  is  a  certain 
public  schoSf.m  profound  sentiment  which  forms  the  basis  of  Christianity, 
and  is  common  to  all  opinions.  All,  whether  Protestant  or 
Catholic,  desire  to  see  instilled  into  children  the  principles 
and  virtues  inculcated  by  the  Christian  religion.  These 
principles  have  their  place  in  the  national  schools ;  but  the 
law  cannot  enter  into  details,  nor  prescribe  for  the  schools 
any  religion  whatever.  Such  prescriptions  would  be  con¬ 
trary  to  the  liberty  of  conscience,  which  ought  to  be  re¬ 
spected  above  all  things.  In  the  opinion  of  the  government, 
these  views  were  perfectly  expressed  by  the  old  law  which 
had  been  in  operation  for  half  a  century,  and  which  was  emi¬ 
nently  satisfactory  because  of  its  wide  liberty  and  exclusion 
of  dogmatic  instruction.  The  inculcation  of  the  Christian 
virtues  upon  children  could  not  be  considered  contrary  to 
the  religious  interests  and  convictions  of  the  Jews,  whose 
children  had  frequented  the  public  schools  without  any  eom- 
Any  change  plaint  having  been  heard.  A  change  from  that  principle 
pie?  ofTS  would  be  a  grievance  to  a  great  and  respectable  part  of  the 
law  deprecated.  naj.jon^  anq  AVould  be  an  injury  moreover  to  the  true  inter¬ 
ests  of  society,  in  exercising  an  unhappy  influence  on  the 
attendance  upon  the  mixed  and  neu  tral  public  school,  which 
for  so  many  years  had  been  the  glory  of  the  country. 

The  bill,  even  with  these  concessions,  was  vigorously  op- 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


251 


posed,  especially  by  the  extreme  Protestants.  The  result  Netherlands. 
was,  however,  that  the  concessions  were  voted  down  an d  8C^8 de^^f 
the  bill  passed  by  a  very  strong  vote,  declaring  that  the  ac’ 

schools  should  be  u  mixed,  neutral,  and  accessible  to  all.” 

During  the  last  twenty  years  the  different  political  par¬ 
ties  have  not  ceased  to  make  the  organization  of  primary 
iustruction  a  point  of  antagonism.  Whatever  good  results 
may  have  been  attained  under  the  law  of  1857,  all  compe¬ 
tent  judges  agree  that  a  farther  revision  of  the  school  laws  .Farther  revi- 

u  0  sion  necessary. 

is  now  necessary.  It  is  chiefly  the  discords  between  different 
political  parties  which  has  retarded  improvements  in  the 
educational  system.  Meantime  a  very  large  proportion  of 
the  children  of  school  age  have  remained  without  instruc¬ 
tion.  To  remedy  this  evil  a  society  was  formed  called  the 
School  League  ( Schoolverbond ),  to  encourage  all  children  to  .  Schooiverund, 

°  '  11  tor  encouraging 

a  regular  attendance  upon  the  schools,  free  as  well  as  public,  attendance. 

It  has  sought  to  attain  this  end  by  purely  persuasive  means, 
without  resorting  to  legislation  to  enforce  attendance,  as  has 
been  successfully  done  in  several  states  of  Germany  and  in 
Switzerland.  But  the  sphere  of  operations  in  that  society 
was  judged  too  restricted,  and  a  new  association  has  been 
recently  founded  under  the  name  of  Popular  Instruction 
(Volksonderwijs),  with  a  wider  sphere  of  action.  It  takes  voUuonderwijs, 

x  ^  /  7  x  for  encouraging 

upon  itself  the  task  of  gaining  adherence  to  the  cause  of  schooirefonnand. 
obligatory  instruction  and  of  reforming  the  school  itself,  ers. 
taking  a  special  interest  in  the  training  of  teachers  and  in 
measures  for  giving  dignity  and  strength  to  their  position. 

This  society  has  gained  a  great  influence,  chiefly  because 
the  numbers  and  ability  of  its  members  have  deeply  inter¬ 
ested  the  people  in  its  efforts.  Its  influence  is  now  strongly 
felt  in  the  body  of  the  States -General,  several  members  of 
which  belonging  to  the  liberal  party  have  lately  succeeded 
in  securing  a  bill  proposing  important  improvements  in  the 
organization  of  public  instruction.  The  result  of  the  late 
elections  strengthening  the  liberal  party  in  the  chambers, 
and  the  formation  of  a  liberal  cabinet  under  the  presidency 
of  M.  Kappeyne  van  de  Coppello,  as  Minister  of  the  lute-  Hopeful  Pros- 
rior,  give  the  friends  of  the  new  education  a  guarantee  of pec  s‘ 
success. 


PRIMARY  EDUCATION .  Primary  educa¬ 

tion. 

Primary  education  is  divided  into  elementary  and  stipe-  Elementary 
rior.  The  first  comprises,  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  the and  superior' 
elements  of  the  Dutch  language,  of  history  and  geography, 
the  intuitive  teaching  of  geometrical  forms,  some  notions  of 
the  natural  sciences,  and  singing.  Superior  primary  in¬ 
struction  embraces  the  elements  of  the  modern  languages, 


Courses  of  stud¬ 
ies. 


252  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

NETHERLANDS.  mathematics,  agriculture,  gymnastics,  drawing,  and,  in  girls’ 
schools,  needlework.  The  government  did  not  intend  to 
Courses  of  stud-  admit  the  foreign  languages  into  the  courses  of  primary 
schools.  primarj  instruction,  hut  wished  to  bring  these  into  the  courses  of 
secondary  instruction;  the  legislative  chambers,  however, 
adopted  an  amendment  placing  the  elements  of  these  lan¬ 
guages  in  the  curriculum  of  superior  primary  instruction. 

The  same  distinctions  between  public  and  private  (or  free) 
schools  exist  in  Holland  as  in  the  other  countries  we  have 
noticed.  The  free  schools  are  subsidized  by  the  commune  or 
province  on  compliance  with  certain  prescribed  conditions. 

Official  control  The  control  of  primary  schools,  both  public  and  free,  is 
exercised — 

1st.  By  local  commissions  named  by  the  commune  and 
council. 

2d.  By  district  inspectors. 

3d.  By  provincial  inspectors. 

Districts  and  The  kingdom  is  divided  into  95  school  districts.  District 
ors.  inspectors  are  appointed  by  the  King  for  the  term  of  six 

years.  They  serve  without  pay,  but  are  reimbursed  for 
their  actual  expenses.  They  are  to  visit  at  least  twice  a 
year  all  the  schools  of  their  district.  They  are  charged 
with  the  control  of  the  school-houses  in  a  hygienic  point  of 
view,  and  can  close  them  if  their  sanitary  condition  is  not 
good  or  they  are  too  small  for  the  average  attendance. 

Provincial  in-  The  provincial  inspectors  have  a  fixed  salary.  Their  office 

spectors. 

and  traveling  expenses  are  also  paid.  They  are  interme¬ 
diary  between  the  district  inspectors  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  provincial  and  central  administration  on  the  other. 
They  advise  the  Minister  of  the  Interior  in  whatever  relates 
to  primary  instruction,  and  form  with  him  a  superior  council 
which  meets  at  least  once  a  year. 

The  following  table  indicates  for  each  one  of  the  eleven 
provinces  the  number  of  primary  schools  of  different  cate¬ 
gories  at  the  end  of  the  year  187G,  drawn  from  the  most 
recent  returns  as  presented  in  the  report  of  Dr.  Steyn  Parv6, 
Inspector  of  Secondary  Instruction : 


Table  of  primary  schools,  public  and  free. 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


253 


•siooqos 

£recnijd  {T?J9uo£> 

IllSSlflllS 

3, 821 

•SpOT[OS  00.IJ  XT310X 

1, 116 

Free  schools. 

Not  subventioned. 

•pazipis 
-qua  xou  [c;ox 

§igjg§832:s$3®8 

1 

•joi.iedng 

SSlgSSSS^SS 

i 

•£it?}U0oi0ig; 

1 

Subventioned. 

"pozip 

-isqns  ‘xci°X 

S£25^t-Soco'° 

a 

•joxiodug 

3 

•.£iTJXU0uiexg; 

H  O  ;  CO  rH  •  •  CO  rH  •  • 

s 

Public  schools. 

•onqndiup)! 

'3B823*iaS3S 

2,705 

•jotjodng 

gSSgSSgSS09® 

1 

•jCjt3XU9moI5E 

asgss^isass 

2, 197 

,9 

"> 

? 


Ph 


NETHERLANDS. 


Table  of  prima¬ 
ry  schools:  pub¬ 
lic  and  free. 


254 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  J878. 


NETHEHLANDS. 


Proportion 


Jficole 


Among  the  2,705  public  schools  which  appear  in  this  ta¬ 
ble,  508  are  primary  superior.  In  order  to  understand  this, 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  law  requiring  that  thein- 
ofstructionin  all  public  schools  shall  embrace  the  branches  of 
elementary  instruction  permits  the  addition,  when  occasion 
requires,  of  one  or  more  branches  of  suyierior  primary  in¬ 
struction.  Hence  these  schools  have  the  double  character 
of  elementary  and  superior  primary  schools.  This  is  not 
the  case  in  the  free  schools.  In  the  greater  part  of  the 
1,116  schools  reported  in  this  table,  and  in  nearly  all  the  677 
free  superior  primary  schools,  many  branches  of  elementary 
primary  instruction  are  not  taught  at  all. 

At  the  end  of  the  year  1876  there  were  only  14  small 
communes  which  had  no  public  school.  As  the  law  permits 
two  or  three  communes  to  unite  to  form  what  is  called  a 
“common”  school  ( ccole  commune ),  several  villages  have  or¬ 
ganized  such  schools  according  to  their  convenience.  In 
such  cases  agreements  are  made  by  the  several  communes 
as  to  the  terms  on  which  the  schools  should  be  supported. 
Usually  the  tuition  fees  are  higher  for  non  resident  than 
for  resident  children.  Poor  children  are  admitted  at  the 
expense  of  the  communes  where  they  reside.  There  were 
62  of  such  neighborhood  school  administrations  in  1876. 

In  respect  to  the  free  schools  not  receiving  subsidies,  there 
are  several  classes  as  to  character  and  courses  of  instruc¬ 
tion.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  present  here  the  table  given 
by  Hr.  Farve  in  his  report. 


Table  of  free  schools  not  subsidized . 


Table  of  free 
schools  not  sub¬ 
sidized. 

Provinces. 

Schools  founded 
by  an  oratory 
( diaconie )  or  in  a 
house  of  charity. 

Schools  established  by  con¬ 
gregations  or  religious  as¬ 
sociations. 

Schools  strictly  private. 

|  Schools  not  in  either  class. 

Total  free  schools  not  subsi¬ 
dized. 

Reformed. 

Catholic. 

Jews. 

Reformed. 

Catholic. 

Jew. 

Association  for 
Christian  in¬ 
struction. 

Others. 

Religious  or¬ 
ders. 

Others. 

Urn, limit  . 

1 

2 

6 

7 

96 

6 

1 

20 

1 

140 

Guelders 

2 

2 

29 

21 

23 

17 

1 

33 

6 

134 

South  Ilolland _ 

13 

8 

31 

7 

27 

26 

1 

78 

4 

195 

North  Holland  . . . 

10 

3 

3 

7 

11 

12 

17 

117 

6 

192 

Zealand 

4 

12 

9 

3 

2 

2 

32 

TJtrecht  . 

9 

3 

4 

5 

7 

14 

25 

1 

68 

TiYipsIfinrl 

3 

2 

56 

5 

2 

5 

i 

74 

Overvssel . 

1 

10 

3 

7 

8 

3 

4 

36 

Groningen 

1 

1 

25 

7 

1 

8 

43 

Drenthe 

7 

1 

8 

Limbourg . 

1 

2 

1 

43 

2 

.... 

10 

”i' 

60 

Total  . 

47 

23 

3 

179 

79 

227 

106 

4 

289 

25 

982 

r 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN.  255 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  the  fourth  column  of  this  table  Netherlands. 
there  is  quite  a  number  of  schools  founded  by  the  “  Asso¬ 
ciation  for  National  Christian  Instruction.”  This  society 
may  be  considered  as  representing  the  extreme  Protestant  Extreme  Prot- 

.  °  .  estant  schools. 

party.  Its  professed  object  is  to  protest  against  the  princi¬ 
ple  of  the  neutral  school  which  excludes  religious  instruc¬ 
tion. 

Various  abstracts  can  be  drawn  from  this  table  as  to  the 
centers  of  religious  teaching,  which  need  not  be  here  pre¬ 
sented. 

In  the  ninth  column  289  schools  are  brought  under  the  sc|^r(j^1yPrivate 
head  of  “Strictly  private.”  This  means  that  they  are  sup¬ 
ported  by  the  teachers  alone,  with  no  other  aid  than  tuition 
fees.  It  is  impossible  to  determine  whether  they  are  at¬ 
tended  by  any  particular  class  of  pupils.  Probably  they 
are  not  confined  to  any  religious  sect,  or  any  special  rank  or 
class  in  society. 

The  25  schools  reported  as  not  belonging  to  any  of  the 
classes  before  named,  are  schools  established  by  the  “  Soci¬ 
ety  for  the  Public  Good,”  which  is  an  association  having  in 
view  the  well-being  of  the  schools  without  regard  to  their 
religious  character. 

Although  school  attendance  has  increased  largely  within  Attendance, 
the  last  ten  years,  it  is  still  far  below  what  it  ought  to  be. 

Whatever  special  reasons  maybe  given  for  this,  it  certainly 
shows  a  lack  of  proper  interest  on  the  part  of  parents,  and 
this  is  owing  in  large  measure  to  the  fact  that  the  parents 
themselves  received  an  insufficient  education  in  their  youth. 

Among  the  material  reasons  for  the  detention  of  children  Seasons  for 

°  .  non-attcndancc. 

from  school  are  doubtless  domestic  need  and  poverty.  In 
the  country,  children  are  required  to  work  in  the  fields,  and 
those  who  cannot  work  are  often  required  to  relieve  their 
parents  by  caring  for  the  smaller  ones  at  home.  Many 
cases  also  are  reported  where  parents  are  too  poor  to  pro¬ 
vide  their  children  with  suitable  clothing.  Such  classes  can 
only  be  relieved  by  social  reforms.  In  the  larger  towns 
there  has  been  a  disposition  to  multiply  the  number  of  pre¬ 
paratory  schools  and  guardian  schools  for  the  care  and  cul: 
ture  of  the  children  below  school  age.  In  the  manufactur¬ 
ing  towns  many  children  were  formerly  employed  in  fac¬ 
tories.  The  law  of  1874  prohibiting  the  employment  in  fac- 
tories  of  children  below  the  age  of  12  years  has  had  consid¬ 
erable  effect  on  the  school  attendance  of  the  towns.  No 
such  measure  seems  feasible  in  regard  to  rural  populations. 


256 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878 


NETHERLANDS. 


Table  of  at¬ 
tendance  in  pri¬ 
mary  schools  in 
1876. 


So 

rH 

.§ 


! 

i 

i 


Total  of  schools,  public  and 
free. 

Total. 

OOOOJOtjOiHiOOCOM 

OQ?ihQtJ100OI>^W 

to  tcf  o'  t>-~ of  cT  o'  t>-~  o'  cT 

lOOOOOCClCvJlOCOCOrHCO 

515, 135 

437, 259 

466, 779 

|  Girls. 

HNiCHOffKMHMOM 

lO  (N  !N  O  O  b-  lO  GO  t>  t>  lO 

in  of  no  co  cf  o'co'd'h-VTf 

C^(N^ifOHHCMHH  rH 

241,805 

CO 
©  1 
S  I 

216,853 

Boys. 

|H  t-  c;.  ^  CO  O  io  CO  (M  o 
iO  CO  CC  '(-1  t>  CO  H  Q  L'- 

of  co  cTcT  vS  r-T  i>  cT  of  oo  10 

WCO^trrHHNHn  rH 

273,330 

00  I 
00  1 

1  © 
<M  1 
CO 

249, 926 

Total  of  free  schools. 

Total. 

HHHOOCCOOCOOCOHO 

OOCOtt^H^HOCOCO 

COHlOHi^COOiOQON 

cQi&cn^cocQooiGvOr-it^ 

HHN(M 

127,  258 

92,  073 

KO 

o 

CO 

o' 

o 

Girls. 

OOCOM(M^lOC5t>COCON 

HMt-ClCCC3QHO(MCO 

HWHiHXiOOiOOCOiO'H 

CO"  00~  of  rH  rjT  CO  cf  cf  lO 

70,257 

50,  603 

o 

CO 

uo 

of 

o 

Boys. 

COXOOCOO.COt^CONHCJ 
CO  l>  lO  lO  CO  N  l>  O  CO  H  C5 
HL^O(NOOCIOCDOiOt> 

1C  O  ^  of  rH  Th  TjT  ©f  co"  rH 

57,001 

41,  470 

47, 075 

Free  schools  not  sub¬ 
sidized. 

Total. 

17,  817 
18, 280 
28, 192 
23,  372 

3,  587 
8,  409 
8,  439 

4,  989 

5,  516 
897 

6,  575 

121, 023 

85,  816 

99, 861 

Girls. 

ssaggiisssg 

67,  048 

47,  618 

56,  083 

Boys. 

ISlfgsfllll 

^Mrjn^-^NN  r-T 

»o 

S 

s 

861  ‘88 

43,  778 

Free  schools  subsidized. 

Total. 

ISliSlSSSsI 

n  rH 

1 

o~ 

a 

50 

6,  744 

Girls. 

Sga8®SWS 

1 

OS' 

1 

<N 

3, 447 

Boys. 

!3sl£SnII-  ! 

3,026 

3,272 

3,  297 

Public  schools. 

Total. 

§!s§s's's3tai2s 

£ 

§ 

345,186 

360, 174 

Girls. 

12,  423 
20,  919 
30,  822 
25,  819 
10,  632 
6,  187 
19,  543 
14,024 
14,887 
7,186 
9, 106 

8 

rH 

149,768 

157,  323 

Boys. 

21,  336 
26,  898 
35,  836 
29,  883 
13,  592 
7,484 
22.775 
16,461 
16,  950 
8,213 
13,901 

216,329 

195,418 

202,  851 

! 

5 

Brabant . 

Guelders . . 

South  Holland . 

North  Holland . 

Zealand . 

Utrecht . 

Friesland . 

Obervssel . . 

Groningen . . 

Drenthe . 

Limbourg . 

Total  for  the  year  1866  .... 

Total  for  the  year  1870  .... 

I 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


257 


NETHERLANDS. 


Tlie  figures  given  in  the  foregoing  tables  (pages  253-6) 
have  reference  only  to  clay  schools.  The  number  of  pupils 
in  the  evening  schools  and  in  the  adult  schools  diminishes,  aduifsc1iooilan<i 
of  course,  with  the  improvement  of  the  educational  and 
social  systems.  The  following  table  will  show  the  numbers 
in  the  evening  schools  at  three  periods  within  twenty 
years : 

Pupils  in  evening  schools. 


Tears. 


1858 

1870 

1876 


Boys. 

Girls. 

19, 968 
18,  289 
15, 487 

8,  271 

6,  823 
4,  795 

Total. 

_  Attendance  at 

28  239  eveninS  schools. 
25, 112 
19,  882 


The  falling  off  in  numbers  was  more  marked  in  free 
schools  than  in  public ;  the  latter  showing  for  the  year  1858, 
74  per  cent. ;  for  1870,  79.5  per  cent.,  and  for  1876,  82  per 
cent,  of  the  total  number  in  attendance.  The  number  of 
attendants  on  the  adult  schools  is  comparatively  small.  The 
distribution  is  shown  in  the  brief  table  following : 

Pupils  of  adult  schools. 


Tears. 

Schools. 

Pupils. 

Pupils. 

Public. 

Tree. 

Public. 

Tree. 

Men. 

Women. 

1862 . 

39 

137 

2,  566 
3, 437 

7,  932 

5,  759 

6,  076 

4,  739 
4,  335 

1876  . . 

91 

104 

6,  974 

Attendance  at 
adult  schools. 


Diplomas. 


Teachers. 

The  law  recognizes  two  classes  of  teachers :  teachers  in  Teachers, 
chief  and  assistant  teachers.  The  diplomas  of  these  grades 
are  obtained  upon  examinations  which  are  held  twice  a  year 
in  each  one  of  the  11  provinces  of  the  kingdom,  before 
commissions  composed  of  the  provincial  inspector  and  four 
district  inspectors.  Assistant  teachers  are  to  be  not  less 
than  18  years  of  age,  and  principals  not  less  than  23. 

Young  people  of  either  sex,  however,  may  be  permitted  to 
give  subordinate  instruction  under  the  title  of  “pupil- 
teachers,”  as  in  the  case  of  the  eleves  maitres  in  France. 

No  one  can  be  put  at  the  head  of  a  school,  public  or  free, 
unless  he  lias  the  diploma  of  principal.  In  places,  how¬ 
ever,  where  the  territory  of  a  commune  is  extensive  and 
the  population  sparse,  and  where  for  this  reason  the  num¬ 
ber  of  schools  is  greater  in  proportion  to  the  population 
than  in  other  communes,  it  is  allowable  to  put  the  schools 
in  charge  of  an  assistant  teacher.  The  salary  in  this  case 
is  made  less  than  the  minimum  of  a  principal  teacher. 

17  PR 


Qualifications. 


Principals. 


258  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

Netherlands.  Teachers  of  the  public  schools  are  appointed  by  the  com- 
Modo  of  umnal  council.  For  principals  a  competitive  examination 
tSchers061111  °fis  required,  which  is  held  under  the  direction  of  the  dis¬ 
trict  inspector,  in  the  presence  of  the  municipal  council  and 
the  local  school  board. 

Proportion  of  The  law  specifies  the  minimum  of  teachers  for  the  public 
ara.  schools.  If  the  number  of  pupils  exceeds  70  the  teacher  has 

a  pupil  assistant ;  if  it  exceeds  100  he  has  an  assistant  teacher. 
For  every  50  pupils  the  corps  of  instructors  is  increased  by 
one  pupil  assistant ;  for  every  100,  by  an  assistant  teacher. 

The  following  table  shows  the  average  number  of  teachers 
for  a  school,  and  the  average  number  of  pupils  for  a  teacher : 


Table  of  num¬ 
ber  of  teachers  to 
a  school;  and  of 
pupils  to  a  teach¬ 
er. 


Provinces. 

Average  number 
of  teachers  to 
a  school. 

Average  number 
of  pupils  to  a 
teacher. 

Public  schools. 

Free  schools. 

All  primary 

schools. 

Public  schools. 

Free  schools. 

All  primary 

schools. 

Brabant . . . 

1.9 

4.0 

2.6 

60 

30 

45 

Guelders . 

2.6 

3.2 

2.8 

57 

27 

46 

South  Holland . 

4.9 

5.0 

4.9 

38 

28 

34 

North  Holland . 

4.2 

5.3 

4.6 

39 

22 

31 

Zealand . . 

3.0 

2.9 

2.9 

54 

40 

51 

Utrecht . . . 

3.5 

4.0 

3.7 

46 

27 

36 

Friesland . 

2.5 

2.4 

2.5 

47 

45 

46 

Overyssel . 

2.8 

2.8 

2.8 

52 

38 

49 

Groningen . 

2.4 

2.3 

2.4 

56 

49 

55 

Dienthe  . 

1.7 

2.2 

1.7 

62 

42 

60 

Limbourg . 

2.  5 

4.  G 

3.0 

53 

24 

41 

Averages . 

3.0 

3.5 

3.8 

51 

33 

45 

Salaries  of 
•teachers. 


Pensions. 


Salaries  of  teachers. 

The  salary  of  principals  cannot  be  less  than  400  florins. 
They  have  also  the  free  use  of  a  convenient  dwelling-house, 
provided  with  a  garden.  If  this  is  not  furnished  they  receive 
pecuniary  compensation.  The  minimum  salary  of  an  assist¬ 
ant  is  200  florins ;  that  of  a  pupil  teacher  25  florins.  These 
salaries  may  be  increased  by  the  fees  of  evening  schools  and 
of  other  extra  instruction  and  services,  so  that  a  principal 
may  receive  1,000  and  even  2,000  florins,  an  assistant  from 
500  to  1,000,  and  a  candidate  (pupil  teacher)  from  75  to  100 
florins  a  year. 

Pensions. 

The  teachers  of  communal  schools  in  Holland  have  a  right 
to  a  retired  pension  at  the  age  of  65  years,  and  after  40  years 
of  service ;  or,  if  they  have  been  retired  by  reason  of  sick¬ 
ness,  after  10  years  of  service.  The  pension  amounts  for 
each  year  of  service  to  a  sixtieth  part  of  the  salary  paid 
during  the  last  year  of  service,  but  cannot  exceed  two-thirds 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


259 


of  that^salary.  Teachers  are  obliged  to  deposit  annually  Netherlands. 

2  per  cent,  of  their  salary  in  the  general  treasury,  to  the 
credit  of  the  pension  fund.  The  State  pays  the  pension  out 
of  the  general  treasury,  but  is  reimbursed  by  the  communes 
to  the  extent  of  one-third. 

Normal  schools.  Normal  schools. 

As  one  of  the  natural  accompaniments  of  the  low  state  of 
public  primary  instruction  was  the  absence  of  competent 
teachers,  one  of  the  first  measures  adopted  in  the  reforma¬ 
tory  law  of  1857  was  the  establishment  of  three  normal 
schools  for  the  training  of  teachers  of  the  primary  grade. 

Each  normal  school  was  to  be  placed  under  the  charge  of  Regulations, 
a  director,  who  should  at  the  same  time  take  some  part  in 
the  pedagogical  instruction.  The  number  of  other  teachers 
was  to  be  regulated  by  circumstances.  These  schools  were 
not  to  be  conducted  on  the  dormitory,  or  boarding,  system. 

The  old  normal  school  of  Harlem  was  taken  as  a  good  model 
in  this  regard,  where  the  pupils  were  placed  in  good  families 
in  the  ci  ty  at  the  expense  of  the  State.  The  number  of  pupils, 
who  were  to  be  not  less  than  14  years  of  age,  was  provision¬ 
ally  fixed  at  40  for  each  school,  not  including  those  who,  en¬ 
gaged  as  pupil  teachers  (or  apprentice  teachers,  if  we  may 
venture  on  that  phrase)  in  the  schools  of  the  city,  might 
still  spend  a  portion  of  their  time  profitably  in  the  normal 
school.  A  primary  school  was  to  be  connected  with  each  of  Primary  schools 

.  .  connected  thcre- 

the  normal  schools,  to  enable  the  pupils  to  practice  the  prm-with. 
ciples  and  methods  learned  in  the  normal  schools. 

These  schools  were  opened  at  Bois-le-Duc  and  Groningen  BoislejJuy0lsof 
in  18GI,  and  at  Harlem  in  18G2.  The  number  of  applicants  Groningen,  ’ 
was  so  great  that  only  a  fiftieth  could  be  admitted.  In  the 
following  year  a  special  course  was  added  in  the  school  at 
Groningen  for  the  training  of  those  wlio  already  had  re-  „ 

°  °  Course  for  tram- 

ceived  the  diploma  of  assistant  teacher,  and  wished  to  pre-  principals, 
pare  for  the  examination  for  principal.  The  course  of  in¬ 
struction  in  this  school  may  best  be  exhibited  in  the  table 
(given  below)  which  will  show  the  number  of  hours  a  week 
devoted  to  each  branch  of  study. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  first  part  of  this  table  comprises  Explanation  of 

table  following. 

the  branches  of  primary  elementary  instruction,  together 
with  pedagogy  and  gymnastic  exercises.  The  second  part 
embraces  some  branches  of  superior  primary  instruction, 
intended  to  develop  the  intelligence  and  enlarge  the  men¬ 
tal  horizon  of  the  pupils,  than  to  prepare  them  for  any 
special  examination.  The  branches  indicated  in  the  last 


260 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


NETHERLANDS. 


last  line,  however,  indicate  real  and  substantial  work  most 
important  for  teachers  of  youth. 

Course  of  study  in  normal  schools  (  Groningen  type). 


Table  of  course 
of  study  in  nor¬ 
mal  schools. 


Branches  of  study. 


Writing - : . 

Arithmetic  .  . 

Geometric  forms . 

Dutch  language,  reading,  grammar,  and  style  . 

Geography . . 

National  history . 

Universal  history  . 

Elements  of  the  physical  and  natural  sciences . 

Singing  and  music _ .* . 

Pedagogy . . 

Gymnastics . 

Drawing . . . 

Mathematics .  . 

French  language . 

German  language  . 

Horticulture .  . . 

Anatomy,  physiology,  and  hygiene . 


Number  of  hours  given 
each  week. 


First  year. 

Second  year. 

Third  year. 

Fourth  year. 

Course  for 

principals,  j 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

7 

8 

4 

7 

6 

4 

4 

4 

3 

3 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

.... 

1 

2 

2 

2 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

The  government  decided,  in  1877,  to  establish  three  more 


Normal  schools  normal  schools — one  at  Middlebourg,  one  at  Deventer,  and 

of  Middlebourg,  07 

D6venter, 

Nymegen. 


Normal  schools 
for  women  and 
girls. 


Normal  cour¬ 
ses  in  primary 
schools. 


Special  courses 
by  principals. 


one  for  women  at  Nymegen.  ITj)  to  this  period  the  govern¬ 
ment  had  not  interested  itself  in  the  training  of  women  as 
teachers  in  the  normal  schools,  except  in  the  way  of  grant¬ 
ing  some  subsidies  to  certain  independent  establishments. 
These  are  normal  schools  established  by  the  society  before 
spoken  of  as  the  ‘‘Association  for  the  Public  Good”  ( Maats - 
chappij  tot  Nut  van 't  Algcmcen)  at  Arnhem,  Harlem,  and 
Groningen.  The  former  had,  at  the  close  of  1877,  108  pu¬ 
pils  ;  the  school  at  Harlem  75;  and  that  at  Groningen  (estab¬ 
lished  only  a  year)  22  pupils.  A  few  scholarships  are  also 
granted  by  the  government  to  girls  who  desire  to  pursue 
their  normal  education  further  in  courses  which  are  given 
at  Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam. 

To  facilitate  as  much  as  possible  a  supply  of  suitable  teach¬ 
ers,  the  government  attaches  normal  courses  to  some  of  the 
primary  schools  which  are  distinguished  for  excellence.  The 
number  of  these  is  constantly  increasing.  At  the  last  re¬ 
turns  there  were  32  of  these  courses  for  pupil-teachers,  or 
“apprentice-teachers,”  and  44  for  assistant  teachers.  They 
were  established  in  57  different  communes,  and  were  attended 
by  097  young  men  and  298  young  women  as  pupil-teachers, 
and  549  men  and  69  women  as  assistant  teachers.  Another 
and  very  interesting  feature  of  the  method  of  training  for 
teachers  is  in  the  appointment  by  the  government  of  a  large 
number  of  principals  (teachers -in-cliief)  to  give  special  courses, 


/ 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain.  261 

which  may  be  attended  not  only  by  the  pupil-teachers  of  the  Netherlands. 
school,  but  by  members  of  neighboring  schools,  either  public 
or  free.  The  last  reports  showed  G6  of  these  courses,  with 
an  attendance  of  GG5  young  men  and  88  young  women.  Some 
of  these  pupils  receive  25  or  30  florins  a  year  to  enable  them 
to  procure  the  necessary  books. 

There  are,  moreover,  some  institutions  not  coming  under 
the  system  authorized  by  recent  laws  and  gradually  yield¬ 
ing  to  the  new,  which  still  aid  in  this  useful  work  of  pre¬ 
paring  teachers  for  the  primary  schools.  Several  such  schools 
are  maintained  by  private  individuals  and  societies,  and  have 
a  high  reputation. 

Taking  all  the  normal  courses  together,  we  find,  by  the  mSschoSsf  no1" 
latest  reports,  a  total  of  4,170  normal  pupils  in  Holland,  of 
whom  3,077  are  young  men  and  1,093  young  women. 

School  buildings  and  furniture . 

There  is  an  increasing  interest  in  the  material  conditions  inland  fuml 
of  the  primary  schools  of  Holland.  Much  attention  is  now tuie' 
given  to  the  construction  of  buildings  and  to  the  apparatus 
for  ventilation  and  heating,  as  well  as  other  matters  bearing 
on  the  health,  convenience,  and  comfort  of  the  children. 

The  old  benches  without  backs  have  now  disappeared,  and 
the  desks  with  movable  seats,  so  familiar  in  America,  are 
coming  into  general  use.  The  school  authorities  of  the 
country  confess  that  they  have  learned  much,  not  only  from 
America,  but  from  Germany  and  from  Sweden.* 

SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION. 

The  law  does  not  undertake  to  define  what  is  to  be  under-  Secondary  in- 

struction. 

stood  in  the  Netherlands  by  secondary  instruction.  It  only 
indicates  as  belonging  to  that  grade  certain  schools  and 
branches  named.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  fix  exact Yim[ta  tle' 
limits  for  it,  but  a  general  definition  has  been  found  imprac¬ 
ticable. 

Four  classes  of  schools  are  designated  as  belonging  to  this  ,  .  classes  of 
grade :  the  burgcrscholen ,  or  lower  intermediate  schools ;  the  this  grade. 
Koogcre  burgcrscholen ,  or  higher  intermediate  schools $  the 
agricultural  schools ;  the  polytechnic  school.  Attempts  were 
made  to  have  certain  other  schools  brought  under  this  divis¬ 
ion,  and  to  have  their  organization  prescribed  by  law.  These 
were  the  advanced  schools  for  girls  and  t  e  schools  of  navi- 

*  Dr.  Steyn  Parv<5,  “  Organization  de  V Instruction  dans  de  Eoyanme  des  Dr.  Steyn 
Pays-Bas.”  Parv6- 


262 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Netherlands,  gation.*  They  were  recognized  aslegal  or  ganizations,  but  no 
special  provision  is  made  for  them  in  the  educational  system, 
or  fot-ir second-  Burgerscholen  (lower  secondary  schools).  These  schools  are 
air-  designed  for  those  who  have  to  live  by  the  labor  of  their 

hands,  and  to  furnish  them  the  knowledge  necessary  to  fit 
them  for  the  exercise  of  their  calling.  These  are  chiefly  the 
mechanic  and  agricultural  classes.  All  communes  with  a 
population  of  more  than  10,000  are  required  to  establish  at 
least  one  such  school.  There  are  two  distinct  courses  in 
these  schools,  the  day  and  the  evening  course.  The  day 
nay  course,  school  is  for  the  class  out  of  which  come  the  patrons  and 
superintendents  of  wrork,  who  wish  their  children  to  acquire 
the  elementary  knowledge  of  the  sciences  useful  in  their 
Evening  course,  trade.  The  evening  school  is  for  those  youth  actually  en¬ 
gaged  in  work,  and  who  accordingly  have  only  the  evening 
for  study  and  instruction. 

studies  of  day  The  day  school  is  carried  through  a  two  years’  course. 

The  studies  are,  mathematics,  the  elements  of  theoretical 
and  practical  mechanics,  of  physics,  chemistry,  and  natural 
history,  of  technology  or  agriculture  (elective),  of  geogra¬ 
phy,  history,  and  the  Dutch  language,  the  principles  of  so¬ 
cial  economy,  drawing,  linear  and  artistic,  and  gymnastics. 
To  these  may  be  added,  at  the  discretion  of  the  communal 
council,  modeling  and  one  foreign  language. 

The  council  also  determines  which  of  these  branches  shall 
be  taught  in  the  evening  schools. 

in  a  certain  The  government  may  dispense  with  the  day  school  in  any 
dispensed  with,  commune  where  it  appears  that  an  evening  school  is  suffi¬ 
cient  for  the  needs ;  but  this  can  be  done  only  during  a  lim¬ 
ited  number  of  years.  In  this  case  also  the  course  for  the 
evening  school  is  extended  to  four  years.  There  are  at  pres¬ 
ent  in  Holland  5  of  these  day  schools,  30  evening  schools, 
and  4  free  schools  receiving  government  subsidies,  and  so 
taking  the  place  of  the  public  school. 

Attendance  at  From  an  examination  of  the  returns  of  this  grade  of  schools, 
schools.  ^  it  appears  that  the  working  class  amounts  to  only  about  40 
per  cent,  of  the  school  attendance.  The  destination  of  the 
pupil  after  leaving  the  school  is  also  noteworthy ;  the  great 
majority  seek  for  places  in  business  houses  and  government 
offices,  wffiile  a  very  small  number  content  themselves  with 
Failure  to  ef-  a  manual  employment.  These  schools  appear,  therefore, 
cnddesx?redrecise  even  in  the  great  centers  of  population,  to  have  failed  in 
the  precise  end  proposed  by  those  who  made  the  legal  pro- 

*  These  are  intended  for  the  instruction  of  officers  of  the  merchant 
marine,  and  must  not  he  confounded  with  the  naval  school,  which  is  de¬ 
signed  to  prepare  officers  for  the  Dutch  navy. 


I 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain.  263 

vision  for  them.  Still  they  have  undoubtedly  contributed  to  nbtheblakdb. 
spread  useful  knowledge  among  a  different  class  of  citizens 
from  that  for  which  they  were  originally  designed. 

If  we  look,  however,  at  the  thirty  evening  schools  and  the  seJvening  cour 
four  free  schools  assimilated  to  them,  we  shall  find  them  serv¬ 
ing  their  purpose  with  marked  efficiency  and  constantly  in¬ 
creasing  numbers.  The  attendance  within  the  last  five  years 
has  increased  by  one-third,  the  numbers  being  from  theance- 
years  1872  to  1876,  respectively,  2,925,  3,192,  3,340,  3,642, 

3,841.  These  pupils  were  almost  exclusively  from  the  work¬ 
ing  classes.  Of  the  3,841  pupils  in  these  schools  in  the  year  Pupils  ai- 
1876,  2,930  had  already  chosen  their  occupation.  Among  f?0m  the  wort- 
them  were  1,475  carpenters,  joiners,  and  cabinet-makers ;  454  mg  classes' 
iron-,  copper-,  and  tin-smiths  and  gun  smiths ;  169  masons  and 
stone-cutters;  133  plasterers,  sculptors,  engravers,  and  jew¬ 
ellers;  237  house-painters,  varnishers,  and  glaziers;  and  53 
master  masons ;  while  234  were  exercising  some  other  occu¬ 
pation  ;  the  175  remaining  were  fitting  for  teachers  or  office 
clerks.  Of  the  911  pupils  who  had  not  yet  chosen  a  profes¬ 
sion,  447  were  from  the  working  class,  169  sons  of  mer¬ 
chants,  140  sons  of  teachers  or  civil  or  military  officers,  155 
were  orphans.  We  see  from  these  figures  that  over  92  per 
cent,  of  pupils  of  the  evening  schools  belong  to  what  are 
called  the  working  classes,  and  consequently  that  these 
schools  serve  a  most  useful  purpose  for  that  portion  of  the 
population.  As  to  the  ages  of  these  pupils  it  is  found  that 
out  of  every  hundred  there  are  two  below  12  years  of  age, 

28  between  12  and  14,  31  betwen  14  and  16,  24  between  16  Ages  of  pupils, 
and  18,  and  fifteen  above  18  years.  The  ages  in  the  day 
schools  are  in  general  much  below  these. 

From  a  comparison  of  the  results  of  the  day  and  evening 
schools,  we  see  that,  where  circumstances  have  compelled 
youths  to  choose  their  occupations  at  the  time  of  entering  ,  .  Effects  of 

choice  of  occupa- 

school,  education,  instead  of  having  a  tendency  to  make  them  tion  before  en- 

.  7  _  ’  _  .  tering  school. 

discontented,  confirms  and  assists  them  m  those  occupa¬ 
tions  ;  while,  in  cases  where  easy  circumstances  allow  youths 
to  attend  school  without  thought  of  their  future  professions, 
a  general  education  seems  to  have  a  tendency  to  kindle  am¬ 
bition  to  rise  above  the  station  in  life  to  which  they  belong 
by  birth.  At  all  events,  the  disposition  is  strong  to  avoid 
those  manual  occupations  which  compel  the  workman  to  de 
pend  upon  each  day’s  work  for  his  livelihood. 

Higher  secondary  instruction. 

The  schools  of  this  category  are  called  hoogerc  hurgcrsclio -  Higher  second- 
Icn ,  or  higher  intermediate  schools.  Their  object  is  to  pro- ary  lns  ruc  10n' 


264 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Netherlands,  vide  for  the  youth  of  the  cities  and  the  well-to-do  class  of 

and°r  weH-toAo  soc^e^  more  extended  instruction  than  they  can  gain  in  the 

eiass.  superior  primary  schools.  They  are  not  intended  to  prepare 

pupils  for  the  practice  of  any  special  profession,  but  rather 
to  develop  the  intellectual  faculties  and  to  furnish  knowledge 
which  would  be  useful  in  any  profession.  These  schools  are 
of  two  sorts — those  of  a  three  years’  course  and  those  of  a 
Three  years’  five  years’  course.  The  three  years’  course  comprises  math¬ 
ematics,  the  elements  of  physics  and  chemistry,  of  botany 
and  zoology,  of  social  economy,  of  bookkeeping,  geography, 
history,  the  Dutch,  French,  English,  German  languages, 
penmanship,  artistic  and  linear  drawing,  and  gymnastics. 

coiu:seMveyears  The  five  years’  course  comprises  mathematics,  elements  of 
theoretical  or  applied  mechanics,  theory  of  machines  and 
technology,  physics  and  chemistry  and  their  principal  appli¬ 
cations,  the  elements  of  mineralogy,  zoology,  elements  of  cos¬ 
mography,  political  institutions  of  the  Netherlands,  social 
economy  and  statistics,  principally  of  the  Netherlands  and 
their  colonies  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  geography,  his¬ 
tory,  the  languages  and  literatures  of  Holland,  France, 
England,  and  Germany;  the  elements  of  the  commercial 
sciences,  including  that  of  merciology  (study  of  exchange¬ 
able  products),  and  of  bookkeeping,  penmanship,  linear  and 
artistic  drawing,  and  gymnastics. 

Communes  which  establish  schools  of  this  grade  are  not 
bound  to  follow  precisely  this  programme ;  they  may  also 
prolong  or  abridge  to  tbe  extent  of  a  year  or  more  the  entire 
course  of  the  school.  Pupils  of  the  state  schools  pay  an 
annual  tuition  fee  not  exceeding  sixty  florins.  The  director 
and  professors  of  these  schools  are  appointed  by  the  King ; 
those  of  the  communal  schools  by  the  communal  council, 
which  also  fixes  their  salaries  subject  to  the  approval,  in  the 
case  of  subsidied  schools,  of  the  Minister  of  the  Interior. 

Number  of  in  1S76  there  were  52  higher  intermediate  schools,  18 

schools  of  the  ° 

higher  secondary  founded  by  the  state,  32  communal,  and  2  free;  of  wThich  9 

grade.  ' 

state  schools  and  22  communal  have  the  five  years’  course ; 
9  state  schools  and  G  communal,  the  three  years’  course ; 
and  3  communal  schools  have  a  four  years’  course.  Besides 
these  there  are  several  institutions,  such  as  the  communal 
School  of  Commerce  at  Amsterdam,  the  Catholic  interme¬ 
diate  school  of  Amsterdam,  and  the  free  school  at  Enschede, 
which  have  courses  assimilated  to  those  of  the  regular  state 
secondary  schools,  some  of  which  receive  subsidies  accord- 
ingly. 

Ages  of  pupils.  The  average  age  of  pupils  in  each  class  respectively  is  13 
years  9  months  for  the  first  class,  15  years  for  the  second 


Tuition  fees. 


Direction. 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


265 


class,  15  years  11  months  for  the  third  class,  1G  years  10  Netherlands. 
months  for  the  fourth  class,  and  17  years  4  months  for  the 
fifth  class. 

Salaries. 

In  the  state  schools  of  the  five  years’  course  the  average  Salaries, 
salary  of  professors  is  1,840  florins  a  year ;  in  the  schools  of 
a  three  years’  course  an  average  of  1,407  florins;  in  the 
communal  schools  1,502  florins.  It  often  happens  that  a 
director  may  have  charge  of  two  different  schools  at  the 
same  time,  in  which  case  the  salary  is  nearly  doubled,  rang¬ 
ing  all  the  way  from  1,800  to  3,500  florins. 

Methods  and  results. 

Comparing  the  programmes  of  the  32  five  years’  schools,  resTntstllods  311 
we  find  great  differences  in  the  manner  in  which  instruction 
is  spread  through  the  various  branches  in  the  five  years’ 
course,  as  well  as  in  the  number  of  hours  devoted  to  each 
branch.  The  table  given  below  may  be  considered  as  the 
normal  programme  of  the  best  schools  : 


i 


Number  of  hours  a  week. 

Branches  of  instruction. 

1st  class. 

|  2d  class. 

3d  class. 

m 

Oi 

c3 

o 

rd 

5th  class. 

All  classes. 

Mathematics . 

7 

6 

G 

4 

3 

26 

Mechanics,  <fcc . . . . 

2 

2 

4 

2 

:s 

3 

8 

Chemistry  . . . . . . 

2 

2 

3 

7 

Natural  history . 

2 

2 

1 

1 

2 

8 

Cosmography . . . 

1 

1 

2 

Political  institutions  of  the  Netherlands . 

1 

] 

1 

3 

Social  economy . 

1 

1 

2 

Geography . . . 

3 

2 

2 

1 

1 

9 

History  . 

2 

3 

3 

3 

2 

13 

Dutch  language  and  literature . 

4 

3 

2 

2 

2 

13 

French  language  and  literature . 

4 

3 

3 

2 

2 

14 

German  language  and  literature . . . 

4 

3 

3 

2 

2 

14 

English  language  and  literature . 

4 

3 

3 

2 

12 

Commercial  sciences . 

1 

1 

2 

Penmanship  ...  . . 

1 

1 

Drawing,  linear  and  artistic . 

3 

4 

4 

3 

4 

18 

Gymnastics . 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

10 

Totals . . 

32 

32 

34 

34 

34 

166 

Programme  ol 
instruction  in  the 
higher  secondary 
schools. 


The  results  of  these  studies  are  ascertained  by  rigid  and  Examinations, 
impartial  examinations  held  before  commissions  appointed 
by  the  officer  called  the  “  Commissioner  of  the  King.”  Some 
extracts  are  here  presented  from  the  official  programme  oi 
these  examinations,  from  which  an  idea  may  be  formed 
of  the  extent  and  thoroughness  of  instruction  in  these 
schools.  A  few  only  of  these  general  directions  are  given 
as  specimens : 

“ The  examination  at  graduation  from  the  higher  intermediate  schools  ,  Object  and 

°  7  ('n'lncter  oi  the 

having  for  its  object  to  ascertain  if  young  men  have  received  suitable  examination. 


266 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Mathematics. 


Netherlands,  instruction  and  have  reaped  the  benefit  of  these  courses,  the  examining 
committees  will  endeavor  above  all  things  to  discover  whether  these 
Programme  of  schools  have  achieved  their  proper  end;  that  is,  if  the  young  men 
higher  secondary  educated  in  them  are  intellectually  developed  and  furnished  with  the 
schools.  manifold  knowledge  which  modern  society,  demands  of  every  civilized 

man.  Candidates  will,  therefore,  be  obliged  to  show  that  they  have  by 
serious  and  solid  study  acquired  a  general  knowledge  necessary  for  the 
different  careers,  technical,  industrial,  commercial,  administrative,  or 
Testing  the  un- others.  For  this  the  understanding  is  to  be  drawn  upon  rather  than 
er  than  thcFmem-  memory-  The  examination  accordingly  should  bo  directed  more 
ory.  to  discover  what  the  candidates  know,  and  what  have  been  the  results 

of  their  studies,  than  to  discover  deficiencies  in  their  knowledge,  espec¬ 
ially  on  matters  of  small  importance. 

“  Mathematics . — The  candidate  should  possess  in  the  subjects  of  arith¬ 
metic  and  algebra  sufficient  knowledge  to  apply  with  clear  understand¬ 
ing  the  different  methods  and  operations  in  the  solution  of  simple 
problems.  He  should  be  able  to  explain  the  process  which  he  applies 
and  understand  the  methods  of  approximation.  He  should  know 
how  to  explain  the  tables  of  logarithms  and  understand  the  theory  of 
them,  as  well  as  that  of  arithmetical  and  geometrical  progressions, 
series  of  a  superior  order,  indeterminate  and  exponential  equations, 
and  the  binomial  of  Newton.  In  geometry  the  programme  embraces 
planimetry  and  stereometry,  comprising  the  measurement  of  polyhe¬ 
drons  and  the  three  round  bodies  and  the  geometric  properties  of  the 
spherical  triangle.  If  the  candidate  has  any  notion  of  harmonic  divis¬ 
ion  of  transversals  and  centers  of  similitude,  account  shall  be  taken 
of  it  in  estimating  his  examination.  He  should  be  able  to  explain  per¬ 
fectly  the  process  of  geometrical  demonstration  and  to  grasp  readily 
the  relation  between  the  different  theorems.  The  candidate  should  be 
able  to  solve  ordinary  goniometrical  equations,  and  apply  the  properties 
of  plane  trigonometry  to  the  solution  of  simple  problems  of  practical 
geometry.  In  descriptive  geometry  he  must  be  able  to  treat  of  curved 
surfaces.” 

The  principles  laid  down  for  the  examination  in  theoret¬ 
ical  and  applied  physics  and  mechanics,  and  the  theory  of 
machines  and  technology,  are  of  great  value  and  interest, 
and  remarkable  as  showing  the  amount  of  knowledge  of 
these  subjects  demanded  to  enable  a  man  to  take  a  respect¬ 
able  part  in  modern  civilized  life;  but  the  passage  is  too 
long  to  be  transcribed  here. 

Cosmography.  “Elements  of  cosmography. — The  examination  shall  bear  upon  the  form 

and  dimensions  of  the  earth  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  to  be 
determined,  the  geographical  and  celestial  coordinates,  the  phenomena 
caused  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  by  the  movement  of  the  earth  and 
planets  around  the  sun,  and  by  the  satellites ;  the  laws  of  motion  and 
of  universal  attraction.  Candidates  are  required  to  have  some  knowl¬ 
edge  of  comets  and  fixed  stars  with  reference  to  the  determination  ol' 
their  distance  and  their  proper  motion,  as  well  as  of  the  nebulee  and 
the  galaxy. 

Social  economy  “ Social  economy  and  statistics. — The  examination  embraces  the  theory 
of  the  production,  distribution,  circulation,  exchange,  and  consumption 
of  wealth,  the  influence  of  government  upon  public  prosperity,  taxa¬ 
tion,  the  national  debt,  free-trade,  and  protection.  In  statistics  the 


Technology. 


and  statistics. 


I 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain.  267 


candidate  should  know  the  sources  from  which  to  draw  the  data  for  Netherlands. 
national  statistics  and  should  he  in  condition  to  give  a  succinct  account 
of  the  condition  of  agriculture,  industry,  commerce,  and  finance,  both 
in  the  Netherlands  and  in  their  colonies.” 

Secondary  schools  for  girls. 

A  special  school  of  secondary  instruction  for  girls  was  first  schoois^rgWs7 
opened  at  Harlem  in  1867.  In  1870  Arnhem  followed  the 
example,  with  such  success  that  eight  more  rapidly  followed, 
so  that  there  are  now  ten,  with  a  total  attendance  of  776. 

The  average  age  at  graduation  is  18  years.  The  professors  professors  of 
at  these  schools  are  from  both  sexes — 51  men  and  63  women. both  sexes‘ 
There  seems  to  be  no  fixed  course  of  instruction  for  all 
schools  of  this  character,  but  the  table  given  below  exhibits 
the  general  result  of  the  experience  of  the  last  six  years. 

Course  of  study  in  girls'  schools. 

Number  of  hours  a  week. 


Branches  of  instruction. 


Dutch  language  and  literature  . 

French  language  and  literature . 

German  language  and  literature  . . 

English  language  and  literaturo . 

History  . 

Geography .  .  . 

Mathematics,  chiefly  arithmetic . 

Botany  and  zoology . 

Physics  and  chemistry . 

Bookkeeping  . -  - .  . . 

Social  economy  and  political  institutions 

Drawing  and  esthetics . 

Needle-work . 

Gymnastics . . 

Singing* . J . 

Total . . 


4  3  3  3 
4  3  3  3 
4  3  3  3 
...4  3  3 

2  2  3  3 

3  3  2  2 

4  3  3  2 
2  2  11 
.  2  3 


3  3  3  3 
2  2  2  2 
2  2  2  2 


3 

3 

3 

3 

3 
1 
2 
1 

4 
1 
1 
3 
2 


16 

16 

16 

13 


U  Programme  of 
24  instructioninsec- 
7  ondary  schools 
9  for  girls. 


1 

1 

15 

10 

8 


30 


30 


30 


30 


30 


150 


'  Out  of  regular  hours. 


The  remarkable  lack  here  in  instruction  in  morals  and  in 


psychological  studies,  as  well  as  the  small  space  given  to 
social  economy,  are  not  easily  accounted  for  in  a  country 
like  Holland. 

Agricultural  schools. 

The  communal  and  free  schools  of  agriculture  which  had  Schooif.Ilcultural 
existed  in  Holland  until  within  about  two  years,  although 
subsidized  by  the  government,  failed  in  a  most  remarkable 
degree  of  accomplishing  the  ends  intended.  It  is  certainly 
strange  that  in  this  branch  of  instruction  the  alternation  of  tematSm of  theo- 
theoretical  and  practical  exercises,  which  works  so  well  in  cafSerSsS^81' 
other  studies,  should  seem  to  be  a  discouragement  of  inter¬ 
est  and  an  embarrassment  to  progress.  The  experience  of 
Holland  in  this  regard  is  worthy  of  special  attention,  inas¬ 
much  as  that  country  has  made  itself  famous  by  its  mastery 


268 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Netherlands,  over  the  obstacles  of  nature,  both  of  the  earth  and  the  sea. 
state  Agricui-  In  1876,  however,  the  results  of  long  experiments  with  ag- 

ral  Institute  at  .  1  ,  t 

wageningen.  ricultural  instruction  were  focalized  in  a  new  establishment 
called  the  State  Agricultural  Institute,  at  Wageningen. 

The  institute  has  a  three  years’  secondary  school  of  the 
superior  grade  attached  to  it  as  a  sort  of  preparatory  school, 
Course  of  two  and  its  proper  course  is  composed  of  two  sections  of  diifer- 
ent^rad^ dlffer'  ent  grades  of  pupils. 

One  section  is  designed  for  sons  of  those  who  make  farm¬ 
ing  their  actual  occupation  ;  the  other  for  the  sons  of  those 
who  conduct  agricultural  operations  on  a  large  scale,  and 
for  others  who  desire  to  obtain  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
agricultural  science. 

state  Agricui-  For  admission  to  section  A,  only  such  preparation  is  re- 
section  a  dulred  as  may  be  gained  at  the  elementary  primary  school. 

The  course  in  this  section  is  of  three  years,  and  it  is  be¬ 
lieved  that  young  men  who  complete  this  course  are  able  to 
Section  b.  engage  successfully  in  practical  agriculture.  Section  B, 
which  has  a  two  years’  course,  is  designed  for  young  men 
who  have  already  completed  a  three  years’ course  at  a  higher 
secondary  school. 

The  course,  and  the  distribution  of  studies,  can  best  be 
shown  in  the  form  of  a  table,  which  is  here  given. 


Course  and  dis¬ 
tribution  of  stud¬ 
ies. 


Number  of  hours  a 
week. 

Branches  of  instruction. 

Section  A. 

Section 

B. 

First  class. 

Second  class. 

Third  class. 

First  class. 

Second  class. 

Mathematics  and  surveying . 

5 

5 

4 

2 

3 

Mechanics .  . 

1 

1 

2 

2 

Physics . . 

Chemistry  .  . . . 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

6 

2 

2 

Mineralogy  and  geology . 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

3 

Zoology  . . 

3 

2 

2 

4 

4 

Social  economy . 

2 

2 

2 

Geography  . 

g 

2 

2 

History  .  . 

3 

Hutch  language  . 

c 

2 

2 

i  _  _ 

German  language . .  . 

4 

3 

2 

French  or  English  . 

4 

3 

Penmanship  . 

1 

Drawino1,  linear  and  artistic  . . 

2 

3 

o 

2 

2 

General  theory  of  agriculture  . 

2 

Cultivation  of  vegetables . 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Zootechny  (art  of  training  domestic  animals) .  . 

1 

1 

1 

Agricultural  machines . 

2 

1 

1 

2 

Agricultural  and  dairy  products . 

1 

1 

1 

Agricultural  accounts  . 

1 

2 

1 

Rural  economy  . . .  . . 

1 

2 

■Theory  of  manures  . 

1 

Agricultural  technology  . .  . 

5 

Knowledge  and  improvement  of  soils .  . 

1 

1 

$ 

Total . 

32 

j  32 

34 

32 

33 

education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


269 


It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  experience  and  the  practical  Netherlands. 
judgment  of  the  Netherlands  have  allowed  no  model  farm  al^taS7imt  no 
to  be  attached  to  this  agricultural  institute;  but  only  an  model  farm- 
experimental  station  for  the  examination  and  analysis  of 
grains,  soils,  and  manures,  and  for  other  experiments  and 
observations  bearing  upon  agricultural  interests.  The  pro-  Excursions 

.  .  ..to  well  organized 

fessors,  however,  make  excursions  with  their  pupils,  from  farms, 
time  to  time,  for  the  purpose  of  examining,  in  all  their 
details,  well  organized  farms  in  the  vicinity,  to  observe  the 
practical  working  of  agricultural  machines,  and  to  inform 
themselves  by  actual  observation  upon  many  interesting 
subjects  bearing  upon  agriculture  in  general,  the  raising  of 
cattle,  and  arboriculture. 

The  institute  has  good  collections  of  agricultural  imple-  and 

ments  and  machines,  models,  and  agricultural  products,  and  products, 
has  a  botanical  and  a  vegetable  garden,  as  well  as  the  pri¬ 
vate  gardens  of  the  director  and  the  steward. 

The  school  fee  is  fixed  at  40  florins  a  year  for  the  full  school  fees, 
course,  and  from  5  to  20  florins  for  a  single  branch.*  There 
were  100  students  in  the  year  1877-’78. 

The  polytechnic  school.  8chooT°lyteclmic 

This  is  classed  among  institutions  of  a  secondary  grade, 
and  not  in  the  category  of  superior  instruction  as  is  done 
in  the  case  of  the  polytechnic  schools  of  France  and  Switz¬ 
erland,  and  European  countries  generally.  It  is  designed, 
however,  to  fill  a  place  higher  than  that  of  the  higher  sec¬ 
ondary  schools,  as  is  evident  from  itsprogamme  of  studies, 
and  the  proficiency  of  those  who  attend.  Besides  giving  a  Affords  a  supe- 

°  °  nor  general  and 

superior  general,  industrial,  and  technological  education,  it  technical  educa- 
specially  prepares  civil,  mechanical,  and  mining  engineers, 
architects,  and  marine  constructors. 

The  number  of  pupils  of  all  classes  in  1877  was  289.  The  Pupils  and  8taff 
corps  of  teachers  consisted  of  12  full  professors,  one  of  them 
director,  8  associate  professors  ( lecrarcn ,  French  agrcgees ), 
and  6  professors  temporarily  detached  to  give  instruction 
at  the  school.  Eight  professors  were  charged  with  the  in-  °f 

struction  in  the  mathematical  and  mechanical  sciences,  2  in 
physics,  3  in  chemistry,  1  in  metallurgy  and  the  exploitation 
of  mines,  3  in  civil  architecture,  2  in  hydraulic  constructions, 

2  in  naval  architecture,  2  in  artistic  and  ornamental  draw¬ 
ing,  2  in  relief,  sculpturing,  and  modeling,  and  1  in  social 
economy  and  administrative  law.  The  director  has  a  salary  salaries, 
of  4,000  florins,  with  free  rent ;  the  ordinary  professors  have 


The  florin  is  equal  to  38£  cents  American  money. 


270 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Difficulties 

organization. 


Netherlands.  3,500  florins,  while  that  of  the  associates  ranges  from  800  to 
2,000  florins. 

Schools  of  navigation. 

i^Schoois  of  nav-  Schools  of  navigation  have,  for  a  long  time,  existed  in  Hol¬ 
land,  and  served  to  give  instruction  in  the  art  of  navigation 
suitable  to  fit  for  the  command  of  a  merchant  ship.  These 
schools  had  not  of  late  been  in  a  very  flourishing  condition, 
until  the  recent  inquiry  of  the  government  into  the  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  merchant  marine  showed  the  great  necessity  of 
the  State’s  taking  more  care  for  the  training  of  competent 
dipiomaPnoatScomS  officers  of  that  marine.  The  law  does  not  now  require  a 
puisory.  diploma  for  any  ordinary  ship-master ;  but  ship-owners  and 

shippers  are  reluctant  to  confide  the  care  of  valuable  ships 
and  cargoes  to  any  but  those  who  have  not  only  practical  but 
also  theoretical  knowledge  sufficient  to  guarantee  the  proper 
safety  of  the  ship.  Hence  the  government  has  thought  it 
necessary  to  give  attention  to  the  subject  of  instruction,  ex¬ 
aminations,  and  diplomas  for  this  line  of  service, 
of  It  is  difficult  to  organize  this  instruction  well,  on  account 
of  the  lack  of  preparation  of  those  who  enter  the  schools, 
and  also  their  unsteadiness  of  attendance.  Ordinarily  they 
begin  as  pilot  boys,  then  take  a  term  at  some  navigation 
school  and  get  a  certificate,  then  go  a  voyage  to  sea,  and  on 
their  return  enter  some  school  again,  and  try  to  gain  a  higher 
certificate  or  diploma. 

Amsterdam  Qne  school,  however,  appears  to  have  overcome  this  diffi- 
tion-  culty  5  the  Kiveehschol  voor  de  Zccvaart  at  Amsterdam.  This 

was  established  by  an  association  without  any  subsidy  what¬ 
ever.  It  admits  every  year  a  certain  number  of  resident 
pupils,  who  are  obliged  to  pursue  a  regular  course  for  a  cer¬ 
tain  time  before  being  allowed  to  go  to  sea.  If  they  are 
proficient  in  study,  they  are  placed  on  board  of  ships  for  a 
System  pur-  voyage  or  two ;  after  which  they  return  to  the  school  and 
remain  there  until  they  have  received  a  diploma.  They  then 
make  a  second  voyage,  and  return  again  to  pursue  a  still 
higher  course,  which  is  regularly  prescribed  and  duly  certi¬ 
fied  on  completion. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  1876,  there  were  52  pupils  at  this 
school,  with  7  professors.  There  are  five  other  free  schools 
of  navigation,  and  five  communal  schools.  In  these  ten 
schools  the  returns  for  the  year  1876  show  that  there  were 
in  attendance  during  that  year  513  pupils,  while  at  the  end 
of  the  year  there  were  only  248. 


sued. 


Special  inter-  The  tendency  of  education  in  Holland  is,  as  was  said  at 

est  in  primary  , 

education  ‘  the  beginning  of  this  paper,  towards  the  common  people, 


I 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN.  271 

and  it  is  pleasing  to  state  that  since  these  notes  "were  Netherlands. 
made  decided  steps  have  been  taken  in  advancing  primary 
education  in  Holland,  which  is  the  enfranchisement  of  the 
people. 

SCANDINAVIAN 

SCANDINAVIAN  COUNTRIES.  countries. 

Although  the  three  northwestern  countries  of  Europe 
have  had  many  natural  obstacles  to  contend  with  in  climate 
and  the  character  of  the  topography  of  the  region  and  the 
inequality  and  sparseness  of  the  population,  it  is  well  known 
that  they  have  been  among  the  first  to  take  measures  to  se¬ 
cure  the  enlightenment  of  the  people,  and  that  as  a  result 
these  countries  stand  among  the  most  advanced  in  Europe  General  diffu. 
in  respect  to  the  diffusion  of  common  education.  Much  of®1?11  °J  common 
this  effect  is  due  to  the  influence  of  the  church.  The  Lu¬ 
theran  Protestant  church,  which  is  the  dominant  and  indeed 
the  State  religious  organization  in  these  kingdoms,  long 
since  made  the  ability  to  read  and  write  an  indispensable  requiremen?s°for 
condition  of  confirmation.  As  this  confirmation  was  essen-  confirmation, 
tial  to  legal  marriage  and  to  nearly  all  employments  which 
opened  a  way  to  domestic  or  social  advancement,  the  re¬ 
quirement  not  only  secured  an  intelligent  body  of  church 
members,  but  brought  a  powerful  motive  to  bear  upon  the 
enlightenment  and  general  advance  of  the  people.  For  the 
best  portion  of  the  youth  it  amounted  to  compulsory  educa¬ 
tion. 

At  present  education  is  made  obligatory  by  law  in  these  ca2oni§atoryedu' 
countries,  parents  being  required  to  send  their  children  to 
school  between  the  ages  of  seven  or  eight  years  and  four¬ 
teen. 


NORWAY.  NORWAY. 

Norway  exhibited  scarcely  anything  to  show  directly  the 
methods  by  which  she  has  so  nobly  succeeded  in  spreading 
elementary  education  among  her  sparse  population.  But  it 
may  be  in  place  here  to  mention  one  form  of  instruction,  in 
addition  to  the  usual  town  and  country  schools,  which  finds 
peculiar  scope  in  a  country  like  Norway.  As  in  countries 
like  some  of  those  in  the  south  of  Europe,  where  the  liveli¬ 
hood  of  the  people  requires  them  to  move  from  place  to  place 
following  their  flocks  and  herds,  and  where  the  school  and  School  masters 
schoolmaster  must  travel  with  the  people,  so  in  Norway  the  tions  of  the  peo- 
teacher  has  his  stated  rounds  from  hamlet  to  hamlet,  the  rl° 
schools  clustering  around  him  wherever  he  tarries,  and  when 
he  passes  to  another  place,  awaiting  in  eager  hope  the  season 
of  his  return.  There  are  more  than  200  such  mission  teachers 


272 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


norway.  jn  the  wilds  of  Norway,  earnest  men  whose  visits,  though 
“short  and  far  between,”  resemble  those  of  angels  also  in  the 
blessings  they  convey.  These  teachers,  as  well  as  all  others 
in  the  public  schools,  are  paid  by  a  tax  laid  on  the  parish, 
supplemented  as  the  case  may  require  by  government  aid. 
teache??33611*1  of  Sometimes  the  payment  is  largely  in  commodities  of  daily 
consumption,  and  it  often  happens  that  a  favorite  teacher 
will  fare  as  well  as  the  New  England  ministers  used  to  fare 
when  the  money  value  of  preaching  was  not  so  exactly  cal¬ 
culated  as  in  these  later  days. 


SWEDEN. 


Schools  for  the 
blind  and  for 
deaf-mutes.  M. 
Borg. 


Professional 
school  of  Solle- 
brunn. 


Schools  of  Pro- 
dinge. 


Vennersborg. 


Wermland. 


Normal  and 
special  schools. 


The  exhibits  made  by  Sweden  in  the  educational  depart¬ 
ment  were,  for  the  most  part,  of  schools  somewhat  out  of  the 
line  of  ordinary  primary  instruction.  One  of  the  most  in¬ 
teresting  perhaps  was  that  of  the  Asylum  for  the  Blind,  at 
Stockholm ;  aud  there  was  another  collection  of  material  for 
the  instruction  of  the  blind  and  for  deaf-mutes,  by  M.  Borg, 
director  of  the  asylum.  That  of  the  professional  school  at 
Sollebrunn  founded  by  the  “  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  In¬ 
dustries”  was  worthy  of  notice,  as  also  that  of  the  superior 
primary  school  of  Frodinge,  by  M.  Nauckhoff,  the  director. 
Among  many  others  of  this  class  was  that  of  the  profes¬ 
sional  school  of  Vennersborg  by  M.  Borgstrom,  and  that  of 
the  primary  superior  school  ( Follchogslcola)  of  the  province 
of  Wermland.  Most  of  these  schools  have  been  estab¬ 
lished  within  the  last  decade.  No  representation  of  Swed¬ 
ish  schools  for  secondary  instruction  appeared  at  the  Expo¬ 
sition.  Instruction  of  that  grade  of  a  most  excellent  char¬ 
acter  is  given  in  three  sorts  of  schools,  somewhat  corre¬ 
sponding  to  the  colleges  of  France  and  the  gymnasiums  and 
real-schools  of  Germany.  There  are  also  10  normal  schools, 
and  special  schools  of  agriculture,  arts  and  trades,  forestry, 


and  navigation. 


DENMARK. 


The  educational  exhibit  of  Denmark  was  chiefly  in  the 
class  of  primary  instruction,  and  almost  entirely  from  the 
city  of  Copenhagen.  While  by  no  means  extensive  or  strik¬ 
ing  in  character,  it  presented  some  objects  of  special  inter¬ 
est.  Among  these  were  the  exhibition  made  by  the  school- 
directors  of  Copenhagen  of  the  work  of  pupils  in  the  public 
school.  'Ma3Jai?  an(^  Priya^e  primary  schools  of  that  city;  the  methods  of  in- 
niche-  struction  in  drawing  shown  by  M.  Janniche,  by  which  he 

seeks  to  prevent  pupils  from  acquiring  mechanical  habits  in 
drawing,  and  accustom  them  to  form  the  coup  cPwil — the  com- 


/ 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain.  273 

prehensive  and  grasping  glance, — using  for  this  purpose  one  Denmark 

model  for  all  pupils  at  one  and  the  same  time,  and  requiring 
them  under  his  explanations  and  directions  to  draw  their 
respective  copies  on  different  scales ;  the  models  of  sculp-  Modeling  and 
ture  exhibited  by  M.  Nielsen,  showing  the  work  done  at  his  sen.  ^ 
institute  in  Copenhagen,  such  as  modeling  in  earth  and  wax, 
wood-carving,  and  molding  in  plaster ;  and  the  apparatus 
shown  by  M.  Johansen  for  teaching  the  art  of  swimming.  scll00lSwiTIiming 
Some  of  this  apparatus  is  adopted  into  the  government  serv¬ 
ice  in  the  Departments  of  War  and  the  Marine. 

Mention  should  be  made  of  the  exhibit  by  the  u  Society  of mesTS?  iLiusSy 
Domestic  Industry,”  the  object  of  which,  as  set  forth  in  their 
expose,  is  to  encourage  the  useful  employment  of  time  which 
would  otherwise  be  unoccupied,  and  in  this  way  to  promote 
the  moral  improvement  of  the  people.  The  means  by  which 
these  ends  are  advanced  are  the  founding  of  local  societies 
of  domestic  industry  and  schools  for  those  not  otherwise  pro¬ 
vided  for,  the  establishment  of  public  expositions  and  prizes 
and  courses  of  lectures,  and  the  distribution  of  good  books 
and  models  among  the  people.  This  society  was  founded 
in  1873,  and  receives  an  annual  subsidy  of  about  14,000  francs. 

The  report  of  operations  and  the  collections  of  the  works  of 
its  proteges  indicate  that  it  is  accomplishing  much  good. 

Inasmuch  as  education  in  Denmark  is  both  obligatory  and,  Educ  alion  obli- 
in  case  of  need,  gratuitous,  the  result  must  needs  be  that  fuitous  in^asfof 
nearly  the  entire  population  of  that  country  are  at  least  able  nee  ' 
to  read  and  write. 

Of  public  primary  schools  there  are  reported  in  Denmark  Primary  school. 
2,950,  of  which  number  30  are  in  Copenhagen,  140  in  other 
cities,  and  2,780  in  the  rural  districts.  But  besides  these 
there  are  also  many  private  schools — 150  in  Copenhagen 
alone — and,  in  the  country,  schools  of  various  other  sorts. 

There  is  a  class  of  schools  called  Folks/wislcoler — people’s  high  sc^1p8le’s  111811 

schools — which  owe  their  origin  to  a  school  founded  by  Bishop 

Grundtvig  in  1844.  There  are  now  53  of  these  schools.  They 

aim  to  awaken  and  develop  the  minds  of  the  youth  of  both 

sexes  by  oral  teaching  upon  various  national  subjects.  The  Oral. teaching. 

institution  is  quite  peculiar  to  the  Scandinavian  countries, 

having  spread  to  a  considerable  extent  in  Norway  and 

Sweden. 

There  are  also  in  the  larger  towns  evening  schools  and*  Evening  and 
Sunday  schools,  attended  chiefly  by  young  working-people. 

These  schools  number  about  50,  with  an  attendance  of  2,500. 

The  principal  branch  of  instruction  is  drawing,  with  studies 
which  bear  upon  this. 

More  particular  statistics  can  be  given  of  the  public  schools 

18  p  R 


274 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

dekmahk.  Gf  Copenhagen.  Part  of  these  are  gratuitous,  and  part  of 
Tuition  fees,  them  require  a  small  tuition  fee,  equal  to  about  25  cents  of 
our  money,  a  week.  The  schools  are  all  organized  in  7  classes. 
At  the  close  of  the  year  1877  there  were  six  gratuitous  schools 
and  five  for  paying  pupils,  with  a  total  attendance  of  11,408. 
The  expenditure  of  the  commune  of  Copenhagen  for  that 
year  for  public  schools  was  equivalent  to  $102,125  of  our 
money. 

F1KLAKD. _  GRAND  DUCHY  OF  FINLAND. 

This  country,  though  under  the  general  domination  of 
Russia,  is  treated  in  this  order  because  it  is  virtually  a  Scan¬ 
dinavian  people.  Its  union  with  Sweden  for  600  years  es¬ 
tablished  in  this  country  the  Christian  religion  and  the  civ¬ 
ilization,  laws,  and  customs  of  Western  Europe.  Accord¬ 
ingly,  the  Lutheran  confession  of  faith  is  the  State  religion, 
and  the  Swedish  is  the  language  of  the  cultivated  classes,  of 
requirements  of  schools,  of  literature,  of  law.  In  this  country,  as  in  the 
Scandinavian  kingdoms,  the  church,  requiring  a  knowledge 
of  the  principal  doctrines  of  Christianity  for  admission  to 
the  communion,  without  which  one  could  not  enjoy  social 
and  civil  privileges,  made  herself  an  educator  of  the  people. 
Most  of  the  children,  however,  received  their  common  edu¬ 
cation  at  home  or  from  the  traveling  schoolmasters,  of  whom 
we  have  already  spoken.  It  is  within  comparatively  few 
years  that  local  primary  schools  have  been  established.  It 
was  in  1858  that  the  rural  communes  were  required  to  es¬ 
tablish  fixed  schools,  and  were  assured  the  financial  aid  of 
government.  From  that  ti  me  to  1860  steps  were  taken  which 
resulted  in  the  complete  organization  of  primary  instruction 
in  Finland. 

Primary  schools.  Each  town  is  now  required  by  law  to  establish  and  sup¬ 
port  as  many  primary  schools  as  will  provide  instruction  for 
all  children  between  the  ages  of  7  and  14  years  who  do  not 
receive  sufficient  instruction  at  home.  They  are  to  main¬ 
tain,  moreover,  schools  for  older  children  whose  instruction 
has  been  neglected.  The  primary  schools  of  the  towns  are 
classed  as  lower  and  higher;  the  first  for  children  aged 
from  6  to  10,  the  latter  for  those  from  10  to  14  years.  In 
the  rural  communes,  the  elementary  instruction  is  entrusted 
to  families,  as  was  the  ancient  custom ;  but  the  communes 
are  to  see  to  it  that  children  who  for  any  reason  fail  of 
this  shall  attend  some  regular  school  established  for  this 
purpose. 

Normal  schools.  seminary  or  normal  school  was  founded  in  1863,  to  pre¬ 
pare  teachers  for  the  primary  schools  in  communes  where 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


275 


the  Finnish  language  is  spoken,  and  in  1873  two  such  Finland. 
schools  were  created  for  teachers  of  Swedish-speaking  chil¬ 
dren.  Communes  which  establish  a  fixed  school  receive 
from  the  State  an  annual  subsidy  of  600  marks  ($142.80)  for  state  subsidies 
the  salary  of  a  teacher  (400  marks,  $95.20,  for  a  woman 
teacher),  on  condition  that  the  commune  furnish  convenient 
school  buildings,  and  for  each  teacher  a  lodging  comprising 
at  least  two  rooms  besides  the  kitchen,  with  land  enough 
for  a  garden  and  to  support  a  cow.* 

The  programme  of  studies  for  the  lower  primary  schools 


writing 


in  the  mother 


Programme  of 
studies. 


comprises  religion,  reading  and 
tongue,  arithmetic,  elements  of  geometry,  drawing,  and 
singing.  The  higher  primaries  add  to  these  history,  geog¬ 
raphy,  mensuration  of  surfaces  and  volumes,  and  the  natural 
sciences  with  their  applications. 

The  number  of  fixed  primary  schools  under  public  direc-  prinm^schooia 
tion  for  the  year  1877  was  488,  of  which  129  were  in  the 
towns,  and  319  in  the  rural  communes.  The  total  num¬ 
ber  of  pupils  in  this  grade  was  20,279  (10,998  boys  and 
9,283  girls).  There  were  also  45  other  schools  answering  to 
the  primary  grade,  which  were  supported  by  private  parties. 

It  would  appear  from  this  alone  that  the  primary  schools 
are  a  comparatively  recent  institution  in  Finland.  But  the 
statistics  of  these  schools  do  not  exhibit  the  state  of  educa¬ 
tion  in  that  country.  Much  is  done  at  home  and  in  the 
“traveling  schools,”  as  well  as  in  special  elementary  schools 
for  very  young  children.  The  report  for  1877  shows  in 
the  Lutheran  parishes  342,836  children  between  the  ages  of 
7  anti  16.  Of  these  there  were  in  secondary  and  special 
schools  5,852 ;  in  the  higher  primary,  18,442 ;  in  the  “travel¬ 
ing  schools,”  116,201;  in  the  lower  primary  and  infant 
schools,  17,249;  in  the  schools  for  the  blind,  deaf,  and  dumb, 

124;  instructed  in  the  family,  177,985.  The  number  with¬ 
out  any  instruction  thus  appears  to  be  6,983,  of  whom  1,801 
are  reported  as  variously  incapacitated. 

With  respect  to  the  languages  of  instruction,  the  primary 
schools  are  distributed  as  follows : 


Home  educa¬ 


tion. 


Finnish. 

Swedish. 

noth. 

Russian. 

Total 

Town  schools  . 

74 

53 

i 

1 

129 

Country  schools . . 

270 

45 

3 

1 

319 

344 

98 

4 

2 

448 

Table  of  pri 
mary  schools. 


*  Much  of  this  information  is  derived  from  the  very  interesting  ac¬ 
count  of  Finland,  prepared  for  the  uses  of  the  Exposition,  by  M.  Igna¬ 
tius,  Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics. 


276 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Finland.  The  number  of  infant  and  traveling  schools  is  about  a 
thousand,  counting  among  the  last  each  distinct  school,  and 
not  the  villages  where  they  sojourn. 

catkm ndary edu*  re£arc*  secondary  instruction  in  Finland,  we  have 

first  to  speak  of  what  are  called  higher  and  lower  elemen¬ 
tary  schools.  The  latter  class  serve  to  prepare  pupils  for 
the  special  schools ;  the  former  take  a  more  literary  course, 
and  furnish  the  elements  of  a  classical  education.  These 
schools,  however,  belong  to  the  old  organization  of  instruc¬ 
tion,  and  are  disappearing  Avith  the  advance  of  the  more 
systematic  scientific  and  classical  schools.  These  are  the 
industrial  schools  and  the  lycees.  The  former  have  for  their 
object  either  to  continue  the  courses  of  the  primary  schools, 
especially  in  scientific  studies,  or  to  prepare  pupils  for  the 
special  schools.  The  lyc6es  are  of  two  kinds,  the 66  complete,” 
with  7  classes,  one  of  them  a  two  years’  course,  and  the 
“incomplete,”  with  4  classes,  corresponding  to  the  lower 
classes  of  the  preceding. 

Schools  for  girls.  It  will  be  understood  that  girls  are  not  provided  for  in 
the  schools  above  mentioned.  There  have,  however,  been 
established  separate  schools  for  girls,  with  a  programme  of 
studies  comprising  the  sciences  proper  to  give  a  thorough 
discipline,  and  the  modern  languages,  together  with  the 
higher  styles  of  needle-work.  There  are  also  quite  a  num¬ 
ber  of  private  schools  for  girls,  where  similar  studies  are 
pursued. 

achods6parat°ry  Besides  these  there  are  preparatory  schools  which  may 
properly  come  within  this  grade,  as  well  as  special  schools 
of  various  sorts,  precise  information  in  regard  to  which  can¬ 
not  be  obtained.  Such  special  schools  as  come  under  pub¬ 
lic  supervision  are  referred  to  in  the  table  on  the  opposite 
page.  There  are,  moreover,  two  institutions  for  teaching 
the  blind,  with  about  50  inmates,  and  four  for  deaf-mutes, 
with  about  100. 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


277 


Such  general  statistics  as  can  be  gathered  are  shown  in 
the  table  following. 


FIX  LAND. 


Secondary  schools. 


PUBLIC. 


Lyc6es,  7  classes . 

Lyc6es,  4  classes . . 

Higher  elementary  schools 

Industrial  schools . 

Lower  elementary  schools . 
Girls’  schools . 


PlilYATE. 


Girls’  schools . 

Lyc6es . 

Preparatory  schools . 

SPECIAL  SCHOOLS. 


Polytechnic . 

Technical . 

Schools  of  navigation. 

Military  schools . 

Schools  of  agriculture 
Schools  of  commerce  . . 
Apprentice  schools  . . . 


Number. 

Teachers. 

‘I 

Pupils,  boys.  1 

00 

‘So 

aS 

'ft 

£ 

Ph 

|  Schools  using  1 

the  Swedish  | 

I  language.  | 

Schools  using 

the  Finnish 

language.  | 

14 

> 

C  9 

5 

4 

>  236 

2,  341 

<  3 

1 

10 

s 

t  7 

3 

18 

105 

688 

7 

11 

7 

43 

455 

2 

5 

7 

68 

774 

7 

24 

) 

4 

\ 1,  289 

1,863 

28 

1 

16 

118 

2 

15 

125 

6 

25 

229 

1 

17 

122 

2 

) 

2 

>  79 

2,111 

29 

5 

Table  of  sec¬ 
ondary  schools. 


The  exhibits  made  by  representative  institutions  in  the  Exhibitsofsec 

.  .  ondary  schools. 

several  grades — the  primary  communal,  the  professional 
(real-schools),  and  the  lycees — being  chiefly  written  or  man¬ 
ual  works  of  pupils,  were  very  creditable.  The  normal 
schools  also  were  well  represented.  That  of  Ekenas,  for 
women  speaking  the  Swedish  tongue,  with  CO  pupils,  and 
that  of  Hykarleby,  for  men  speaking  Swedish,  with  54  pu¬ 
pils,  exhibited  some  drawings  particularly  worthy  of  notice,  schools. 

That  of  Jyvaskyla,  for  men  and  women  speaking  Finnish, 
was  interesting  in  many  respects.  In  this  school  instruc¬ 
tion  is  gratuitous,  but  board  and  lodging  are  paid  for  by 
the  pupils.  The  course  is  for  4  years  ;  the  last  year  being 
devoted  chiefly  to  the  practice  of  teaching  in  a  special 
school  attached.  There  is  also  an  infant  school,  or  kinder-  infaut 

school  for  train- 

garten,  here,  tor  the  purpose  of  accustoming  the  young  ing  teachers, 
women  to  the  proper  care  of  children.  There  are  at  pres¬ 
ent  (1878)  in  the  normal  school  102  men,  114  women;  in  the 
special  school,  86  boys  and  120  girls ;  and  in  the  kinder¬ 
garten,  24  little  children. 

Much  interest  was  attracted  by  the  modest  exhibit  of  society  for  pro¬ 
file  “Finland  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Popular  Educa- XtjationPOpulni 
tion,”  an  association  founded  in  1874  to  spread  instruction 
among  the  lower  classes,  and  to  interest  the  people  in  more 
liberal  attainments.  Each  member  pays  40  marks  in  one 
sum,  or  else  an  annual  contribution  of  3  marks,  and  has  a 


278 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


_  FINLANI)- _ right  to  one  copy  of  all  works  published  by  the  society.  In 

order  to  effective  action  it  has  a  correspondent  in  almost 
every  commune  of  the  country,  who  strives  to  carry  out  the 
cietyfor^thefpro" objects  of  the  society  by  instituting  courses  of  lectures  and 
iTeducafion0pu  conferences,  singing  societies,  popular  festivals  for  social 
culture,  and  by  distributing  books.  There  are  about  500  of 
these  correspondents,  and  5,000  members,  mostly  from  the 
class  it  is  sought  to  advance.  The  works  published  by  the 
society  are  written  in  Finnish  as  well  as  Swedish. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  name  some  of  the  titles  and  sub¬ 
jects  of  these  books ;  which  will  be  given  in  translation, 
Publications  of  however,  as  the  Finnish  titles  of  those  presented  would 
the  society.  n0^  probably  afford  much  satisfaction  to  the  American 
reader.  The  title  of  one  book  is  “  How  the  Finnish  People 
have  Learned  to  Bead,”  and  this  book  is  a  brief  exposition  of 
that  curious  peripatetic  system  of  which  mention  has  been 
made  in  speaking  of  Norway — the  traveling  school,  or  rather 
the  traveling  schoolmaster.  Another  book  is  under  the 
title,  “Why  God  made  Man  upon  the  Earth.”  Another, 
“Concerning  Wealth;  its  Origin,  Nature,  and  Influence 
upon  Society.”  Others  are,  “  Public  Law  in  Finland,”  “  The 
Tax  System  of  Finland,”  “Studies  of  Beligion,”  “The  Or¬ 
gans  of  the  Human  Body,”  “  Of  Sight,”  “My  Life” — an  up¬ 
lifting  story  of  Common  Life  in  Finland — “  Flowers  and  their 
Utility,”  and  several  elementary  works  on  geography. 

Russia.  RUSSIA. 

The  development,  or  rather  the  extension,  of  the  educa¬ 
tional  system  of  Bussia  has  been,  like  that  of  most  modern 
monarchical  countries,  in  the  descending  order — from  high 
to  low,  from  the  concentrated  to  the  diffused,  from  the  few 
to  the  many.  Russia  has  long  had  its  celebrated  universi¬ 
ties  and  institutions  of  superior  instruction;  but  popular 
education  is  of  very  recent  origin,  and,  at  present,  can  only 
Decrease  of  ii-  be  considered  as  in  its  formative  period.  The  mass  of  the 
literacy.  population  is  still  without  education.  In  1860  only  two  out 

of  every  hundred  recruits  levied  for  the  army  were  able  to 
read  and  write.  The  proportion ,  however,  is  rapidly  increas¬ 
ing.  In  1870  eleven  in  every  hundred  could  read  and 
write. 

Administration. 

Organization  of  The  administration  of  the  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction 
ikUnStructionUb"  is  quite  complicated.  There  are  six  bureaus  in  this  office : 

1st.  The  Department  of  Public  Instruction ;  2d.  The  Minis¬ 
terial  Council;  3d.  The  Scientific  Committee;  4th.  The 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


279 


Arch  geological  Commission;  5th.  The  publication  of  the  min-  UUSSIA- 
isterial  journal,  comprising  all  matters  bearing  upon  the 
interests  of  public  education  ;  and  6th.  The  archives. 

The  Department  of  Public  Instr action  is  in  charge  of  a  pS^^struc- 
director  and  a  vice- director,  and  takes  cognizance  of  alltion- 
affairs  concerning  the  great  school  divisions  of  the  empire. 

This  department  is  divided  into  several  sections,  each  one 
having  a  chief  and  two  or  three  subordinates.  To  each  of 
these  sections  is  assigned  a  grade  or  particular  kind  of 
school,  or  some  special  branch  of  their  administration,  such 
as  the  personnel ,  receipts  and  expenditures,  and  statistics. 

The  Ministerial  Council  is  composed  of  the  assistant  min-  c0imcn.inistcrial 
ister,  the  director  of  the  department,  and  the  president  and 
several  members  of  the  scientific  committee.  The  curators 
of  the  school  divisions  have  the  right  to  participate  in  the 
sessions  of  the  Council,  to  which  also  may  be  invited  other 
high  educational  functionaries — the  president  of  the  Archaeo¬ 
logical  Commission,  the  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
the  rectors  of  the  universities  and  the  director  of  the  Obser¬ 
vatory  Nicholas.  The  Council  considers  questions  of  change  Function  of. 
in  the  different  branches  of  administration  and  in  the  text 
of  laws;  it  examines  projects  of  new  establishments  for 
public  instruction,  all  questions  of  difficulty  and  dispute, 
and  finally  such  matters  of  the  interior  order  of  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  schools  as  the  minister  may  deem  it  necessary 
to  submit. 

The  Scientific  Committee  is  composed  of  a  president  aP- m§ee0ntific  Com’ 
pointed  by  the  Emperor,  and  several  members  designated 
by  the  Minister.  They  examine  pedagogical  manuals  and 
programmes  of  instruction,  projects  of  scientific  expeditions 
and  enterprises,  the  reports  of  persons  charged  with  scien-  its  functions, 
tific  missions,  and  books  designed  to  be  dedicated  to  the 
Emperor  or  members  of  the  imperial  family. 

Each  one  of  the  great  school  divisions  of  Kussia  is  in  Curators  in 

°  charge  of  great 

charge  of  the  curator  appointed  by  the  Emperor  on  the  school  divisions, 
nomination  of  the  Minister.  In  the  more  populous  divisions 
the  curator  has  an  assistant,  and  in  each  of  them  he  has 
two  or  three  inspectors  to  assist  in  the  special  administra¬ 
tion.  These  functionaries,  together  with  the  director  of  the 
gymnasiums  and  primary  schools,  constitute  the  curator’s 
council.  In  this  are  also  admitted  representatives  of  the 
universities,  lyceums,  and  certain  faculties  of  superior  in¬ 
struction.  The  councils  have  jurisdiction  over  administra-  Curator’s, 
tive  affairs,  such  as  the  investigation  of  offenses  committed 
by  professors  and  employes  and  of  personal  litigations ; 
the  purchase,  sale,  and  construction  of  school  buildings; 


280 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

and  over  certain  school  affairs,  such  as  the  opening  and 
closing  of  institutions  of  instruction,  measures  for  improve¬ 
ment,  collections  of  statistics,  examination  of  text-books, 
and  of  the  written  tests  of  pupils  completing  their  courses. 
Primar.  schools.  The  immediate  charge  of  the  primary  schools  is  not  con¬ 
ducted  in  a  uniform  manner  in  the  different  divisions.  By 
a  recent  organization  of  some  of  the  provinces  the  super¬ 
vision  of  the  primary  schools  is  confided  to  district  marshals 
and  district  school  boards,  or  government  marshals  and 
Supervision  sc^00^  boards.  The  pedagogical  part  is  specially  confided 
and  direction,  to  a  director  of  primary  schools,  and  one  or  more  inspectors. 

The  district  and  government  school  boards  presided  overby 
the  marshals  consist  of  three  members  appointed  respect¬ 
ively  by  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  the  Minister  of 
the  Interior,  and  Archbishop,  of  two  members  chosen  by  the 
provincial  council,  and  of  one  member  chosen  by  the  town, 
if  this  takes  part  in  the  support  of  the  schools, 
k  district,  school  it  is  the  duty  of  the  district  school  boards  to  bring  for¬ 
ward  and  discuss  measures  for  improving  the  schools  and 
opening  new  ones,  as  well  as  suppressing  those  which  are 
deemed  unprofitable ;  to  furnish  the  schools  Avitli  the  neces- 
Functionsof.  sary  material  for  instruction;  to  confirm  teachers  in  the 
places  where  they  have  been  provisionally  employed,  or,  if 
necessary,  to  discharge  them  ;  to  present  to  the  government 
school  board  the  nomination  of  curators;  to  solicit  pay¬ 
ments  for  teachers,  and  to  examine  the  annual  report  of 
the  inspector. 

Government  The  Government  School  Board  has  charge  of  all  the  State 

school  board. 

primary  schools.  It  examines  the  conclusions  of  the  direc¬ 
tor  of  primary  schools  upon  the  reports  of  district  boards. 
It  allows  subsidies  out  of  the  public  funds  to  schools  and 
teachers.  It  examines  complaints  against  district  boards, 
and  all  matters  growing  out  of  a  difference  of  opinion 
among  lower  functionaries. 

Director  of  The  Director  of  Primary  Schools  is  charged  with  the  irn- 
1 1 imaiy Schools.  me(jja£e  oversight,  0f  the  schools  of  his  province.  He  is 

obliged  to  visit  them  as  often  as  possible,  and  to  see  that 
the  inspectors  do  the  same,  each  in  his  sphere.  The  Director 
is  a  member  of  the  Government  School  Board,  to  which  he 
annually  presents  a  report  on  the  state  of  instruction. 
Both  the  director  and  inspector  are  obliged  to  give  to  the 
minister  detailed  reports  of  their  visits. 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


281 


PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION. 

Elementary  schools. 

The  provinces,  cities,  and  communes  have  the  right  to  open 
elementary  schools  with  the  consent  of  the  school  boards, 
under  whose  advice  they  also  regulate  the  studies.  This 
latitude  is  necessary,  in  order  to  facilitate  as  much  as  possi¬ 
ble  the  extension  of  elementary  instruction.  Some  incon¬ 
veniences  result  from  this,  however,  which  the  Minister  seeks 
to  obviate  by  opening,  with  the  pecuniary  concurrence  of 
the  places  which  desire  it,  model  elementary  schools  of  one 
and  two  classes.  The  direction  of  these  is  entirely  in  his 
hands.  The  programme  of  studies  is  obligatory  for  those 
pupils  of  other  schools  who  desire  to  enjoy  the  privileges 
granted  by  the  new  law  in  respect  to  the  recruitment  of  in¬ 
structors.  In  that  manner  there  comes  to  be  established  of 
itself  a  general  level  of  studies  which  tends  more  and  more 
to  approach  this  ministerial  programme. 

According  to  the  regulation  of  June,  1875,  there  cannot 
be  more  than  one  model  school  of  two  classes  or  two  of  one 
class  in  each  district.  The  Minister  grants  annual  subsidies  state  subsidies, 
not  exceeding  1,000  rubles  ($750)  a  year  for  schools  of  two 
classes,  and  226  ($170)  for  schools  of  one  class.  Communes 
may,  however,  he  aided  in  the  construction  of  school  build¬ 
ings  and  the  first  interior  organization.  The  salary  of  the  teaclKi^laries  of 
master  cannot  be  less  than  330  rubles  ($247) ;  that  of  the  re¬ 
ligious  teacher  (priest  or  deacon  of  the  parish)  is  at  least  150 
roubles  in  schools  of  two  classes,  and  100  rubles  in  those  of 
one  class.  Sub-masters  receive  fees  out  of  the  special  re¬ 
sources  of  the  school.  There  may  be  a  class  for  instruction  .  .  Trade 

in  some  trade,  the  choice  of  these  trades  depending  entirely 
upon  the  occupation  of  the  inhabitants.  Instruction  is  gra¬ 
tuitous  for  the  children  of  those  villages  which  bear  their 
part  in  the  necessary  expenses  of  the  schools.  Other  chil¬ 
dren  may,  however,  be  received,  if  there  is  sufficient  room, 
who  pay  a  fee  not  exceeding  3  rubles  ($2.25)  a  year.  Schools  Tuition  fees- 
of  this  sort  may  be  instituted  exclusively  for  boys  or  for 
girls,  or,  in  case  of  necessity,  for  both  sexes  together.  The  course  of  study, 
course  is  for  five  years  in  the  schools  of  two  classes,  and  for 
three  years  for  those  of  one  class.  The  programme  for  the 
latter  comprises  religion,  the  ltussian  language,  arithmetic, 
and  penmanship ;  those  of  two  classes  add  to  these  matters 
history,  geography,  and  some  knowledge  of  natural  history 
and  of  linear  drawing.  Singing  is  required  in  both.  Gym  • 
nasties  and  gardening  may  be  taught  if  there  are  sufficient 


_ RUSSIA. _ 

Primary 

instruction. 

Elementary 

schools. 


282 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


RUSSIA-  means.  These  schools  are  rapidly  extending.  Ninety-seven 
were  opened  in  the  year  1877.  Moreover,  the  Minister  has 
lately  taken  necessary  measures  to  organize  special  primary 
model  schools8  °fsc^100^s  *n  rem°te  districts  of  the  empire.*  On  the  first  of 
J anuary,  1878,  there  were  864  model  schools.  The  total  num¬ 
ber  of  pupils  was  41,000,  of  whom  34,562  were  boys  and 
6,438  girls. 

Schoo?slementary  ^■^Le  w^°^e  number  of  elementary  schools  under  the  Minister 
of  Public  Instruction  was  in  January,  1877,  25,491,  with 
1,074,559  pupils,  886,139  boys  and  188,420  girls.  In  this  num¬ 
ber  are  not  comprised  the  Jewish  elementary  schools,  which 
are  in  process  of  transformation,  nor  of  the  Mohammedan 
schools,  for  which,  as  well  as  for  the  schools  for  certain  idola¬ 
trous  people  in  the  East  and  in  Siberia,  new  regulations  are 
in  preparation.  Moreover,  there  is  a  considerable  number 
of  elementary  schools  under  the  jurisdiction  of  other  min¬ 
isters  ;  for  example,  the  schools  of  the  Lutheran  parishes  in 
Courland,  Esthonia,  and  Livonia,  which  are  in  the  care  of 
the  Minister  of  the  Interior.  There  are  1,791  of  these,  with 
124,560  pupils. 

Difficulties  m-  One  0f  the  great  difficulties  in  the  diffusion  of  elementary 

cident  to  wide  0 

separation  of  vii-  instruction  in  Kussia  is  the  wide  separation  of  different  vil¬ 
lages. 

lages  forming  the  same  commune.  In  the  winter,  especially, 
it  is  impossible  for  many  of  the  village  children  to  reach  the 
Lodging  for  communal  school.  To  meet  this  evil,  in  some  localities  lodg- 
t  is  an  pupi  ing.piaces  are  provided  for  the  pupils  under  the  care  of  the 
masters.  These  common  lodgings  are  quite  numerous  in 
some  governments.! 

In  spite  of  all  the  efforts  of  the  Minister,  seconded  by  the 
most  active  cooperation  of  the  provinces  and  cities,  the 
measures  taken  for  the  spread  of  elementary  instruction  in 
Prospective ob-  Russia  have  not  yet  reached  very  satisfactory  results.  Thor- 
ugatory  instruc-  ouglily  persuaded  of  the  absolute  necessity  of  elementary  in¬ 
struction,  the  Minister  is  now  elaborating  a  system  of  obliga¬ 
tory  instruction  for  all  parts  of  the  empire  where  this  is  prac¬ 
ticable. 

Grave  difficulties  are  in  the  way  of  this,  besides  the  wide 
separation  of  villages  before  referred  to— the  great  expenses 
necessary  for  the  organization  of  so  large  a  number  of  schools, 
Penury  of  the  and  the  penury  of  the  people  and  teachers  as  well.  But 
Bussia  is  on  the  march  with  the  rest  of  Europe  to  a  univer¬ 
sal  popular  education. 

*The  governments  of  Vologda  and  Olonetz. 

t  In  1877  there  were  470  in  the  governments  of  Vilna,  Vitebsk,  and  Mo- 
hilef. 


people. 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 

District  and  city  schools. 

The  old  district  schools  with  three  classes  no  longer  serve 
the  modern  need.  They  are  rapidly  disappearing,  and  are 
replaced  by  the  new  city  (or  urban)  schools,  organized  under 
the  law  of  1872,  as  fast  as  teachers  can  be  furnished  by  the 
normal  schools.  These  schools  are  specially  designed  to 
give  superior  elementary  instruction.  They  may  have  1,  2, 
3,  or  4  classes,  but  the  plan  of  studies  is  the  same  for  all, 
and  the  course  is  for  six  years.  The  masters,  one  for  each 
class,  with  one  or  more  sub-masters,  according  to  attend¬ 
ance,  do  not  teach  a  single  branch  simply  (as  is  the  case  in 
schools  for  secondary  instruction),  but  all  the  studies  of  a 
class  except  religion,  singing,  and  gymnastics. 

The  course  embraces  religion,  the  Eussian  and  Slavonian 
languages,  arithmetic,  elementary  geometry,  Eussian  his¬ 
tory,  geography,  the  natural  sciences,  linear  and  figure  draw¬ 
ing,  singing,  and  gymnastics.  Pupils  from  10  to  13  years 
of  age,  continuing  their  studies  in  these  schools  for  four  con¬ 
secutive  years,  have  the  right  to  enter  without  examination 
into  the  first  class  of  the  gymnasiums  and  real  schools.  In 
1877  there  were  Gl  of  these  schools :  5  of  4  classes,  37  of  3, 
1G  of  2,  and  3  of  1  class.  There  were  7,171  pupils. 

Normal  schools . 

The  normal  schools,  designed  to  prepare  teachers  for  the 
urban  schools  just  spoken  of,  date  from  1872.  There  are 
three  classes  in  these  schools,  with  an  annual  course  for  each 
class.  The  plan  of  studies  comprises  religion,  the  Eussian 
language,  mathematics,  history,  geography,  the  natural  sci¬ 
ences,  drawing  and  penmanship,  pedagogy  and  didactics, 
singing,  and  gymnastics.  The  pupils  have  also  ten  hours  a 
week  of  didactic  exercises  in  the  urban  school  attached  for 
practice.  The  number  of  pupils  is  fixed  at  75  for  each  es¬ 
tablishment,  of  which  GO  are  “scholars”  supported  by  the 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  and  15  places  are  for  others 
paying  their  own  expenses  or  supported  by  other  adminis¬ 
trations  of  the  government. 

Pedagogic  schools  and  seminaries. 

Other  establishments  have  served  also  to  prepare  teach¬ 
ers  for  the  primary  schools.  These  seminaries  are  similar 
to  the  normal  schools,  but  on  a  more  restricted  scale.  In 
most  of  these  there  are  workshops  for  the  study  of  the  dif¬ 
ferent  trades,  and  in  some  agriculture  and  gardening  are 
also  taught. 


283 


RUSSIA. 


Old  district 
schools. 

New  city- 
schools. 


Course. 


Studies. 


Statistics. 


Normal  schools. 


Studies. 


Pedagogio 

schools. 


Workshops 
and  gardens. 


284 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


RUSSIA. 


Pedagogic 

schools 


Temporary 
pedagogic  cour¬ 
ses. 


Secondary  in¬ 
struction. 

Gymnasiums. 


Designed  to 
prepare  for  uni¬ 
versity  courses. 


Course  of  study. 


Tuition  fee. 


Pro-gymnasi¬ 

ums. 


In  1877  there  were  61  of  these  seminaries :  48  supported 
by  the  State,  11  by  the  provinces,  and  1  by  private  means. 
Of  these,  G  were  exclusively  for  the  instruction  of  female 
teachers  and  4  for  masters  of  schools  for  foreign  races.  The 
number  of  pupils  was  4,596 $  3,869  young  men  and  727 
young  women. 

To  provide  for  the  great  demand  for  competent  teachers, 
temporary  pedagogical  courses  have  been  organized  in  dif¬ 
ferent  provinces.  These  consist  of  theoretical  and  prac¬ 
tical  lessons  given  to  the  most  capable  teachers,  brought  to¬ 
gether  especially  for  that  purpose  for  four  or  six  weeks  in 
a  manner  somewhat  similar  to  that  in  our  teachers’  institu- 
tutes  in  the  United  States. 

SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION. 

Gymnasiums  and  pro-gymnasiums. 

Institutions  for  secondary  instruction  existed  in  the  last 
half  of  the  last  century,  but  it  is  only  within  recent  times 
that  thej7  have  made  a  rapid  advance.  A  revised  code  of 
regulations  took  effect  in  July,  1871.  The  course  of  studies 
is  divided  among  eight  regular  classes,  with  an  annual 
course  in  each.  Below  these  there  is  a  preparatory  class. 
The  number  of  pupils  cannot  exceed  forty  in  each  class,  ex¬ 
cept  in  the  preparatory,  in  which  there  is  no  limit. 

The  instruction  in  the  gymnasiums  being  designed  to  pre¬ 
pare  for  the  university  courses,  it  is  based  upon  the  thorough 
study  of  the  two  ancient  languages,  of  the  mother  tongue, 
and  of  mathematics.  The  course  of  study  was  revised  in 
1877,  and  embraces  the  following  principal  subjects : 

Religion,  two  lessons  a  week  in  classes  1  to  5,  and  one  in  the  6th. 

Russian  language  and  literature,  four  lessons  a  week  in  classes  1,  2, 
and  3,  three  in  classes  4  and  5,  and  two  in  classes  6,  7,  and  8. 

Latin,  eight  lessons  a  week  in  class  1,  seven  in  class  2,  five  in  classes 
3  and  4,  and  five  in  classes  6,  7,  and  8. 

Greek,  from  the  third  year  to  the  seventh,  six  lessons  a  week.  In  the 
eighth,  seven  lessons. 

Mathematics,  four  lessons  a  week  in  the  first  five  classes,  two  lessons 
in  the  6th,  three  in  the  7th,  four  in  the  8th. 

A.  modern  language,  French  or  German,  at  choice,  three  lessons  a 
week  from  the  2d  class  to  the  6th,  two  lessons  in  the  last  two  classes. 

The  programme  also  embraces  history,  geography,  physics,  natural 
sciences,  logic,  penmanship,  singing,  and  gymnastics. 

The  tuition  fee  varies  from  40  to  50  roubles  a  year  for  day 
pupils,  and  from  200  to  300  roubles  a  year  for  boarding  pu¬ 
pils. 

To  satisfy  the  increasing  tendency  to  enter  the  gymna¬ 
siums  there  have  been  organized  pro-gymnasiums  of  four  to 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


285 


six  classes,  with  a  programme  eutirely  similar  to  that  of  the  RUSSIA- _ 

gymnasiums. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  exhibitions  in  the  educational 
department  of  the  Russian  section  was  that  of  the  Pedagog-  muaeum  agogical 
ical  Museum  under  the  direction  of  the  Minister  of  War. 

The  exhibit  was  presented  in  three  groups : 

1.  The  material  employed  in  the  courses  of  the  military  Nature  of  its 
gymnasiums  and  general  educational  establishments  hav¬ 
ing  physical  or  scientific  (real)  instruction  as  their  principal 

aim. 

2.  Means  employed  for  the  spread  of  useful  knowledge 
among  the  masses. 

3.  A  hygienic  cabinet,  with  statistical  data  as  to  the  sani¬ 
tary  condition  of  schools. 

4.  The  Pedagogic  Library. 

The  plan  of  operations,  the  means  used,  and  the  present  scope  of  its 

.  '  .  operations  and 

results  of  this  museum  are  deserving  of  an  extended  notice,  plans. 
Inasmuch,  however,  as  this  institution  was  well  represented 
at  the  Centennial  Exhibition  at  Philadelphia  in  1870,  and 
a  brief  description  of  its  aims  and  methods  there  appeared, 
it  may  not  be  necessary  to  undertake  the  full  account  of  the 
museum  which  its  presentation  at  Paris  deserves. 

It  may  be  sufficient  to  mention  the  fact  that  in  all  matters  its  value  in 
connected  with  the  introduction  of  improvements  in  material  edge  by  "its  col¬ 
and  sanitary  conditions,  as  well  as  in  the  spread  of  knowl-  cri^Xi’kStures!' 
edge  and  in  awakening  a  desire  for  it,  this  institution  has 
been  a  powerful  agent.  Besides  the  use  of  its  cabinet  and 
library  in  illustration  of  the  best  materials  in  education,  a 
periodical  is  published  by  members  of  the  association  de¬ 
voted  to  these  special  ends,  and  public  lectures  are  given 
on  matters  of  practical  interest  in  connection  with  popular 
education. 

Of  the  latter  sort  are  “Readings  for  the  People,”  in  which  the  for 

some  subject  of  practical  utility  is  treated  in  a  manner  to  in¬ 
terest  the  auditories  it  is  desired  to  attract,  and  in  a  form 
and  style  of  language  calculated  to  sustain  and  increase 
their  interest  in  the  subject.  These  readings  are  always 
from  a  written  text.  Any  one  is  allowed  to  send  in  the  text 
of  a  reading,  which  must  be  subjected  to  thorough  examina¬ 
tion,  and  if  found  worthy  it  is  then  approved  (with  correc¬ 
tions  if  necessary),  and  delivered  in  the  auditorium  of  the 
museum. 

The  readings  are  only  given  in  the  winter  months,  and  are  iera°Jn f i1  nfbicf 
attended  chiefly  by  private  soldiers  and  the  humbler  classes  classes, 
of  the  people.  But  when  it  is  stated  that  on  an  average  they 
are  attended  by  at  least  50,000  individuals  in  a  season,  and 


286 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


that  within  five  years  the  cabinets  have  been  visited  by  no 
less  than  half  a  million  people,  we  cannot  avoid  the  belief 
that  this  is  a  most  efficient  instrumentality  in  awakening 
public  interest  in  the  object  held  in  view. 


A  U STRIA-HUN- 
GARY. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 


The  remarkable  interest  on  the  part  of  the  authorities  of 
these  countries  in  matters  of  education  excited  the  atten¬ 
tion,  and  in  many  instances  the  admiration,  of  visitors  to  the 
Exposition.  Those  who  were  disappointed  that  the  States 
cf  the  German  Empire  made  no  attempt  to  present  the  ex¬ 
cellent  methods  and  striking  results  of  their  educational 
systems,  found  a  fitting  object  of  studious  regard  in  the 
works  of  that  neighboring  empire  which  combines  in  its  or¬ 
ganic  life  two  ancient  kingdoms  and  half  a  score  of  tongues. 

Sten  yearlthe  Great  reforms  in  the  school  system  of  Austria  have  taken 
place  within  the  last  ten  years.  This  has  been  more  partic¬ 
ularly  the  case  with  regard  to  the  common  school. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  an  adequate  representation^  the 
vigorous  life  now  animating  the  schools  of  that  kingdom  as 
well  as  of  Hungary.  An  imperfect  sketch  only  can  be  made 
up  of  such  notes  as  could  be  made  at  the  Exposition,  and 
from  data  given  in  the  admirable  reports  and  exposes  pre- 


Lawa  of  1867- 
’68  proclaim  tliat 
"knowledge  and 
its  teactiing  are 
lree. 


School  system 
formerly  ecclesi¬ 
astical  ;  then  po¬ 
litical,  under 
church  author¬ 
ity. 


Now  chiefly 
secular,  with  cler¬ 
ical  oversight  of 
text-hooks  and 
teachers. 


sented  there.* 

The  national  laws  of  18G7-  68  first  gave  expression  to  the 
leading  ideas  of  common  school  education.  These  laws,  in 
proclaiming  the  common  rights  of  citizens,  declare  that 
u knowledge  and  its  teaching  are  free”;  free,  that  is,  from 
partisan,  religious,  or  political  restrictions  and  dictations ; 
bound  only  to  the  eternal  laws  of  truth  and  morality.  This 
declaration  struck  the  fetters  from  every  portion  of  the  edu¬ 
cational  system.  Under  Maria  Theresa  and  the  Emperor 
Joseph  II,  the  school  system,  originally  a  wholly  ecclesias¬ 
tical  matter,  had  been  declared  a  political  concern,  and 
taken  under  the  protection  of  the  State,  without,  however, 
setting  aside  certain  church  authority.  A  further  step  was 
now  taken,  and  the  chief  guidance  and  oversight  of  religi¬ 
ous  instruction  in  the  schools  was  put  completely  into  the 
hands  of  the  secular  power.  The  choice  of  text-books  and 
teachers  was  left  to  the  church  and  religious  societies. 


*  The  x>rincipal  of  these,  from  which  most  of  the  valuable  portion  of 
this  sketch  is  drawn,  are  “  Oesterreichisches  Volks-  und  Mittleschulwesen,” 
by  Dr.  Mollwand,  “Die  Verwaltung  der  Oesterrcichischen  Hochschulen” 
by  Dr.  Karl  Semeyer,  and  “A.  Magyar  Osztaly  Kiildnlegcs  Katalogusa 
the  special  Hungarian  catalogue,  in  the  French  translation.  Buda- 
pesth,  1878. 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


287 


The  representatives  of  religious  creeds  existing  in  the 
provinces  are  entitled  to  a  seat  and  voice  in  the  school  coun¬ 
cils,  which  thus  secure  the  authorized  support  of  those  so¬ 
cieties. 

Associated  effort  in  the  work  of  education  is,  therefore, 
not  disturbed  by  questions  of  position  or  creed.  Any  citi¬ 
zen  who  has  procured  his  authorization  in  a  legal  manner 
can  give  public  instruction  or  found  institutions.  Among 
the  higher  seminaries  of  learning  the  office  of  instruction  in 
theological  schools  is,  of  course,  an  exception.  The  schools 
are  open  to  all  citizens  without  distinction  of  religious  belief. 

The  laws  before  referred  to  regulate  also  the  relation  of 
the  several  nationalities  by  the  principle  of  entire  freedom. 
“All  the  peoples  have  equal  rights,  and  each  race  has  an 
inalienable  right  to  the  continuance  and  support  of  its  na¬ 
tionality  and  its  tongue.”  A  result  of  this  is  the  authoriza¬ 
tion  in  common  of  all  the  national  tongues  in  school,  office 
and  public  life.  In  provinces,  therefore,  inhabited  by 
several  races,  the  duty  devolves  upon  the  school  of  provid¬ 
ing  the  necessary  means  of  instruction  for  each  race  in  its 
own  language.  Through  the  union  of  these  nationalities, 
the  Austrian  school  holds  a  quite  peculiar  position  and 
meets  with  difficulties  which  arc  not  felt  in  other  lands. 
Many  irregularities  in  instruction  are  to  be  explained  by  the 
working  of  this  law. 

The  Ministry  of  Education  has  the  chief  control  of  the 
system  of  popular  education.  Below  this  are  the  national 
school  councils,  boards  instituted  in  the  separate  kingdoms 
and  provinces;  under  these  the  district  and  local  school 
councils.  The  middle  and  common  schools  are  under  the 
control  of  the  national  councils ;  the  common  school  alone 
under  the  district  and  local  councils.  Special  schools,  in  the 
same  category  as  middle  and  common  schools,  stand  in  the 
same  relation  to  the  school  councils. 


AUSTRIA-IIU^- 

GARY. 


Clerical  rep¬ 
resentatives  in 
school  councils. 


Educational 
efforts  not  dis¬ 
turbed  by  ques¬ 
tions  of  creed. 


Schools  open  to 
all  citizens. 


All  the  national 
tongues  have  a 
common  authori¬ 
zation. 


Provision  for 
instructing  dif¬ 
ferent  races  in 
their  own  lan¬ 
guages. 


Organization  of 
the  Department 
of  Education, 


and  subordinate 
bodies. 


THE  COMMON  SCHOOL  (VOLKSSCHULE).  Common  school. 

In  the  year  1805,  the  Austrian  common  school  came  under 
the  authority  of  the  “Political  Constitution  of  German  com¬ 
mon  schools.”  This  code  of  laws,  as  far  as  it  related  to 
the  general  common  school  (allgemeine  Volhsscliule ),  was  es¬ 
pecially  calculated  for  the  peasant  class,  at  that  time  a  sub¬ 
ject  class,  and  remained  till  1848,  without  essential  change. 

The  reformatory  movements  of  that  year  brought  about  par-  Eefor  m  movo- 
tial  reforms  in  the  school  system,  and  under  the  Thun  ministry 
a  new  life  was  awakened  in  the  sphere  of  the  common  school. 

The  government  and  community  vied  in  material  care  for 


288 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1V78. 


AUSrARyHUN'  improvement,  and  its  intrinsic  worth  was  raised  as  far 


- as  the  adverse  circumstances  of  the  past  and  the  present 

permitted. 

1869 h°o1  law  °f  The  national  school  legislation  of  1869  gave  to  the  com¬ 
mon  school  the  task  of  training  the  child  in  the  usual  relig¬ 
ious  manner ;  of  awakening  his  mental  activity;  of  endow- 
scope  °bofCt  tSe  ing  him  with  the  knowledge  and  skill  necessary  for  a 
broader  education  in  life ;  and  of  laying  foundations  for  the 
rearing  of  capable  men  and  valuable  members  of  the  com¬ 
munity.  It  is  no  more  demanded,  as  in  the  code  of  1805, 
the  limitations  of  that  u  to  the  mass  of  the  scholars  such  ideas  only  shall  be 
1805-  imparted  as  do  not  disturb  them  in  their  work,  and  such  as 

limit  their  thought  to  their  moral  duties,  and  their  home 
and  community  obligations.” 

Two  categories  were  formed  at  this  time  corresponding 
to  the  needs  of  the  people — the  general  common  school 
(allgemeine  Volksschule)  and  the  citizen  school  ( Biirgerschule ). 
The  former  is  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  widest  circle,  to  lay 
the  universal  essential  foundations  of  all  higher  culture; 
the  latter  to  serve  that  class  of  the  people  who  seek  an  edu¬ 
cation  superior  to  the  lower  grade  of  common  schools  with¬ 
out  desiring  a  preparation  for  the  university  or  technical 
high  school. 

structlontSinft?e  The  obligatory  subjects  of  instruction  in  every  Volks- 
common  school.  scRule  are  religion,  language,  arithmetic,  natural  science, 
geography,  and  history  with  especial  reference  to  Austria 
and  its  constitution,  writing,  geometrical  forms,  singing, 
gymnastics.  Girls  are  also  instructed  in  needlework  and 
housekeeping. 

Classes.  The  number  of  class  divisions  is  regulated  by  the  circum¬ 

stances  of  the  school.  There  even  may  be  eight  classes ;  in 
this  respect  it  is  superior  to  the  Biirgerschule. 

Course  of  study.  The  course  of  instruction  is  not  everywhere  alike;  it  is 
regulated  by  the  grade  in  which  each  school  stands  with  ref¬ 
erence  to  the  instruction  needed.  When  the  needs  of  the 
locality  demand  it,  kindergarten  and  agricultural  and  mer¬ 
cantile  departments  can  be  added. 

Subjects  of  in-  in  the  Biirgerschule  the  obligatory  subjects  of  instruction 
citizen  school,  are  the  following :  religion,  language,  composition,  geogra¬ 
phy,  and  history  with  especial  reference  to  Austria  and  its 
constitution,  natural  history,  natural  philosophy,  arithme¬ 
tic,  geometry,  bookkeeping,  free-hand  drawing,  geometrical 
drawing,  penmanship,  singing,  and  gymnastics;  also  needle- 

Optional  stud-  work  and  housekeeping  for  girls.  Instruction  in  foreign 
tongues  (even  German  for  foreigners)  can  be  imparted  a/t  the 
Biirgerschule  without  being  compulsory. 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


289 


The  Biirgerschule  has  three  classes  if  it  is  independent 
and  if  it  receives  scholars  from  the  fifth  class  of  the  Yolks¬ 
schule;  but  when  it  exists  in  connection  with  a  Volksschnle 
it  numbers  seven  or  eight  classes. 

The  arrangement  of  the  course  of  instruction  is  intrusted 
to  the  Minister  of  Education  in  union  with  the  national 
school  boards.  In  1870  the  Ministry  published  provisory 
plans  for  the  general  Volksschule  and  for  three-class  Biir- 
gerschule,  and  in  the  year  1874  definite  courses  of  instruc¬ 
tion  for  both  schools  were  arranged. 

In  these  courses  the  natural  principle  of  broad  and  gen¬ 
eral  education  is  made  of  the  highest  value  possible,  and  in¬ 
struction  in  a  specialty  is  allowed  only  in  the  highest  classes 
of  the  Biirgerschule.  In  the  lower  and  middle  classes  in¬ 
struction  in  the  physical  sciences  is  confined  to  the  text¬ 
book.  Due  regard  is  paid  to  every  scholar  who  after  the 
fourth  or  fifth  year  of  the  Yolksschule  desires  further  instruc¬ 
tion  at  a  gymnasium  or  real- school.  It  may  be  added  that 
housekeeping  is  taught  rather  by  occasional  instructions 
than  as  a  branch  of  set  study. 

In  order  to  see  at  a  glance  the  arrangement  for  the  sev¬ 
eral  studies  in  the  common  school  and  the  town  school  (Biir¬ 
gerschule),  tables  are  given  showing  the  course  in  the  mixed 
Yolksschule  and  in  the  Biirgerschule  for  boys  and  for  girls. 


Arrangement  of  weekly  lesions  for  mixed ,  one-class  common  schools. 


Subjects  of  instruction. 

First  department,  first 
school-year. 

Second  department,  sec¬ 
ond,  third,  and  fourth 
school-year. 

Third  department,  fifth 
sixth,  seventh,  and 
eighth  school-year. 

Religion . 

2 

2 

2 

Language  . 

12 

10 

10 

Arithmetic .  . 

4 

4 

4 

Natural  science . 

2 

2 

Geography  and  history .  . . 

2 

Writing . . 

2 

2 

Drawing  and  geometrical  forms .  . 

2 

*3 

§ 

2 

Singing . . 

Gymnastics . 

l 

§ 

2 

Number  of  lessons  each  week . 

19 

25 

28 

AUSTRIA-HUN¬ 

GARY. 


Classes. 


Authority  by 
which  the  cour¬ 
ses  of  instruction 
were  arranged. 


Broad  and  gen¬ 
eral  education. 


Special  studies. 


Admission  to 
gymnasiums. 


Housekeeping. 


Table  of  cour¬ 
ses  of  study  in  the 
common  schools. 


19  P  R 


For  girls,  one  lesson. 


200 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


AUSTRIA-HUN¬ 

GARY. 


The  following  table  shows  the  arrangement  of  lessons  for 
eight-class  Biirgerschulen  (boys): 


Table  of  cour¬ 
ses  of  study  in 
citizen  schools : 
for  boys. 


Subjects  of  instruction. 


Religion  . 

Language  . 

Geography  and  history 
Natural  history  . . . 

Natural  philosophy . 

Arithmetic . 

Geometry,  geometrical  drawing 

Tree-hand  drawing . 

Writing  .  . 

Singing . . 


Gymnastics . 

Number  of  lessons  each  week 


Tirst  class,  first 

year. 

Second  class,  sec¬ 

ond  year. 

Third  class,  third 

year. 

Tourth  class, 

fourth  year. 

Tifth  class,  fifth 

year. 

Sixth  class,  sixth  | 

year. 

Seventh  class,  sev¬ 

enth  year.  1 

Eighth  class, 

eighth  year. 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

12 

10 

9 

9 

6 

4 

4 

3 

1 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

1 

1 

3 

{  1 

2 

2 

2 

3 

1 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

1 

3 

3 

3 

§ 

I 

2 

2 

4 

4 

6 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

I 

§ 

1 

1 

1 

1 

"l 

i 

« 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

18 

20 

23 

25 

26 

27 

28 

28 

The  following  shows  the  arrangement  of  lessons  for  eight- 
class  Biirgerschulen  (girls) : 


Table  of  cour¬ 
ses  of  study  in 
citizen  schools : 
for  girls. 


Subjects  of  instruction. 


Religion . 

Language . 

Geography  and  history 

Natural  history . 

Natural  philosophy 

Arithmetic . 

Geometrical  forms. . . . 
Tree-hand  drawing  . 

Writing . \ . . . . 

Singing . 

Gymnastics . . 

Needlework . 


Number  of  lessons  each  week  18 


20 


CQ 

3 

rd 

> 

of 

class,  thi 
year. 

00  . 

-d-d 

class,  fif 
year. 

class,  six 
year. 

ii 

-3  * 

co 

rdrd 

'd 

rd 

H 

3J 

Ph 

rd 

«s 

S 

dJ 

.d 

55 

% 

m 

dl  M 
fcc'3 

3 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

9 

8 

5 

4 

4 

4 

1 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

1 

1 

3 

{  s 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

1 

1 

1 

i 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

6 

25 

26 

1  26 

1 

26 

26 

26 

raa»eof°Btadtes  ^  comparison  of  the  preceding  plans  with  the  school  con- 
since  1805.  stitution  of  1805  shows  a  great  advance  in  the  department 
of  the  Volksschule.  The  instruction  goes  beyond  the  sim¬ 
ple  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic ;  it  adds  drawing,  sing¬ 
ing,  and  lessons  in  natural  philosophy,  geography,  and 
history.  An  appropriate  place  is  assigned  in  each  grade 
for  religious  instruction.  Attention  is  also  given  to  physi¬ 
cal  culture. 

of  iangu°a“?satud6-  Instruction  in  language  forms  naturally  the  strong  point 
ies-  *  of  universal  education,  and  that,  accordingly,  has  the  largest 
share  of  time. 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


291 


It  must  be  observed  here  that  the  preceding  scheme  was 
especially  projected  for  schools  of  the  German  tongue.  It 
serves  as  the  normal  plan  of  instruction  and  as  a  general 
guide  to  provincial  school  boards  arranging  for  schools 
which  speak  another  language ;  the  variations  allowed  do 
not,  however,  allow  the  exclusion  of  a  study  laid  down  in 
the  prescribed  course. 

The  leading  proposition  of  the  old  school  constitution 
was  “The  methods  of  teaching  must  seek,  first  of  all,  to 
cultivate  the  memory  and  afterwards  the  understanding  and 
the  heart”;  the  present  aim  demands  methods  which  form 
before  everything  a  mind  and  a  heart.* 

It  will  be  noticed  in  the  schedules  that  there  is  some 
attempt  at  adaptation  of  studies  to  the  capacities  and 
careers  of  the  different  sexes.  In  certain  studies  children 
are  taught  together ;  then  there  is  a  branching  off ;  finally, 
in  adult  years,  the  sexes  may  properly  unite  in  common 
studies. 

School-books. 


AUSTRIA-HUN¬ 

GARY. 

Scheme  especi¬ 
ally  projected  for 
schools  of  the 
German  tongue ; 
hut  forms  the  ha- 
sis  of  others. 


The  methodic 
aim. 


Bi-sexual  stud¬ 
ies  and  schools. 


School  hoohs. 


Xow  free  to 
competition. 


The  trade  in  school-books  for  common  and  middle  schools 
was  by  imperial  sanction  confined  to  one  publishing- house 
from  1772  to  1849.  Its  duty  was  to  supply  the  best  books  Formerly  a 

,  1  .  monopoly. 

at  the  cheapest  price,  and  to  supply  them  gratuitously 
to  needy  children,  in  return  for  which  a  monopoly  was 
granted  the  house.  In  1849,  the  reforms  of  the  Gymnasien 
and  Realschulen  limited  this  monopoly  to  the  Volksschu- 
len,  and  in  1889,,  free  competition  was  allowed  in  the  entire 
trade. 

Decisions  upon  the  suitableness  of  books  rest  with  the 
Minister  of  Education  after  conference  with  the  national 
school  boards,  while  choices  for  particular  schools  remain  Authorized  ex- 
with  district  inspectors  for  Yolksschulen,  and  with  corpo- books, 
rations  of  teachers  for  Biirgerschulen.  Text-books  on  reli¬ 
gion  must  have  the  approval  of  church  authorities.  These 
regulations  and  free  competition  have  very  greatly  pro¬ 
moted  the  production  and  excellence  of  school-books. 


Pupils. 


Pupils. 


The  necessity  of  popular  education  was  the  great  civil-  p0yai  interest 
izing  thought  of  Maria  Theresa  and  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.  education.'jRCt  °f 
Various  enactments  have  since  been  made  to  carry  out 
these  ideas  and  secure  a  universal  school  attendance.  By 
the  imperial  law  of  1869,  “the  duty  of  attending  school 


*  Dr.  Mollwand,  work  cited,  p.  46. 


292 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


AUSTRIA-IIUN- 

GAItY. 


Penalties  for 
neglect  of  pa¬ 
rents. 


Obligatory 
studies  in  private 
scliools. 


Discipline. 


begins  with  the  7th  year  and  continues  until  the  completion 
of  the  14th  year.”  This  is  an  extension  of  the  time  by  two 
Compulsory  at-  years  (from  the  12th  to  the  14th  year),  and  though  demanded 
ce?tainCageI!thm  by  the  educational  needs  of  the  present  day,  it  has  thus 
far  found  much  opposition  among  the  people.  In  several  of 
the  less  advanced  provinces,  deviations  from  the  rule  have 
been  permitted. 

Where  no  such  deviation  is  allowed  the  local  school  boards 
keep  the  registry  of  the  children  of  school  age  in  the  com¬ 
munity,  and  determine  by  applications  of  the  national  laws 
the  punishment  of  parents  neglecting  to  send  their  children 
to  school. 

Private  instruction  releases  from  the  obligation  to  attend 
the  public  school,  but  parents  in  such  cases  are  held  respon¬ 
sible  that  their  childen  shall  pursue  the  regular  studies  of 
the  Volksschule,  and,  at  the  end  of  the  prescribed  age,  such 
children  are  obliged  to  pass  examination  in  the  Yolksschule, 
even  if  they  are  not  to  enter  a  higher  school. 

In  reference  to  discipline,  the  enactments  of  1774  differ 
Enactments  0f^rom  the  ordinance  of  1870  in  a  noticeable  manner.  The 
pa7rednd  1870 c°m^ 'former  prescribes  the  distribution  of  prizes  at  the  end  of 
the  school  year,  and  allows  corporal  punishment.  The  later 
ordinance  names  among  the  means  of  discipline  the  positive 
measure  of  reward  and  the  negative  one  of  exclusion  from 
the  yearly  premiums,  and  declares,  authoritatively,  aOor- 
ishmentrnowPfor- Pora^  punishment  is,  under  all  circumstances,  excluded  from 
bidden.  the  schools.”  Both  systems  are  liable  to  abuse,  quite  as 

possible  with  a  public  distinction  as  with  corporal  punish¬ 
ment;  but  both  show  a  high  appreciation  of  the  moral  sense 
of  systemsaofSr5  °f  the  People.  The  attraction  of  definite  rewards  is  neces- 
^bmentsnd  pnn'  sarhy  superflous  to  a  strong  conviction  of  duty,  and  if  the 
discipline  of  corporal  punishment  is  removed  there  must  be 
presupposed,  as  a  substitute,  a  sensitiveness  in  the  youth  to 
moral  and  purely  spiritual  influences,  which  permits  pun¬ 
ishments  of  a  more  ennobling  kind. 

Among  the  punishments,  temporary  expulsion  is  also  in¬ 
troduced,  which  must  take  place  when  the  continuance  of 
the  child  in  the  school  endangers  the  morality  of  his  com¬ 
panions.  The  parents  are  then  bound  to  provide  private 
Compulsory  instruction.  But  since  private  instruction  cannot  always 

private  mstruc-  1  . 

tion.  be  commanded,  there  must  continue  to  be  a  practical  obsta¬ 

cle  to  the  law  of  school  attendance  in  these  cases  until  the 
Reformatories,  reformatory  houses  for  youth,  which  until  now  have  existed 
in  small  numbers  as  private  institutions,  shall  be  established 
by  law  in  requisite  numbers. 


Temporary  ex¬ 
clusion. 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


293 


Iii  tlie  departments  of  the  Yolks-  and  Biirgerscliule  the  AUS™^YHUN' 
sexes  have  equal  rights  and  equal  duties,  except  that  in 
some  studies  the  standard  of  attainment  is  lower  for  the  girls  standard  of  in- 
than  the  boys,  while  the  use  of  the  needle  is  an  additional  and  ibr°giris.b0J  8 
item  of  instruction  for  the  girls.  In  the  one,  two,  and  three- 
class  schools  instruction  is  shared  in  common;  in  the  fourth  Mixed  schools, 
and  higher  classes  the  separation  is  absolute.  Where  cir¬ 
cumstances  permit  there  are  separate  schools  for  girls,  Separate  schools, 
taught  chiefly  by  female  teachers. 

Teachers.  Teachers. 

One  of  the  most  essential  agencies  in  promoting  popular 
education  is  the  advancing  standard  of  the  teacher’s  quali¬ 
fications.  The  school  regulation  of  1805  required  ouly  a  six  Regulations  of 
months’  course  of  instruction  for  the  teacher’s  office  in  the  180°‘ 
higher  schools  and  a  three  months’  course  in  the  lower  ones. 

A  teacher’s  certificate  could  be  obtained  after  a  year’s  prac¬ 
tical  service  by  an  examination  before  the  episcopal  con¬ 
sistory.  There  was  no  course  at  all  for  female  teachers. 

After  1848  the  government  did  indeed  establish  a  one  or  two 
years’  preparatory  course  for  teachers  of  both  sexes ;  but 
such  preparation  could  not  satisfy  the  demands  of  thu  pres¬ 
ent  system.  Teachers’  schools  in  connection  with  training  schoolsTinstiSt- 
schools  were  instituted  in  1809.  The  course  was  extended  ed  in  186!)- 
to  four  years.  Pupils  were  taught  religion,  theories  of  edu¬ 
cation  and  instruction,  and  the  history  and  practical  appli-  8tudy  Course  of 
cations  of  these,  grammar,  rhetoric,  literature,  mathematics 
(arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry),  natural  history,  writ¬ 
ing,  drawing  (free-hand  and  geometric),  music,  and  gym¬ 
nastics. 

Men  who  offer  for  the  office  of  teacher  must  be  particu-  forEthe  ^oTition 
larly  instructed  in  the  political  constitution  of  their  native  ofteacher- 
land  and  in  agriculture ;  female  candidates  in  feminine 
handiwork.  The  methods  of  instruction  for  the  deaf  and 
blind,  as  well  as  the  organization  of  the  Kindergarten,  are 
taught  as  there  is  opportunity. 

For  entrance  to  these  schools,  the  age  must  be  fifteen.  Ageandpcr- 

7  sonal  qualitica- 

There  must  be  physical  qualifications,  good  moral  character,  tions. 
and  the  stipulated  preparation  proved  by  a  strict  examina¬ 
tion.  Tuition  is  gratuitous,  and  there  are  national  scholar-  Tuition  fee. 
ships  for  needy  and  talented  pupils. 

After  the  termination  of  the  four  years’  course,  the  candi-  Examination, 
dates  pass  an  examination  upon  all  subjects  taught  in  the 
school,  and  receive  a  full  certificate  of  their  fitness  for  posi¬ 
tions  as  provisory  teachers.  After  two  years’  practice  they  Certificate, 
obtain,  through  a  new  examination  before  a  special  commis- 


294  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

AU-“-  sioner,  a  certificate  of  fitness  for  the  teacher’s  office  in  one  or 

- both  departments  of  the  common  school,  which  gives  them 

a  right  to  a  permanent  position. 

ciassSforteacif  or^er  to  facilitate  entrance  into  these  schools,  prepara- 
ers1  schools.  tory  classes  have  been  formed.  Where  these  are  connected 
with  the  schools,  the  examination  in  them  at  the  close  of  a 
year  takes  the  place  of  the  examination  for  admission  to  the 
school.  These  preparatory  classes  (especially  those  in  con¬ 
nection  with  the  schools  for  women)  have,  however,  been 
partially  discontinued  on  account  of  the  too  strong  pressure 
upon  the  pedagogical  course. 

Teachers’  li-  Efforts  for  the  improvement  of  teachers  do  not  stop  with 
ferences.  this  course.  There  is  a  teachers’  library  in  each  school  dis¬ 
trict,  and  a  teachers’  conference  held  each  year  under  the 
direction  of  the  school  inspectors.  Every  third  year  dele¬ 
gates  from  the  district  conferences  of  a  province  meet  for 
deliberation  upon  school  matters.  These  provincial  confer¬ 
ences  promote  a  general  interest  on  the  subject  of  education 
on  the  part  of  the  teachers  and  the  communities,  and  the 
teachers  are  thereby  brought  into  desirable  relations  with 
the  government. 

rieseachers' sala*  Salaries,  formerly  eked  out  by  chorister’s  or  sexton’s  du¬ 
ties,  or  even  by  the  collection  of  natural  curiosities,  are  now 
in  most  of  the  provinces  large  enough  to  allow  teachers  to 
give  their  whole  attention  to  the  school. 


Establishment  and  support  of  the  schools. 

shment01  estab’  If  is  left  to  national  legislation  to  determine  where  and  by 
whom  the  Yolksschulen  and  Biirgerschulen  shall  be  insti¬ 
tuted.  The  only  stipulation  is  that  a  school  shall  be  estab¬ 
lished  wherever,  for  an  average  term  of  five  years,  forty 
children  shall  be  found  withiu  the  circuit  of  a  league,  who 
attend  a  school  more  than  half  a  mile  distant.  A  later  re¬ 
striction  compels  factory  superintendents  to  provide  instruc¬ 
tion  for  children  in  their  employ. 

School  support.  The  expense  of  these  schools  comes  principally  on  the 
commune,  yet  the  national  legislation  divides  the  burden 

,  among  commune,  district,  and  province.  The  commune 

usually  assumes  the  expense  of  school-houses,  teachers’  dwell¬ 
ings,  &c.  The  salaries  of  teachers,  and  the  apparatus  of  in¬ 
struction,  are  provided  by  the  district  or  by  thenational  school 
fund.  Help  is  afforded  by  this  fund  to  those  communities 
which  need  it  for  the  purpose  of  building  school -houses. 

Taxes.  The  taxes,  since  the  school  reform,  are  greater  in  propor¬ 

tion  to  the  previous  lack  of  effort,  and  reach  in  all  depart¬ 
ments  to  an  extraordinary  height.  Yet  in  most  of  the  Aus- 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


295 


trian  provinces  the  tax  for  the  general  Yolksschule  has  been  aus™IryHUN’ 

raised,  in  the  conviction  that  the  school  was  not  the  business - 

of  the  individual  but  of  the  community.  Indeed,  the  extent 
and  thoroughness  of  the  agitation  caused  by  the  reforms  of 
1869  was  seen  most  clearly  in  the  zeal  with  which  the  sums 
necessary  for  these  reforms  were  raised.  Rich  and  poor 
showed  a  touching  spirit  of  self-denial,  and  gave  even  to  the 
limit  of  their  ability.  The  communities  now  vie  with  one  Great  pub 

.  „  .  .  lie  interest  in 

another  m  the  erection  of  new  school-houses,  m  supplying  schools, 
school  apparatus,  and  increasing  the  number  of  classes. 

Austria  shows  to  the  world  the  ennobling  spectacle  of  a 
whole- people  seeking  with  all  its  might  a  higher  education. 

Even  the  outcry  over  the  threatening  extent  of  school  taxes, 
which  the  clerical  party  especially  sound  forth,  is  lost  in  the 
general  harmony  of  educational  effort.  High  taxation  does 
not  even  keep  down  free-will  offerings  for  the  schools.  The  Eree-wiii  offer 
idea  of  the  penny  collection  ( Schulpfennig ),  suggested  bymss  °rsc  00  s' 
the  Yolksschule  teacher  Zinnauer  in  Gratz  in  1871,  met  with 
such  favor  that  it  soon  spread  over  all  the  Austrian  prov¬ 
inces,  and  found  entrance  even  into  Bavaria  and  Belgium.* 

Yarious  unions  of  liberal  politics  have  carried  out  the  idea 
with  great  zeal  in  the  Tyrol  and  Upper  Austria.  In  this  way 
considerable  sums  are  raised  for  the  purchase  of  school  ap¬ 
paratus,  libraries,  support  of  poor  scholars,  and  even  of  can¬ 
didates  for  the  teacher’s  office. 

^cliool-liouses.  Scbool-bouses. 

Each  school  must  have  a  locality  answering  its  needs  for  Govermentai 
instruction  and  health,  a  place  for  gymnastic  exercise,  and iequuements- 
in  the  rural  districts,  when  feasible,  a  garden  for  the  teacher 
and  land  for  agricultural  experiments.  The  following  de-  Piay-groumi. 
scription  of  a  school-house  shows  what  are  the  aims  of  the  Garden. 
Austrian  Government  in  this  regard : 

The  building  stands  in  the  center  of  the  community,  on  an  situation, 
open,  dry  place,  with  nothing  in  the  neighborhood  to  disturb 
by  noise  or  be  prejudicial  to  health.  It  is  of  solid  masonry, 
the  largest  building  permissible  having  three  stories  and  two  structure, 
entrances,  separate  for  boys  and  girls.  The  lower  story  stands 
three  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ground.  The  entrances  are  Elevation, 
broad,  with  stone  steps,  and  the  staircases  of  stone  are  pro-  Entrances  ami 
tected  by  high  and  strong  balusters.  At  the  foot  of  each  stairs‘ 
staircase  and  before  each  school  room  door  a  straw  mat  is 
laid. 

The  school-rooms  are  on  the  first  and  second  stories,  and 

*  It  is  quite  possible,  however,  that  the  Society  of  the  Sou  for  Schools 
in  France  had  an  independent  origin. 


296 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


AUSTRIA-HUN¬ 

GARY. 


School-rooms : 
Floor. 
Walls. 
Windows. 


Warming. 


Ventilation. 

Desks. 


Seats. 


Pictures  and 
portraits. 


Officers’  quar¬ 
ters. 


Play-hall. 


Garden. 


School  librar 

ies. 


will  each  comfortably  accommodate  eighty  pupils.  Over 
the  entrance  doors  instructive  maxims  are  inscribed.  The 
floor  is  of  hard  wood ;  the  coloring  of  the  walls  plain  and 
light;  the  ceiling  stuccoed.  The  windows  are  on  the  long 
side  of  the  room  (its  proportions  being  3  to  5),  and  occupy 
in  width  one-quarter  of  the  space.  The  top  of  the  window¬ 
sill  is  on  a  level  with  the  school-benches  ;  the  opening  reaches 
nearly  to  the  ceiling.  The  upper  sash  turns  on  horizontal 
hinges  and  opens  with  ease  if  ventilation  is  needed.  Cur¬ 
tains  of  half-bleached  linen  protect  against  too  strong  light, 
and  the  arrangement  of  the  windows  is  such  that  the  light 
falls  over  the  left  shoulder  of  the  pupil.  A  porcelain  stove 
stands  near  the  wall  opposite  the  windows,  and  affords  a 
steady  heat  regulated  by  the  thermometer  and  proportioned 
to  the  cubic  measure  of  the  room.  There  are  openings  in 
the  floor  near  it  for  ventilation,  as  also  in  the  ceiling. 

The  school-desks  are  of  three  sizes  and  are  so  constructed 
that  the  pupil  can  either  sit  or  stand  while  writing.  Each 
has  two  seats  and  an  adjustable  support  for  the  back.  The 
seats  are  made  with  reference  to  the  healthful  and  com¬ 
fortable  posture  of  the  pupils,  care  being  taken  that  the 
bend  of  the  knee  shall  form  a  right  angle.  An  inkstand  is 
fastened  into  the  top  of  the  desk,  and  a  shelf  for  books  lies 
beneath.  Near  the  teacher’s  desk,  on  a  raised  platform,  is  a 
chest  for  keeping  the  school  apparatus,  and  a  wash-basin 
for  occasional  use.  An  image  of  the  Emperor  adorns  every 
school-room,  and  landscapes,  illustrations  of  national  his¬ 
tory,  pictures  which  represent  historical  scenes,  and  portraits 
of  men  distinguished  in  Austrian  history  hang  on  the  walls. 
The  rooms  are  daily  cleaned  and  ventilated. 

On  the  ground  floor,  separate  from  the  school-rooms,  is 
the  residence  of  the  janitor;  in  the  third  story,  that  of  the 
director. 

The  building  is  amply  supplied  with  pure  spring  water. 
The  adjacent  hall  for  gymnastic  exercises  has  a  plank  floor 
and  is  well  stocked  with  apparatus.  The  space  between  the 
house  and  the  hall  is  covered  with  gravel  and  used  for  ex¬ 
ercise  in  the  open  air.  The  garden  surrounding  the  school- 
house  serves  for  instruction  in  natural  history  as  well  as  in 
agriculture,  and  is  also  a  pleasure  ground.  Even  where  the 
situation  does  not  admit  of  entire  conformity  to  these  de¬ 
mands  of  government,  they  yet  give  a  beneficial  impulse. 

School  libraries. 

The  formation  of  school  libraries  has  been  a  subject  of 
legislation  since  1869.  Previous  to  that  time  individual 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


297 


schools  had  received  libraries  from  the  government,  and  AUS™fYHUN' 

teachers  had  formed  by  union  among  themselves  the  founda- - 

tions  of  teachers’  libraries. 

By  the  latest  legislation  every  Volkschule  is  to  have  at  its  ii£™n 
command  a  library  which  shall  offer  first  of  all  to  youth  the 
means  of  improvement  through  reading.  The  head  master 
of  the  school  has  the  charge  of  this  library.  The  books  can 
be  lent  to  the  members  of  the  school  community  with  or 
without  a  tax. 

Every  school-district  must  establish  a  library  for  teachers.  brari^achers  n' 
The  aim  is  to  render  accessible  to  the  teachers  the  scien¬ 
tific  works  of  the  time  and  works  relative  to  the  science 
of  teaching,  as  well  as  technical  aids.  These  books  are  se¬ 
lected  by  a  committee  chosen  by  the  teachers’  conference 
of  the  district.  The  cost  of  the  school  library  is  borne  .  Cost  of  iibra- 
either  by  the  community  or  raised  by  free-will  offerings  of 
the  patrons  of  the  school.  The  teachers  themselves  con¬ 
tribute  one-half  per  cent,  to  the  support  of  the  teachers’ 
libraries. 

The  interest  of  the  people  has  been  greatly  awakened  in 
this  direction.  Associations  and  patrons  of  the  schools 
show  a  commendable  rivalry  in  furnishing  libraries. 

Kindergarten.  Kindergarten. 

The  care  and  training  of  children  under  the  compulsory 
age  for  school  attendance  has  been  a  subject  of  public  inter¬ 
est  in  Austria  ever  since  the  publication  of  Wertheimer’s 
book  u  On  Early  Education  and  the  English  Infant-Schools.” 

It  led  to  the  erection,  in  1830,  of  the  first  guardian  school  ,  ,  Guardian 

'  '  schools. 

in  Vienna.  In  187 1  there  were  in  Austria  201  similar  institu¬ 
tions.  This  was  treated  throughout  as  a  private  business, 
and  was  recognized  by  the  school  boards  only  as  they  gave 
permission  to  build,  until  the  ordinance  of  the  Minister  of 
Education,  in  1872,  established  the  organization  of  the  kin¬ 
dergarten  and  showed  its  beneficial  tendencies.  It  acts  Governmental 
upon  the  conviction  that  the  training  of  children  too  young  SSfersohooi age! 
for  the  schools  forms  an  important  part  of  the  geueral  edu¬ 
cation  of  the  people,  and  recommends,  in  accordance  with 
the  best  views  of  medical  and  educational  authors,  the  kin¬ 
dergarten  as  an  institution  carrying  out  its  own  aims.  The 
government,  without  encroachment  upon  private  institu¬ 
tions,  ordered  the  several  school  authorities  to  establish 
kindergarten,  either  independent  or  connected  with  other 
schools. 

The  office  of  the  kindergarten  is  to  aid  and  supplement. .  office  of  the 
the  home  training  of  the  child,  i.  e,,  to  prepare  children 


298 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

AU-“-  through  regular  exer6ises  of  body  and  mind,  as  well  as 

- through  the  natural  training  of  the  heart,  for  the  instruction 

of  the  Volkschule. 

Kindergarten.  Children  are  admitted  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
year,  are  employed  from  two  to  three  hours  in  the  morning 
and  two  in  the  afternoon.  The  number  in  one  kindergarten 
is  limited  to  40.  Besides  a  suitable  room,  a  pleasant  and 
safe  place  for  play  and  movement  in  the  open  air  must  be 
provided. 

Teachers.  The  certificates  necessary  for  the  teachers  are  the  same 
as  those  demanded  for  Yolkschule  teaching,  and  they  must 
prove  their  practical  ability  for  work  in  the  kindergarten. 
Special  courses  are  arranged  for  the  training  of  such  teach¬ 
ers. 

Secondary  edu-  SECONDARY  EDUCATION. 

cation. 

The  term  Mittelschule  (middle  school)  is  applied  in  Aus¬ 
tria  to  gymnasiums,  Real-schools  and  Real- gymnasiums,  as 
holding  a  middle  rank  between  the  common  schools  and  the 
university.  The  national  legislation  of  1867  and  1868  was 
as  marked  an  epoch  in  their  history  as  in  that  of  the  com- 
Ereed  from  mon  school.  It  freed  them  from  the  church  authority 
by  theiegiSation  established  by  the  concordat  of  1855,  and  limited  the  con¬ 
trol  of  the  episcopal  commissioners  to  religious  instruction. 
By  a  subsequent  law  of  the  empire  this  instruction  is  regu¬ 
lated  in  detail.  Church  instruction  is  given  in  every  middle 
Regulations  school  which  has  twenty  believers.  The  requirements  for  the 
struction.  office  of  religious  teacher  are  the  same  as  in  other  depart¬ 
ments  of  instruction,  except  that  the  school  boards  are 
bound  to  accept  such  candidates  as  the  church  declares 
suitable.  These  teachers  are,  like  others,  subject  to  school 
law. 

Modifications  The  same  national  law  gave  each  nationality  the  right 
J£reda  necessary  to  have  in  struction  imparted  in  its  own  tongue.  Hence 
mentbof  tm>Pian- arose  the  necessity  of  employing  in  the  middle  schools 
famffschooi.  e  the  pupiFs  mother  tongue  when  the  German  language 
would  not  answer.  The  pressure  of  national  agitation 
on  the  subject  forced  from  the  government  many  con¬ 
cessions  of  an  undesirable  tendency.  There  yet  exists  in 
several  institutions  what  is  called  utraquistist  instruction  5 
i.  6.,  the  alternate  employment  of  two  languages  in  the 
same  class,  or  a  separation  into  parallel  classes  according 
to  the  language — a  measure  Avhich  suits  less  the  aims  of 
education  than  the  wish  of  the  nationalities,  who  think  the 
mingled  relations  of  the  people  should  be  strictly  observed 
in  the  schools.  The  results  are  very  different  when  the  lan¬ 
guage  of  one  race  becomes  the  medium  of  instruction  in 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


299 


each  school.  The  action  of  the  law  adopting  the  latter  AU8™AyHUN‘ 

method  has  led  to  the  establishment  of  middle  schools  of - 

various  nationalities — German,  Czechian,  Polish,  Servian, 

Ruthen,  Croatian,  and  Italian.  Their  proportionate  numbers 
show  the  respective  culture  of  the  nationalities. 

The  laws  regulating  salaries  and  pensions  have  been  of  salaries  and 

.  n  pensions. 

great  service  in  the  system.  The  salaries  are  fixed  by  law, 
and  differ  in  the  different  provinces.  After  five  years’  serv¬ 
ice  the  salary  is  raised  200  florins.  The  Minister  of  Edu¬ 
cation  has  the  right  (within  specified  limits)  of  allowing  an 
increase  of  salary  to  directors  and  teachers  who  distinguish 
themselves  in  merit.  After  thirty  years’  service  professors 
have  a  claim  to  full  salary  as  a  pension.  The  widows  of 
directors  have  a  pension  of  400  florins  $  widows  of  profes¬ 
sors  350.  A  modification  of  these  laws  by  imperial  legisla¬ 
tion  brought  the  system  of  rank  into  the  personnel  of 
education. 

The  practical  education  of  candidates  for  the  teacher’s  Education 

v..  .  °f  candidates  for 

office  in  middle  schools  has  received  especial  attention  on  teaching, 
the  part  of  the  government,  and  an  ordinance  of  the  Minis¬ 
ter  in  1876  regulated  the  matter  in  a  new  and  salutary  man¬ 
ner.  An  important  feature  of  the  improvements  is  the 
sending  of  candidates  in  small  numbers  to  some  experienced 
teacher  for  two  or  three  months  to  observe  his  method  of 
teaching  and  to  take  classes  themselves  under  his  eye. 

Regular  conversations  are  also  held  between  the  professor 
and  the  candidates  on  the  theory  and  practice  of  teaching 
as  well  as  on  school  literature. 

The  buildings  of  the  middle  schools  are  especially  to  be  Good  samtarv 
commended  for  their  excellent  sanitary  arrangements.  One  arrangemcnts- 
in  Vienna  for  a  Realschool,  completed  in  1875,  is  perhaps 
the  finest  of  its  class. 

Gymnasiums.  Gymnasiums. 

The  gymnasium,  reorganized  thoroughly  since  its  estab-  ^Reorganized in 
lishment  in  1849,  became  in  1867  an  affair  of  imperial  legis¬ 
lation.  In  1870  an  inquiry  was  ordered  into  the  reforms  Subject  of  im- 

A  '  penal  legislation 

needed,  to  which  the  school  boards  were  required  to  send  ^  1867. 
delegates  from  the  teachers  of  the  different  departments. 

The  noteworthy  points  of  inquiry  put  by  the  Ministry  were 
as  follows : 

1.  To  what  extent  do  the  establishment  and  continuance  Queries  by  tho 

i  j  •  •  o  minister  in  1870. 

ot  preparatory  classes  m  the  gymnasium  appear  judicious? 

2.  Under  what  stipulations  does  the  introduction  of  free¬ 
hand  drawing  into  the  obligatory  course  of  the  lower  gym¬ 
nasiums  appear  desirable? 


300 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


AUSTRIA-HUN¬ 

GARY. 


Gymnasiums. 


Inquiries  by 
the  Ministry  of 
Education. 


Conclusions  of 
the  Commission 
on  Education. 


Preparatory 
classes  discoun¬ 
tenanced. 


Drawing. 


Natural  philos¬ 
ophy. 


Natural  his¬ 


tory. 


Modern  lan¬ 
guages 


Religious  doc¬ 
trine. 


3.  What  proportion  of  instruction  in  natural  science  shall 
be  given  to  the  lower  classes  ? 

4.  How  shall  instruction  in  the  natural  sciences  be  sys¬ 
tematized  in  the  upper  classes,  and  be  brought  into  connec¬ 
tion  with  the  graduating  examinations  ? 

5.  In  what  way  can  instruction  in  modern  languages  find 
room  within  the  arranged  course  of  study  without  overbur¬ 
dening  the  pupil  ? 

(I  What  shall  be  done  with  reference  to  the  religious 
instruction  of  the  upper  classes  to  bring  it  into  harmony 
with  the  present  legislation  % 

The  conclusions  of  the  commission  which  had  a  bearing 
upon  these  questions  were  as  follows : 

1.  The  establishment  and  continuance  of  preparatory 
classes  in  the  gymnasium  are  generally  neither  judicious 
nor  necessary.  Exceptional  cases  may  admit  of  their  tem¬ 
porary  establishment. 

2.  Free  hand  drawing  should  be  introduced  into  the  under 
classes  as  an  obligatory  study r  with  a  maximum  of  three 
lessons  weekly  and  a  minimum  of  two.  The  instruction 
should  be  imparted  according  to  classes  and  not  grades.  It 
would  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  have  a  knowledge  also  of 
descriptive  geometry. 

3  and  4.  Instruction  in  natural  philosophy,  and  equally  in 
natural  history ,  demands  a  new  arrangement  and  a  greater 
proportion  of  time  in  both  upper  and  lower  classes.  It 
should  appropriately  culminate  in  the  8th  class  by  the 
introduction  of  physical  geography,  with  especial  reference 
to  geology.  Five  lessons  shall  be  given  weekly  in  the  8th 
class  and  three  in  the  other  classes. 

5.  Universally  obligatory  instruction  in  modern  languages 
cannot  be  regarded  as  desirable.  The  Ministry  may,  upon 
agreement  with  a  body  of  teachers  and  the  national  school 
council,  declare  such  instruction  obligatory  in  one  or  seve¬ 
ral  gymnasiums  of  a  province.  For  instruction  which  is  not 
obligatory,  no  teacher  should  be  appointed  who  is  not  well 
versed  in  the  languages  and  also  able  to  impart  to  the 
pupils  sound  instruction  based  upon  philosophic  grounds. 
The  government  should  undertake  the  support  of  this 
teacher,  so  that  pupils  may  receive  the  instruction  gratui¬ 
tously. 

6.  Instruction  in  religious  doctrine  should  be  obligatory 
in  both  the  higher  and  lower  gymnasiums ;  in  the  former, 
two  lessons  a  week;  in  the  latter,  one  only.  It  should  be 
omitted  as  a  subject  of  the  graduating  examinations. 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


301 


Real-gymnasiums.  austria^hun- 

The  real-gymnasiums  were  formed  in  1864.  In  aiming  to  iumJeal'symnas' 
prepare  equally  for  the  higher  gymnasiums,  and  the  higher 
realschools,  they  differ  from  the  simple  gymnasium.  They 
owe  their  origin  to  the  efforts  of  Dr.  Adolph  Fricker  before  d*.  Fricker. 
the  common  council  of  Vienna.  His  proposition  was  that 
the  course  in  the  two  lower  gymnasiums  of  that  city  should 
be  so  extended  as  perfectly  to  qualify  their  graduates  for  scope  Desisn  and 
admission  into  higher  real-schools  without  the  private  in¬ 
struction  otherwise  necessary.  After  this  change,  both 
these  institutions  received  the  name  of  Real-gymnasiums. 

These  schools  soon  became  popular,  and  recent  legislation 
declares  the  real-gymnasium  to  be  a  lower  gymnasium  which 
gives  all  its  four  classes  obligatory  instruction  in  free-hand 
drawing,  and  offers  to  the  pupils  of  the  3d  and  4th  classes  a 
choice  between  instruction  in  the  Greek  or  the  French  lan¬ 
guages. 

Real-SCllOOls .  Eeal-schools. 

The  Real-schools,  established  in  1851,  were  reorganized  in 
1868.  Director  De  Weiser,  some  years  before,  pointed  out  DeWeiser. 
these  defects  in  the  system  : 

1.  The  existence  of  studies  having  reference  to  subordin-  vious^ofi8G8.pre" 
ate  ends,  and  not  in  harmony  with  the  aims  of  universal 
education,  such  as  mercantile  arithmetic,  custom  and  ex¬ 
change  business,  and  book-keeping,  in  the  lower  real-schools, 

and  separate  teaching  in  the  construction  of  machinery  in 
the  higher. 

2.  An  irregular  division  and  succession  of  studies. 

3.  An  insufficient  regard  for  the  so-called  u  humanities,” 
especially  instruction  in  language. 

4.  Too  many  lessons  a  week. 

5.  Too  small  a  number  of  six  years’  courses. 

6.  The  lack  of  graduating  examinations. 

In  1868  a  government  proposition  was  brought  before  the  Proposed  re- 

.  .  organization  in 

seventeen  diets  ot  the  empire. and  provinces.  This  proposi-  1868. 
tion  stated  as  the  aim  of  the  realschool:  (1)  A  general  edu¬ 
cation  with  especial  reference  to  the  mathematical  discip-  Exact  sciences, 
line  of  the  exact  physical  sciences ;  and  (2)  preparation  for 
higher  special  schools  (polytechnic  institutes,  academies  for  Special  studies, 
forestry  affairs,  mining  colleges,  and  high  schools  for  agri¬ 
culture).  The  separation  into  higher  and  lower  schools  was  Graded  schools, 
to  be  maintained,  the  number  of  classes  in  each  enlarged, 
and  real-gymnasiums  allowed  to  take  the  place  of  the  lower 
schools.  The  age  of  ten  years  was  made  the  minimum  of  Ago  of  pupils. 


302 


AUSTRIA-HUN¬ 

GARY. 


Real-schools. 

Languages. 


Examinations. 


Studies:  obli¬ 
gatory  and  vol¬ 
untary. 


Law  of  1868. 

Religion. 

Literature. 

Gymnastics. 

History. 


National  econ¬ 
omy. 

Logic. 

Examination  of 
teachers. 


Associate 

teachers. 


Teachers’  con¬ 
ference. 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

entrance ;  the  highest  number  of  pupils  in  one  class  was 
fixed  at  50.  The  plan  of  instruction  was  to  be  changed  by 
giving  more  attention  to  linguistic  discipline ;  and  modern 
languages  (English,  French,  and  Italian)  were  made  oblig¬ 
atory. 

The  introduction  of  graduating  examinations  as  condi¬ 
tions  of  entrance  upon  higher  technical  studies  was  a  new 
feature  in  the  system.  Teachers  of  the  higher  classes  form 
the  examining  committee  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
national  school  inspectors. 

The  required  studies  by  this  proposition  were  to  be  relig¬ 
ion,  language  (possibly  a  second  speech  of  the  province, 
French  and  English,  or  French  and  Italian),  geography,  his¬ 
tory,  physics,  chemistry,  geometrical  and  free-hand  draw¬ 
ing,  penmanship.  Voluntary  studies:  in  German  schools, 
provincial  tongues  not  German — in  schools  not  German  the 
German  language,  and  modeling,  stenography,  singing,  gym¬ 
nastics  and  other  desirable  studies  approved  by  the  national 
school  board. 

Legislation  on  the  real-schools  differed  from  this  proposi¬ 
tion  in  particular  points.  Religion  is  limited  to  the  lower 
schools ;  where  the  language  is  German,  literature  is  re¬ 
quired.  Gymnastics  is  usually  obligatory ;  the  Austrian 
form  of  government  is  taken  up  in  connection  with  history. 
Upper  Austria  and  Garinthia  have  also  the  elements  of 
national  economy  among  obligatory  studies.  Moravia  has 
even  formal  logic. 

The  examination  of  teachers  for  the  scientific  department 
is  intrusted  to  a  committee  chosen  by  the  Minister  of  Educa¬ 
tion.  From  the  moment  of  definite  assignment  to  office 
these  officers  assume  the  title  of  professor.  Associate 
teachers  (of  gymnastics,  singing,  etc.)  must  prove  their  fit¬ 
ness  in  some  way  approved  by  government.  The  regu¬ 
lar  number  of  teachers  in  the  higher  schools  is  13 ;  in  the 
lower,  7.  They  form,  under  the  supervision  of  the  director, 
the  teachers’  conference,  with  certain  administrative  rights 
and  privileges. 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


303 


The  following  tables  will  enable  us  to  compare  the  gym-  austei^hun- 
nasiums  and  the  real-schools  with  respect  to  their  studies :  - 


Hours  a  iveek  of  required  studies  by  classes. 


Subject. 

Real-gymna  sium . 

Lower  gymna¬ 
sium. 

Lower  real- 
school. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

1. 

2 

3. 

4. 

Religion . 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

German . 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

3 

Latin . 

8 

8 

6 

6 

8 

8 

6 

6 

Greek 

*4 

*4 

5 

4 

"French  .  _ 

*3 

*3 

5 

4 

4 

3 

History . 

2 

1 

2 

2 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Mathematics . 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

”3 

3 

3 

4 

Geography  . 

3 

2 

2 

2 

3 

2 

2 

2 

3 

2 

2 

2 

Natural  History 

3 

3 

2 

2 

1 

3 

3 

Physics . 

3 

14 

1 

3 

4 

2 

Chemistry 

3 

Geometrical  drawing . } 

O 

Q 

Q 

3 

q 

3 

3 

3 

Free-hand  drawing . 3 

o 

O 

4 

4 

4 

25 

26 

20 

27  1 
1 

22 

23 

24 

1 

25 

26  j 

27 

28  j 

28 

Table  of  stud¬ 
ies  in  gymna¬ 
siums  and  real- 
schools. 


*  These  are  elective,  or  appear,  tbe  one  language  in  one  school  and  the  other  in 
another. 


Hours  a  week  of  study  in  required  subjects  in  the  typical  real-school  of  seven 
classes  in  Austria  proper. 


Table  of  stud¬ 
ies  in  Austrian 
real-schools. 


Subject. 

1. 

2. 

3.  4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

Religion  . 

2 

2 

2  ,  2 

German  language  and  literature . . 

4 

4 

4  3 

3 

3 

3 

French  language  . 

5 

4 

4  3 

3 

2 

2 

English  language . . . . . 

3 

0 

2 

Geography . . 

3 

2 

2  !  2 

History,  and  elements  of  Austrian  constitutional  law 

2 

2  2 

3 

3 

3 

Mathematics . 

3 

3 

3  4 

6 

5 

5 

Geometrical  drawing  and  descriptive  geometry . 

6 

3 

3  j  3 

3 

3 

3 

Natural  history . . . 

3 

3 

3 

2 

3 

Physics . 

“4"  2 

4 

4 

Chemistry . 

3 

V 

3 

2 

Free-hand  drawing . 

. ... 

4 

4  4 

4 

4 

4 

Penmanship . .  . 

1 

1 

27 

28  ! 

28  |  28 

31  j 

31 

31 

Gymnastics  2  hours  a  week  in  every  class.  In  many  provinces,  national  economy 
1  hour  a  week  in  the  7th  class. 


In  Hungary  proper  the  law  of  1869,  in  regard  to  elementary 
instruction,  has  been  put  into  vigorous  execution.  The  figures 
of  primary  schools  are  shown  as  in  the  following  table : 


1869. 

1876. 

Children  of  school  age . 

2,  304,  88? 
1,  093,  077 
13.  646 
17,  796 
295 

2, 129,  597 
1,  507,  031 
15,  338 
20, 125 
450 

Actual  attendance . 

Number  of  primary  schools . 

Number  of  teachers  in  this  grade . 

Schools  receiving  state  aid . 

Hungary :  sta¬ 
tistics  of  primary 
schools. 


Seminaries,  which  serve  the  purpose  to  some  extent  of  Seminaries, 
normal  schools,  have  been  established,  some  public  and  some 


304 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

AUSgajryHUN  private  and  some  for  men  exclusively  and  others  for  women. 
- The  total  is  as  follows  : 


Statistics  of. 


1871. 

1876. 

Number  of  seminaries . 

60 

63 

Number  of  classes .  . . 

119 

176 

Number  of  teachers . . 

868 

559 

Number  of  pupils . . . 

1,  786 

3,  379 

^School  books.  The  necessary  school  boohs  are  provided  by  government, 
as  well  as  many  other  materials  for  instruction.  It  is  a 
Museums  of  custom  in  many  countries  of  Europe  to  found  museums  for 
the  collection  of  materials  of  instruction,  to  afford  a  com¬ 
parison  of  the  means  in  use  in  different  countries,  and  to  sug- 
Libraries.  gest  improvements.  Popular  libraries  are  also  regarded  as 
efficient  means  of  education.  These  instrumentalities  are 
provided  in  Hungary,  and  much  interest  is  felt  in  them. 
Schools  of  sec-  The  schools  of  secondary  instruction,  in  187 6,  are  reported 

ondary  mstruc-  "  - 

tion-  in  the  following  totals: 


Gymnasiums 
Professors  ... 
Pupils . 


147 

1,843 
27, 800 


Real-scliools 
Professors  .. 
Pupils . 


36 
472 
7, 197 


All  these  schools  have  eight  classes,  with  an  annual  course 


for  each. 


Expenditures.  The  amount  voted  for  public  instruction,  in  1877,  was 
10,278,000  francs.  Adding  to  this  the  aids  contributed  by 
the  religious  societies,  we  may  estimate  the  sum  appropri¬ 
ated  to  primary  schools  alone  in  that  year  at  more  than 
18,750,000  francs. 

hiwtsngatiaparis  Tlie  educational  exhibit  of  Hungary  was  ample  and  greatly 
Exposition.  interesting.  The  girls7  schools  were  presented  in  an  attract¬ 
ive  and  creditable  manner.  Some  of  the  artistic  and  orna¬ 
mental  drawing  exhibited  in  the  Hungarian  section  was  the 
finest  seen  in  the  Exposition. 

Among  others  the  designs  specially  noticeable  were  those 
of  the  pupils  of  the  school  of  design  called  the  School  of  the 
Fortress  in  Buda-Pesth,  and  those  of  the  communal  real- 
school  of  the  fourth  district  of  that  city.  Deserving  of  high 
commendation  was  a  remarkable  collection  of  geometrical 
drawings  by  pupils  of  the  normal  school  of  Buda-Pesth 
under  the  direction  of  Professor  Stephen  Eolser. 

GREECE. 

geeece.  Greece  exhibited  but  little  to  show  the  interest  which  with- 

in  a  few  years  has  sprung  up  in  that  country  in  regard  to 
primary  education.  It  is  well  known  that  the  educational 
condition  of  the  people  is  very  low.  The  contrast  between 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


305 


the  great  works  which  in  a  certain  sense  have  made  Greece 
the  mother  of  all  the  arts  and  the  rank  of  that  country  in 
the  scale  of  popular  education  must  sadden  the  mind  of 
every  visitor  to  that  beautiful  land.  The  work  of  two  girls’ 
schools  and  three  or  four  private  lycees  for  boys,  and  the  ma¬ 
terials  employed  by  two  or  three  philanthropic  societies,  were 
the  chief  objects  presented  at  the  Exposition  illustrative  of 
the  recent  progress  of  education  in  Greece. 

A  few  notes  will  be  here  presented,  made  up  mostly  from 
the  census  returns  of  1870,  and  a  very  interesting  work  de¬ 
scriptive  of  the  present  condition  of  Greece  by  M.  Mansolas, 
Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics,  both  of  which  were  part 
of  the  exhibit  of  that  country. 

The  census  returns  as  to  the  statistics  of  population  and 
the  condition  of  the  people  are  said  to  be  more  than  com¬ 
monly  untrustworthy.  It  appears  incontestable,  however, 
that  fully  three-quarters  of  the  male  inhabitants,  and  92  out 
of  every  100  of  the  women  are  entirely  illiterate. 

In  55  communes  there  is  not  a  woman  who  can  read  or 
write.  The  hopeful  friends  of  their  country,  however,  con¬ 
sole  themselves  in  the  belief  that  Greece  does  not  suffer  much 
by  comparison  with  some  of  her  neighbors.  In  Italy,  for 
example,  the  number  of  illiterate  is  about  78  per  cent.;  less 
than  4  per  cent,  can  read  only,  and  less  than  20  per  cent,  can 
both  read  and  write.  The  maximum  in  any  province  of  per¬ 
sons  above  5  years  of  age  able  to  read  and  write  is  for  males 
55.53  x>er  cent.,  and  for  females  44.33  per  cent.  But  this  is 
in  the  island  of  Corfu  alone.  The  minimum  in  this  regard 
is  in  the  province  of  Xirochori,  where  the  men  able  to  read 
and  write  are  only  12  in  100,  and  the  women  only  44  in  1,000.# 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  reproduce  here  two  tables  taken 
from  the  official  reports. 


Number  in  every  hundred  who  can  read  and  write  in  the  several  nomarchies 
{departments). 


Departments. 

Men. 

Women. 

Attica  and  Bceotia . 

37.  04 
25.  08 
29.  22 

13.  56 
4.  09 
3.  98 

Euboea . 

Pkthiotis  and  Phocis . 

Acarnania  and  .ZEtolia . 

26.  20 

3. 11 

Acha'ia . 

37.  07 
27  59 

6.  21 

Arcadia . .  . 

3.  02 

Laconia  . 

Me/ssenia . 

35.  93 
28.  56 

2.78 
3.  35 

Argol  is . 

35.  47 

9.  38 

Cyclades . 

36.  26 
40.  67 
34.  73 

16  41 
13.  49 

Corfu  . 

Cephalonia . . . . . 

6.  02 

Zante  (Zacyntlios) . 

38.  89 

11.40 

*  Census  Report  of  Greece  in  1870.  Athens,  1874,  p.  48. 

20  p  K 


GREECE. 


Mansolas. 


Illiteracy. 


Comparison 
with  Italy. 


Table  of  liter¬ 
acy  in  Greek  de¬ 
partments. 


306 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

The  following  table  gives  the  same  report  with  reference 
to  certain  provinces,  children  under  5  years  of  age  not  in 
eluded : 


Table  of  liter¬ 
acy  in  Greek 
provinces. 


Province. 

Men. 

Women. 

Attica . 

52. 73 

21.96 
5.57 
4.  44 

Chalcis . . . . . 

23.  28 
29.  33 

Pkthiotis . 

Missolonghi . 

35.  31 

11.  33 
34.  74 

Patras . . . 

38.  48 

Mantinea . 

22.  35 
40.  34 

3.  54 

Lacedemon . 

3.  38 

Calamata . 

43.  98 

6.  50 

Nauplia . 

44.  63 

15.  23 

Syra . 

49.  54 

33.  23 

Corfu . 

55.  53 

44.  33 

36  67 

8.  45 
11.  40 

Zante  . 

28.  89 

Obligatory  edu-  The  law  of  1834  made  the  instruction  of  all  children  be- 

cation. 

tween  the  ages  of  5  and  12  years  obligatory,  and  provided 

a  punishment  for  parents  who  did  not  observe  the  law. 

studies  in  pri  That  law  also  prescribed  the  following  studies  for  the  pri¬ 
mary  schools.  A  o  j. 

mary  schools :  The  catechism,  grammar,  reading,  writing, 
and  arithmetic,  legal  weights  and  measures,  linear  drawing, 
vocal  music,  and,  if  possible,  the  elements  of  geography, 
Greek  history,  and  natural  science.  Physical  exercises  twice 
a  week  were  also  required,  and  some  practical  knowledge  of 
agriculture,  horticulture,  arboriculture,  sericulture,  and  api¬ 
culture.  u  But  unhappily,”  says  M.  Mansolas,  u  these  treas¬ 
ures  of  knowledge  were  never  introduced  into  our  poor  pri¬ 
mary  schools,  and  nothing  is  ever  taught  there  but  reading, 
Obligatory  fea-  writing,  and  arithmetic.”  The  law  as  to  obligatory  educa- 

tiire  ft  iailnre. 

tion  was  also  a  dead  letter. 

The  condition  of  primary  instruction  at  the  close  of  the 
year  1877  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION. 


Statistics  of 
primary  schools. 


1 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Schools. 

Masters. 

Pupils. 

Schools. 

Mistresses. 

Pupils. 

Public  . . 

989 

1, 041 

63, 156 
3,  558 

138 

165 

11,  045 
1,  355 

Private 

41 

26 

There  are  many  other  inferior  schools  not  included  in  this 
report. 

The  census  returns  of  1870  gave  the  number  of  communal 
schools  of  the  primary  grade  as  981  for  boys  and  213  for 
girls,  and  reported  that  there  were  boys’  schools  in  every 
commune,  while  there  were  only  128  communes  which  had  a 
girls’  school ;  leaving  233  with  no  girls’  school  at  all.  The 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


307 


result  reached  in  those  returns  shows  that,  out  of  every  1,000  GREECE- 
youth  of  school  age,  of  the  boys  457  and  of  the  girls  879  re¬ 
mained  in  utter  ignorance.  illiteracy. 

Moreover,  the  number  of  children  attending  those  schools 
in  1870  was  reported  to  be  52,943  boys,  and  11,035  girls. 

A  comparison  shows  that  within  the  8  years  the  number  of  Comparison  <>t 
boys’  schools  has  increased  by  8,  and  the  attendance  by  and  the  attend- 
10,213,  while  the  number  of  girls’  schools  has  diminished  by 
75  and  the  attendance  increased  by  10  pupils.  This  is  cer¬ 
tainly  not  a  very  good  showing  for  the  progress  of  girls’ 
education  in  Greece.  The  stationary  figure  of  attendance, 
and  the  actual  falling  off  in  the  number  of  schools,  are 
circumstances  which  deserve  the  attention  of  the  statesmen 
and  patriots  of  that  country. 

We  shall  not  be  less  surprised  if  we  compare  the  returns  Fluctuations, 
of  1865  and  1869  with  each  other,  and  then  compare  both 
with  those  of  1870  and  1878.  For  1865  there  were  809 
boys’ schools  reported,  with  45,242  pupils;  and  165  girls’ 
schools  with  11,483  pupils.  For  1869  there  were  890  boys’ 
schools  with  43,876  pupils;  and  133  girls’ schools  with  8,824 
pupils.  The  redacteur  of  these  statistics  expresses  his  ina¬ 
bility  to  account  for  the  diminution  in  the  number  of  pupils 
in  1869,  especially  when  the  number  of  schools  had  increased, 
and  his  greater  difficulty  in  understanding  the  great  falling 
off  in  girls’  schools,  and  the  attendance  on  them.  He  might 
console  himself,  however,  if  he  were  to  look  at  the  report 
for  1877  and  see  that  the  attendance  of  girls  in  that  year 
was  almost  up  to  the  point  where  it  was  in  1 865,  although 
the  number  of  schools  is  still  27  short. 

But  these  fluctuations  seem  so  unaccountable  that  one  is  Questionable 

accuracy  ot  the 

tempted  to  doubt  the  accuracy  of  the  returns.  If  these  are returns- 
correct,  there  must  be  questions  of  social  and  economic 
science  in  that  country  worthy  of  attentive  study  and  ener¬ 
getic  efforts. 

The  old  normal  school  at  Athens,  founded  in  1834  for  the  at^°t™^  sch°o1 
training  of  primary  teachers,  was  reorganized  in  1878  upon 
an  entirely  new  plan.  The  programme  of  primary  instruc¬ 
tion  was  also  amended,  and  the  normal  course  conformed  to 
it,  in  order  to  insure  its  realization.  The  fact  was  recog¬ 
nized  in  Greece  that  the  only  way  to  keep  the  schools  up  is 
to  provide  good  teachers. 

The  revised  course  of  study  for  primary  schools  in  Greece  Course  m  Pri- 

^  x  mary  schools. 

is  now  the  following : 

Sacred  history  and  the  catechism. 

Reading  and  writing  modern  Greek. 

Arithmetic,  and  legal  weights,  measures,  and  moneys. 


308 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Greece.  Elementary  geometry. 

Course  of  Elementary  geography,  especially  that  of  Greece  and  Hellenic  coun- 
study  in  primary  tries. 

Elementary  history,  especially  that  of  Greece. 

Elementary  geology,  mineralogy,  and  botany. 

Anthropology, 

Elementary  physics  and  practical  agriculture  and  horticulture. 
Linear  drawing,  vocal  music,  and  gymnastics. 


In  the  normal  schools  hygiene  and  pedagogy  are  added 
to  a  thorough  course  in  the  above  branches. 


Secondary  in¬ 
struction. 


Secondary  instruction. 


The  schools  of  this  grade  are  of  two  kinds,  the  Hellenic 
schools,  and  the  gymnasia  or  lycees.  The  former  are  of  three 
classes,  and  serve  to  carry  the  pupil  over  a  wider  range 
than  their  primary  studies,  and  also  fit  them  for  the  gym¬ 
nasiums.  These  are  composed  of  four  classes  and  fit  the 
pupil  for  still  higher  studies  or  for  his  professional  work. 

The  following  tables  show  the  main  facts  gathered  from 
the  most  recent  reports  (1878). 

Numbers. 


Statistics.  Hellenic  schools,  136 ;  masters,  280;  pupils,  7,646. 

Gymnasiums,  18;  professors,  120;  pupils,  2,460. 


Studies. 


Table  shoiving  the  yearly  studies  in  the  secondary  schools. 


Hellenic 

schools. 

Gymnasiums. 

Subjects. 

Years. 

Years. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

Religion . 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Greek . . . - . 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Latin  ....  _ _  ... _ _ _ _ _ _ 

*1 

1 

!  i 

1 

fipoprauhv  .  ...  .  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

i 

I 

History  . - . . . . 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

i 

1 

Mathematics  -  -  .... _ .......  . . . 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

i 

1 

Physics  and  chemistry  . . 

1 

1 

i 

1 

Preparatory  philosophy  ... . . . . 

i 

1 

French  . 

English  *"  ...  .... ....... _ ...... 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

i 

1 

] 

1 

Upvrm  fl.n  *  _ _ _  ...... _ _ 

1 

1 

i 

1 

Penmanship  _  _ _ - . 

1 

1 

i 

1 

*  Optional. 


Switzerland.  SWITZERLAND. 

The  exhibit  of  Switzerland  was  among  the  most  note¬ 
worthy  in  the  Exposition  and  showed  both  in  its  extent  and 
variety  the  interest  the  people  of  that  republic  take  in  the 
matter  of  popular  education.  In  this,  as  in  most  other 
countries,  the  direction  of  education  was  at  first  in  the  hands 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


309 


of  the  church.  But,  since  the  Reformation,  the  tendency  oi‘  Switzerland. 
whose  teachings  has  been  to  discriminate  between  the  re¬ 
ligious  and  the  political  organizations  of  the  people,  edu¬ 
cation  has  been  regarded  as  an  affair  of  the  body  politic, 
and  statesmen  rather  than  churchmen  have  charged  them-  ence|ecular  mflu' 
selves  with  its  interests,  and  gradually  determined  its  sphere 
and  its  order. 

The  results  of  the  efforts  of  the  friends  of  popular  educa-  ^constitution  of 
tion  have  been  expressed  in  the  amendment  to  the  consti¬ 
tution  adopted  in  April,  1874,  by  which,  although  the  im¬ 
mediate  supervision  of  common  education  is  in  the  hands 
of  the  respective  cantons,  the  national  authority,  the  federal  it^ederalauthor' 
government,  is  charged  with  a  general  care  and  ultimate 
responsibility  in  the  matter. 

The  amendment  relating  to  this  control  is  in  the  follow¬ 
ing  language : 

“Article  XXVII.  The  Confederation  is  authorized  to  establish,  be-  ArticleXXVlI 
sides  the  existing  polytechnic  school,  a  federal  university  and  other  atewmstitutlon!" 
higher  institutions  of  learning,  or  to  aid  such  institutions  by  subsidies. 

“The  cantons  shall  provide  sufficient  elementary  instruction  placed 
exclusively  under  the  direction  of  the  civil  authority.  This  is  to  be 
obligatory  and  in  the  public  schools  gratuitous. 

“The  public  schools  should  be  such  that  persons  of  all  religious  beliefs 
may  attend  them  without  embarrassment  to  their  liberty  of  conscience 
or  creed. 

“  The  Confederation  will  take  the  necessary  measures  against  the  can¬ 
tons  which  do  not  comply  with  these  requirements.” 

The  cantonal  constitutions  make  more  specific  require-  Cantonal  con- 

x  stitutions. 

ments.  For  instance,  the  canton  of  Vaud  declares  that 
u instruction  shall  be  conformed  to  the  principles  of  Christ¬ 
ianity  and  of  democracy.” 

Still,  doctrinal  text-books  and  teachings  are  excluded.  struc^gious  itt' 
Religious  instruction,  however,  is  given  in  the  school  build¬ 
ing  out  of  school  hours,  and  to  those  only  who  are  of  a 
similar  faith.  The  restriction  excludes  atheistic  and  mater¬ 
ialistic  teachings,  as  well  as  sectarian,  from  the  course  of 
instruction. 

The  peculiar  military  laws  of  Switzerland  have  a  direct  Military  laws, 
bearing  on  the  spread  of  education.  All  the  youth  of  20 
years  of  age,  not  physically  incapacitated,  are  enrolled  for 
military  duty,  and  at  this  time  all  who  cannot  show  that 
they  have  had  at  least  a  year’s  instruction  in  schools  above 
the  elementary  grade,  are  required  to  submit  to  an  exami¬ 
nation  in  certain  branches  of  primary  education.  If  they 
fail  to  pass  their  examination,  they  are  required  to  attend 
the  supplementary  schools  established  by  the  military  au-  SCh0ois.  Mllltary 


310 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


SWITZERLAND. 


Illiteracy. 


Obligatory  at¬ 
tendance. 


Observed  in 


thorities,  where  instruction  is  given  in  the  elements  of  a 
primary  education  including  geography  and  history. 

These  examinations  have  brought  out  in  a  striking  man¬ 
ner  the  large  remnant  of  illiteracy  after  all  the  efforts  made 
to  overcome  it,  and  in  particular  the  inequalities  in  the 
spread  of  education  in  the  different  cantons.  Twelve  per 
cent,  of  the  whole  number  examined  in  1876  were  found 
deficient,  and,  public  attention  being  thus  called  to  the  de¬ 
linquencies  of  certain  localities,  the  authorities  of  the  federal 
law  will  be  brought  to  bear  upon  them. 

The  law  requires  all  parents  to  send  their  children  to 
school  between  the  ages  of  six  and  twelve  years.  '  It  would 
Protestant  CaiS  seertb  however,  that,  while  the  requirement  is  well  carried 
tous-  out  by  Protestants  generally,  the  Eoman  Catholics  are 

inclined  to  disregard  it.  The  most  advanced  cantons  in  an 
educational  point  of  view  are  Bale,  Geneva,  Turgovie, 
Keiative  ad- Zurich,  Schaff  hausen,  Yaud,  Neuchatel,  Berne,  St.  Gall? 
ferent  cantons.1  Soleure.  It  may  be  said  in  general  that  the  northeastern 
and  Protestant  cantons  are  most  advanced.  In  these  the 
proportion  of  children  attending  school  as  compared  with 
the  whole  population  is  reported  to  be  as  one  to  five,  while 
0ftbeCPTOtestaSin  cantons  where  the  inhabitants  are  nearly  equally  divided 
obc  SnToa“sCath  between  the  Catholic  and  the  Protestant  faith  the  propor¬ 
tion  is  as  one  to  seven,  and  in  the  wholly  Boman  Catholic 
cantons  it  is  as  one  to  nine. 

“suffiAI?nt”Sedu6  What  that  u  sufficient”  education  is  which  the  constitu- 
stautio°n the  con  ti°n  requires  the  cantons  to  provide  may  be  discovered  from 
the  test  required  at  the  military  enrollment.  The  element¬ 
ary  education  comprises  a  course  of  from  six  to  nine  years 
in  the  following  branches :  Beading,  writing,  and  composi¬ 
tion;  mental  and  written  arithmetic,  including  decimal 
fractions  and  the  “rule  of  three”;  geography  and  element¬ 
ary  cosmography;  history  and  political  constitution  of 
Switzerland;  geometrical  drawing;  elements  of  hygiene 
and  natural  history,  and,  in  rural  districts,  agriculture; 
vocal  music,  gymnastics  for  boys,  and  various  household 
handiworks  for  girls. 

This  may  be  regarded  as  the  sufficient  elementary  educa¬ 
tion  contemplated  by  the  constitution,  unless  we  may 
properly  add,  since  it  is  required  of  all  youth  who  are  sub¬ 
ject  to  military  enrollment,  the  extra  year’s  work  in  some 
school  of  higher  grade. 

This  requirement  as  to  elementary  instruction  is  not  only 


Exacted  in  all 
schools. 


strictly  carried  out  in  public  schools  but  is  exacted  also  of 
all  private  or  denominational  schools  and  even  in  home 
instruction.  The  intention  is  that  no  child  shall  be  suffered 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


311 


to  grow  up  without  this  measure  of  elementary  instruction,  Switzerland. 
whatever  be  his  social  condition  or  religious  faith.  To 
secure  this  end  the  civil  authorities  are  charged  with  the 
duty  of  enforcing  the  law.  It  is  fair  to  say,  however,  that  primary  schools, 
the  feeling  is  prevalent  in  Switzerland  that  too  many  sub¬ 
jects  of  study  are  attempted  in  the  primary  school. 

As  to  the  obligatory  education,  a  reasonable  time  (until  Obligatory  edu- 
April  19,  1879)  was  given  to  enable  all  the  cantons  to  carry 
the  new  constitutional  provision  into  effect.  The  details 
are  not  the  same  in  all  the  cantons  in  respect  to  the  dura¬ 
tion  of  school  attendance  or  the  means  used  to  secure  it. 

The  average  duration  of  the  elementary  course  is  eight  „  Duration 

°  °  of  the  elementary 

years.  Some  of  the  cantons  require  two  years7  attendance  course, 
on  schools  of  a  higher  grade ;  some  require  review  courses 
between  the  fifteenth  and  twentieth  years  of  age ;  and  some 
require  special  courses  with  reference  to  local  circumstances. 

Penalties  are  imposed  upon  parents  for  the  unexcused.  .  Penalties 
absence  of  their  children  from  school,  usually  in  the  shape  school, 
of  fines  ranging  from  a  few  cents  to  five  or  six  dollars,  but 
sometimes  in  the  form  of  imprisonment  when  the  evil  is 
otherwise  incorrigible.  As  an  instance  of  the  mode  of  pro¬ 
cedure  the  practice  in  the  canton  of  Soleure  may  be  cited : 

An  absence  from  school  for  two  half  days  is  reported  to  the 
parent  through  the  police.  At  the  end  of  every  month  the 
teacher  sends  to  the  nearest  magistrate  a  list  of  absentees. 

This  officer  gives  judgment  for  the  amount  of  the  penalty, 
and  reports  this  to  the  police  court,  where  it  is  finally  exe¬ 
cuted.  If  the  fine  is  not  paid  within  a  month  the  default¬ 
ing  party  may  be  imprisoned.  The  police  may  also  arrest  Truancy, 
any  truant  and  take  him  to  school;  in  which  case  any  fine 
imposed  goes  to  the  policeman.  These  stringent  measures 
will  enforce  the  obligatory  provisions  of  the  law. 

Secondary  instruction.  .  .  Secondary 

°  instruction. 

The  schools  of  the  secondary  grade  are  not  organized  on 
the  same  plan  in  the  different  cantons.  The  cantons  of 
Zurich,  Argo  vie,  Thurgovie,  Bern,  Bale,  Soleure,  Yaud, 

St.  Gall,  Schaff  hausen,  Lucerne,  Schwytz,  Grisons,  Geneva, 

Neuchatel,  and  Fribourg  have  cantonal  schools,  divided 
into  what  might  be  called  gymnasiums  and  real-schools — 
the  former  fitting  pupils  for  the  university  and  the  latter 
for  the  polytechnic  school. 

Perhaps  a  clearer  idea  may  be  formed  by  taking  one  Schools  of  vaud. 
canton — that,  for  example,  of  Yaud. 

Lowest  in  order  stand  the  communal  secondary  schools. 

They  are  authorized,  but  not  required,  by  law.  There  are 


312 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Switzerland.  Q11]y  three  in  the  canton.  The  studies  are  religion,  the 
Canton  of  Vaud.  French  and  German  languages,  writing,  drawing,  arith¬ 
metic,  algebra  and  geometry,  national  and  general  history, 
political  instruction,  geography,  the  physical  and  natural 
sciences  applied  to  agriculture  and  industry,  bookkeeping, 
music,  gymnastics 5  and,  for  girls,  appropriate  domestic 
economy.  An  examination  in  primary  studies  is  required 
for  admission.  Applicants  must  also  have  attained  the  age 
of  thirteen  years. 

Next  above  come  the  communal  colleges.  There  are  19  of 
these,  with  130  teachers.  Most  of  them  have  a  branch,  or 
division,  called  a  superior  school,  for  girls.  Many  of  these 
colleges  are  organized  in  the  manner  before  referred  to,  with  a 
classical  and  a  scientific  division.  These  schools  are  said  to 
be  very  successful.  They  are  supported  by  the  communes, 
the  State  participating  by  way  of  subsidy,  and  the  pupils 
paying  a  small  fee  of  40  to  50  francs  a  year.  Great  care  is 
taken  in  the  selection  of  teachers  and  the  arrangement  of 
the  courses  of  study  for  each  year. 

The  cantonal  college  is  the  highest  classical  institution  of 
the  State,  and  the  pupils  prepare  here  for  the  further  pur¬ 
suit  of  academic  studies.  It  has  10  teachers,  beside  the 
director  and  the  special  instructors,  and  260  studeuts.  The 
running  expenses  of  this  college  are  about  53,000  francs  a 
Tuition  fees,  year,  toward  which  the  tuition  fees  of  students  contribute 


Secondary 

instruction. 

Studies. 


Examinations 
and  age  for  ad¬ 
mission. 

Communal 

colleges. 


Classical 
and  scientific  di¬ 
visions. 


Tuition  fee. 


Cantonal  college. 


12,000  francs. 


Cantonal  indus¬ 
trial  school. 


Of  a  certain  correlative  rank  is  the  cantonal  industrial 
school.  This  has  16  teachers  in  all  and  600  students,  a  third 
of  whom  are  Swiss  from  outside  the  canton,  and  a  sixth  for- 

Organization.  eigners.  It  is  organized”  in  two  divisions  ;  the  lower  division 
with  six  classes,  and  the  higher  with  three  sections  of  two 
classes  each — the  industrial,  the  commercial,  and  the  agri¬ 
cultural  sections.  This  last  consists  of  courses  given  only 
in  the  winter  months. 

workshop.  A  workshop  is  about  to  be  added  in  order  to  give  the  stu¬ 
dents  some  practical  instruction  in  the  working  of  wood  and 
iron.  The  pressure  of  students  already  necessitates  the 
formation  of  an  additional  class. 

Normal  schools.  The  cantonal  schools  are  completed  by  two  normal  schools, 
one  for  men  with  a  four  years’  course,  and  one  for  women 
with  a  two  years’  course  ;  the  former  with  100  students,  and 
the  latter  with  60.  This  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  sample  of 
the  different  grades  of  secondary  schools  in  the  several  can¬ 
tons,  although,  as  has  been  already  intimated,  the  cantons 
freely  exercise  their  independent  powers  in  this  regard. 

Much  importance  is  attached  to  the  preparation  of  teach- 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


313 


ers,  as  the  most  effective  method  of  raising  the  character  of  Switzerland. 
popular  education,  and  the  present  disposition  is  strong  to 
establish  normal  schools.  The  cantonal  laws  require  some  t.^chers’  cer- 
certificate  of  competency,  and  where  a  diploma  of  a  normal 
school  is  not  offered  by  a  candidate,  an  examination  is  re¬ 
quired  upon  matter  equivalent  to  a  three  years’  normal 
course.  There  are  now  reported  25  normal  schools  for  Distribution  of 

normal  schools. 

men,  distributed  as  follows:  Zurich  (2),  Berne  (6),  Lucerne, 

Schwytz,  Fribourg  (2),  Soleure,  St.  Gall,  Grisons  (2),  Ar- 
govie,  Thurgovie,  Tessin,  Vaud,  Valais,  Neuchatel  (2),  and 
Geneva  (2).  There  are  also  training  schools  for  female  Training 
teachers  in  the  canton  of  Zurich  (3),  (viz:  in  the  towns  of  teachers0 
Zurich,  Kussnacht,  Winterthur) ;  in  Berne  (2),  Schwytz, 

Zug,  Fribourg,  Argovie,  Veuchatel,  as  well  as  in  the  other 
Catholic  cantons. 

At  present  the  efficiency  of  instruction  is  somewhat  im-  Excess  of  pu. 

pils  to  teachers. 

paired  by  the  great  number  of  pupils  assigned  to  one  teacher, 
reported  as  varying  from  50  to  100;  but  the  good  offices  of 
the  normal  schools  will  relieve  this  evil  by  enlarging  the 
supply  of  competent  teachers. 

The  salaries  of  teachers  are  very  unequal  in  different  parts  Salaries, 
of  Switzerland,  and  no  rational  account  can  be  given  of  the 
manner  in  which  they  are  regulated.  It  may  be  that  greatly 
different  duties  are  exacted  of  them  in  different  situations. 

The  fairest  example  of  an  orderly  arrangement  which  was 
reported  at  the  Exposition  was  that  of  the  canton  of  Vaud. 

For  primary  teachers  the  scale  is  as  follows : 


Francs.  Table  of  sala- 

Teachers  (men)  with  final  certificate . .  1,  400  ries. 

Teachers  (men)  with  provisional  certificate .  900 

Teachers  (women)  with  final  certificate .  900 

Teachers  (women)  with  provisional  certificate .  500 


There  is  also  an  augmentation  for  each  five  years’  service: 

Francs.  Augmentations. 


For  men  after  5  years’  service . .  50 

For  men  after  10  years’  service . 100 

For  men  after  1 5  years’  service .  150 

For  men  after  20  years’  service . 200 

For  women  after  5  years’  service . .  35 

For  women  after  10  years’  service .  70 

For  women  after  15  years’  service .  100 

For  women  after  20  years’  service . 150 


After  30  years’  service  a  certificated  teacher  has  a  retiring  Pensions, 
pension  of  500  francs  a  year,  and  a  woman  400  francs.  The 
widow  of  a  teacher  has  a  right  to  half  the  proper  pension 
of  her  husband.  The  orphan  child  of  a  teacher  is  entitled 
to  a  fifth  of  the  father’s  pension.  Teachers  are,  however, 


314 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Switzerland,  r  equired  to  contribute  to  this  pension  fund  at  the  rate  of  20 
francs  a  year  for  men  and  10  for  women. 

The  account  here  given  of  the  state  of  common  education 
in  Switzerland  is  all  the  more  brief  from  the  consideration 
that  our  people  are  made  more  familiar  with  the  schools  of 
that  country  than  of  any  other  foreign  lands  by  the  well 
known  works  and  reports  upon  this  subject,  among  which 
should  be  noticed  the  interesting  account  recently  given  by 
Mr.  mtz.  Mr.  Hitz,  the  Swiss  consul-general  at  Washington. 

The  following  table  is  compiled  from  the  reports  of  the  can¬ 
tons  which  presented  the  materials  for  it  at  the  Exposition : 


Table  of  schools. 


Population. 

Pupils. 

Schools. 

Teachers. 

Attendance,  per 
cent,  of  popu¬ 
lation. 

PRIMARY  SCHOOLS. 

Bale  (city) . . 

47, 760 

3,  372 

11 

84 

7.  06 

B41e  (country)  . . . 

54, 127 

10, 180 

127 

127 

18.  07 

Berne .  . 

506, 465 

92,  232 

1,  786 

1,873 

18.  02 

Geneva . 

93,  095 

7,  256 

51 

198 

7.  07 

Lucerne . 

132,  338 

16,  462 

294 

294 

12.  00 

Neuchatel . 

100, 165 

7,  638 

385 

388 

7.62 

Vaud . . 

231,  700 

33,  503 

789 

759 

14.02 

Zurich . 

284, 7^6 

43,  365 

732 

606 

15.  02 

SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

B41e  (city)  . . 

3,  013 

6 

96 

6.03 

Bale  (country)  . 

418 

6 

16 

0.77 

Berne  . . .  . 

3,  428 

53 

234 

0.67 

Geneva . . . . . 

2,  900 

18 

142 

3.  01 

Lucerne  . .  .. 

1,041 

30 

63 

0.  07 

Neuchatel . 

1, 173 

35 

84 

1. 17 

V  aud  . 

2,  593 

19 

165 

1.  01 

Zurich . . . 

4,254 

81 

133 

1.  04 

Attendance.  The  number  of  children  attending  the  public  primary 
schools  in  Switzerland  is  420,000,  or  15.7  per  cent,  of  the 
entire  population. 


Other  Euro¬ 
pean  countries. 


OTHER  EUROPEAN  COUNTRIES. 


There  were  no  important  exhibits  of  an  educational  char¬ 
acter,  coming  within  the  scope  of  this  paper,  made  by  any 
Portugal.  other  country  of  Europe.  Portugal  had  some  school-books, 
and  some  specimens  of  pupils’  work  in  written  exercises 
and  drawings.  She  also  exhibited  some  fine  photographs  of 
buildings,  and  one  model  of  a  school  building,  which  seemed 
much  like  the  familiar  American  country  school-house. 
Italy  and  Spain  had  some  exhibits,  but  none  of  special 
Germany  and  importance.  The  absence  of  any  representation  of  the  edu- 
reperetsStednilotcational  status  of  Germany  and  Great  Britain  deprived  us 
of  what  might  well  have  been  a  most  interesting  portion  of 
the  Exposition. 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


315 


Before  passing  to  the  exhibitions  of  the  Western  World,  we 
cannot  fail  to  note  one  bright  example  in  Africa,  and  one 
very  notable  representation  from  Asia — namely,  Algeria 
and  Japan. 

ALG-ERIA.  ALGERIA. 

Algeria  exhibited  herself  at  remarkable  advantage.  Not  Excellent  ex 
only  the  manifest  activity  and  enterprise  of  her  own  offi¬ 
cials  contributed  to  this,  but  the  interest,  and  perhaps  the 
pride,  of  the  French  Government  enhanced  the  effect.  The 
authorities  of  the  Exposition  had  selected  for  this  exhibit  a 
conspicuous  spot  in  the  park  of  the  Trocadero,  and  had  Moorish  palais 
erected  thereon  a  palais,  in  which  the  architectural  dispo¬ 
sitions  and  ornamentation  were  thoroughly  Moorish  in  de¬ 
sign.  In  fact,  the  towers  and  principal  entrances  were  fac¬ 
similes  from  the  minarets  and  mosques  which  are  the  most 
celebrated  relics  of  the  best  age  of  Moorish  art  in  Algeria. 

The  educational  exhibit  seemed  to  draw  as  much  atten¬ 
tion  as  anything  else.  Strangers  to  the  present  civil  aspect 
of  that  country  were  surprised  at  the  evidence  of  advance 
in  the  matter  of  education  and  in  efforts  and  plans  for  still 
greater  excellence. 

The  works  of  pupils  naturally  occupied  much  space  and  workofpupiis. 
were  worthy  of  mention.  Those  of  the  communal  school 
at  Philippeville,  and  of  a  lay  school  for  girls  at  Algiers, 
were  very  interesting,  as  was  also  a  fine  piece  of  work,  a 
carved  staircase,  by  two  boys  of  12  and  14  years  (Moli&re  carving. 
Morius  and  Frangois  Dimures),  of  a  lay  communal  school  in 
Constantine,  which  we  in  this  country  might  hardly  con¬ 
sider  a  school  work,  but  which  showed  a  remarkable  taste 
and  skill.  Teachers  also,  several  of  them  women,  exhibited  metll0dJeacher8’ 
many  of  their  own  methods  of  instruction,  which  might 
well  be  observed  by  our  own  teachers.  M.  Brunet,  inspect-  Brunet, 
or  of  primary  education  in  Algiers,  and  M.  Frin,  inspector  nin. 
of  the  Academy  of  Constantine,  gave  very  full  exhibits  of 
their  material,  methods,  and  results.  Some  models  of 
school  buildings  were  shown,  which  were  exceedingly  at¬ 
tractive,  and  the  Ligue  de  V Enseignement  of  Algiers  pre¬ 
sented  some  school  furniture :  the  desks  and  seats  for  pupils  Furniture, 
were  particularly  fine. 

The  Government  of  Algeria  has  from  its  first  establish¬ 
ment  after  the  French  conquest  made  the  matter  of  popu¬ 
lar  education  one  of  its  chief  objects  of  interest.  Here 
was  a  new  field,  and  movement  was  not  obstructed  by  tra¬ 
ditional  habit  and  prejudice.  M.  Levasseur,  in  a  report  Report  by 
five  years  ago,  speaking  of  the  progress  of  education  inLevasseur- 


316 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


ALGERIA-  Algeria  for  the  first  forty  years,  stated  that  the  comparison 

Attendance,  of  school  attendance  with  the  number  of  European  inhab¬ 
itants  placed  that  country  in  the  first  rank  of  civilized 
States. 

Administra-  The  administration  of  schools  is  much  after  the  French 

on. 

plan.  But  the  difficulty  of  adapting  that  to  the  circum¬ 
stances  in  this  newly  reclaimed  land  has  necessitated  many 
supplementary  expedients.  It  has  been  only  within  the 
last  three  or  four  years  that  a  system  suited  to  these  cir¬ 
cumstances  has  been  fairly  entered  upon. 

Organization.  As  to  the  organization  of  instruction,  we  have  here  the 
threefold  division,  primary,  secondary,  and  superior.  This 
is  intended  chiefly  for  the  children  of  European  origin. 
Two  kinds  of  schools  are  found  here  which  cannot  properly 
come  within  either  of  these  classes.* 


Mussulman 

schools. 


The  Mussulman  schools. 


These  have  existed  in  Algeria  for  a  time  reaching  far  be¬ 
yond  the  French  conquest,  and  are  still  tolerated  by  the 
government  as  serving  a  good  use  until  better  schools,  can 
be  made  available  for  that  grade  of  instruction. 

It  is  not  generally  known  how  widely  primary  instruc¬ 
tion  was  spread  through  the  country  while  it  was  under 
a  school  by  Turkish  domination.  By  the  side  of  every  mosque  or  holy 
every  mosque.  pjace  was  foull(j  a  school,  supported  at  the  expense  of  the 

mosque  or  by  pious  foundations.  In  these  the  children 
studies.  from  the  age  of  6  to  15  years  learned  Arabic  reading  and 
writing,  arithmetic,  and  some  portion  of  those  strange  and 
complicated  laws  of  succession  which  characterize  a  condi- 
The  Koran  the  tion  of  polygamy.  But  the  Koran  being  the  chief  peda¬ 
gogic  code,  as  well  as  serving  for  religious  and  political 
law,  scholars  learned  little  of  any  other  book,  and  their 
written  exercises  were  mostly  copies  of  the  Koran  on  wooden 
tablets.  Where  there  was  no  mosque,  a  tent  served  for 
class-room. 

xo  secondary  There  seemed  to  be  no  secondary  instruction,  as  we  should 
no  middie^iass.  class  it  in  modern  times.  This  is  chiefly  for  the  benefit  of 
what  we  call  u middle  classes”  in  society,  which  have  no 
place  in  countries  where  the  extremes  of  master  and  serv¬ 
ant,  rich  and  poor,  alone  compose  the  social  body. 

Superior  m-  Superior  instruction,  however,  was  natural  to  such  a  con¬ 
dition,  and  such  institutions  were  founded  by  the  generos¬ 
ity  of  sultans  or  the  piety  of  the  faithful. 


*The  Algerian  section  abounded  in  works  iipon  the  civil  and  social 
and  industrial  interests  of  that  colony,  wbich  have  been  freely  used  in 
making  up  this  brief  account. 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


317 


Here  were  added  to  the  usual  studies  the  elements  of  his-  Algeria. 

tory,  rhetoric,  literature,  geometry,  and  astronomy.  These 
schools  were  known  as  the  Medraca,  and  at  the  time  of  the  The “Mcdm™" 

y  1  should  probably 

French  conquest  were  attended  by  3,000  youth.  It  *s  ba/veedbeen  pre' 
thought  by  candid  friends  of  education  in  Algeria,  that  it 
was  unfortunate  that  the  French  Government  did  not  pro¬ 
tect  and  preserve  these  schools,  as  by  means  of  them  the 
Arabic  population  could  have  been  much  more  readily 
reached  than  by  the  present  methods,  which  seem  unnat¬ 
ural  to  those  peculiar  people. 

But  the  French  policy,  or  at  all  events  practice,  was  to  Annexation  of 

”  7  7  .  the  mosques  and 

annex  the  real  estate  of  the  mosques  to  the  public  domain  their  estates  to 
and  to  turn  their  money  revenues  into  the  public  treasury,  main. 
However,  a  recent  report  makes  the  number  of  primary  Primary  Mus 
Mussulman  schools  first  spoken  of,  in  the  whole  extent  of  Algeria. 
Algeria,  as  not  less  than  2,000,  with  about  28,000  attend¬ 
ants.  The  military  authority  has  the  general  oversight  of 
these  outlying  half-civilized  schools,  but  in  no  way  inter¬ 
feres  with  the  courses  of  instruction. 

Three  schools  of  the  higher  order,  the  medraca,  were  re-  Three  Medraca 

7  7  schools  modern- 

Organized  about  twenty-five  years  ago,  and  two  years  ago  ized. 
were  adopted  into  the  regular  school  system,  with  program 
mes  of  study  somewhat  conformed  to  modern  ideas.* 


French  schools  for  natives. 


French  schools 
for  natives. 


There  have  been  efforts  by  benevolent  religious  persons 
to  establish  French  schools  for  the  benefit  of  children  in  the 
interior  subjected  to  the  military  rather  than  the  civil  gov¬ 
ernment.  These  do  not  seem  as  yet  to  be  very  successful. 

Those  which  have  established  some  relations  with  the  gen¬ 
eral  school  system  report  some  1,500  pupils.  Schools  for 
native  adults  have  been  authorized  in  the  three  provinces, 
but  none  are  reported  for  the  year  1878. 

Two  Arabic  colleges  have  been  founded  for  purposes  of  Arabic  colleges, 
secondary  instruction  and  to  open  the  way  for  Mussulman 
youth  to  liberal  careers.  A  reasonable  success  appears  to 
have  followed  this  undertaking. 


Arabic  girls ’  schools. 


Arabic  girls' 
schools. 


Some  attempts  have  been  made  to  encourage  the  education 
of  girls,  and  schools  for  them  were  established  twenty-five 
years  ago  at  Algiers,  at  Bone,  at  Constantine,  and  at  Oran. 

This  was  a  delicate  undertaking,  and  wisdom,  tact,  and  de- 

*  The  information  given  under  this  head  is  derived  chiefly  from  an 
interesting  little  brochure  upon  public  education,  by  M.  De  Salvo,  of  De  Salve. 
Algiers. 


318 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Algeria.  votion  were  necessary  to  reach  any  good  results.  It  is  no 
Prejudices  and  small  task  to  break  down  inveterate  prejudices  and  make 
the  people  comprehend  the  usefulness  of  an  education  for 
those  doomed  to  the  seclusion  of  the  harem  or  the  lowest 
drudgery  of  domestic  life.  Not  much  progress  has  been 
made,  and  it  can  only  come  with  enlightenment  and  moral 
and  social  advancement.  The  esteem  in  which  woman  is 
held  is  a  concomitant  of  civilization— whether  cause  or  con¬ 
sequence  we  cannot  say,  but  a  test  it  surely  is. 


Primary  in¬ 
struction. 


Primary  instruction. 


The  chief  attention  of  the  school  administration  in  Al¬ 
geria  is,  of  course,  given  to  the  children  of  the  European 
population.  In  the  results  of  this  the  colonists  take  a 
<  f  attendant  of  j us^ a^e  pride.  The  present  European  population  is  given 
European  popu-  as  344,749,  and  the  number  of  children  receiving  primary 
instruction  is  about  20  per  cent,  of  the  whole  population. 
As  in  Switzerland,  one  of  the  most  forward  countries  as  to 
popular  education,  this  proportion  is  only  15.5  per  cent.,  the 
showing  is  certainly  good  with  respect  both  to  the  number 
of  children  in  families  and  the  habit  of  attending  school. 
saiies  d’asiie.  jn  organization  of  schools  we  find  ourselves  beginning 
with  the  salles  fflasile  again.  These  number  156,  of  which 
133  are  public  and  23  free  ;  while  125  are  congreganist  and 
31  lay.  They  have  charge  of  about  16,700  children — the 
girls  being  somewhat  more  numerous  than  the  boys. 

All  the  communes  of  Algeria  have  the  public  school — one 
at  least  in  each.  The  number  of  these  is  now  517,  while 
the  free  schools  number  130.  They  are  divided  as  in  the 


following  table : 

Statistics  of  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS, 

public  schools. 

Special  lay  schools  for  boys .  148 

Special  lay  schools  for  girls . . .  76 

Mixed,  for  both  together .  156 

Special  congreganist,  boys . 17 

Special  congreganist,  girls .  95 

Mixed  .  22 

Special  French  schools  for  Arab  boys .  13 

Special  French  school  for  Arab  girls .  1 

-  517 

Eree  schools.  FREE  SCHOOLS. 

Special  lay  schools  for  boys . . .  35 

Special  lay  schools  for  girls  . 50 

Special  congreganist,  boys . 6 

Special  congreganist,  girls .  39 

-  130 

Total  primary  schools . . 647 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


319 


The  number  of  pupils  in  the  public  and  free  schools  is  Algeria. 
49,674  :  25,964  boys  and  23,710  girls. 

There  are  also  evening  courses  for  adults,  mostly  in  charge  ae^vening  cour- 
of  the  teachers  of  the  lay  public  schools.  The  returns  of 
these  for  the  year  1866-’67  give  184  teachers  and  4,184  pupils. 

The  congreganists  have  opened  10  courses,  which  have 
been  attended  by  184  pupils. 

Upon  the  whole,  then,  we  find  that  primary  instruction  isof  attendanc?f^ 
given  to  about  70,000  children  and  youth,  representing  primary  schools, 
about  20  per  cent,  of  the  European  and  naturalized  Israel¬ 
ite  population.  This  instruction  is  entirely  gratuitous,  and 
indeed  nearly  all  the  material  for  instruction  and  study  is 
furnished  at  public  expense.  The  school  attendance  ap¬ 
pears  to  be  nearly  as  extensive  as  if  made  obligatory  by 
law.  * 

Teachers.  Teachers. 

In  order  to  meet  the  demand  for  good  teachers,  two  pri-  Normal  schools, 
mary  normal  schools  have  been  established,  one  for  men 
and  one  for  women,  both  being  wholly  supported  by  the 
State.  A  third,  for  men,  is  in  process  of  construction  at 
Constantine,  which  will  also  be  gratuitous. 

In  repect  to  salary,  there  are  four  grades  of  teachers  and  Salaries, 
three  of  assistants.  For  the  first,  the  salaries  are  at  the 
minimum  of  1,500,  1,700,  1,900,  and  2,100  francs.  For  the 
second,  they  are  1,200,  1,300,  and  1,500. 

These  salaries  may  be  increased  by  various  considerations ;  .  Augmenta- 
the  teaching  of  evening  schools  is  one  of  these,  and  a  pre-  premiums, 
mium  of  300  to  500  francs  is  awarded  to  those  who  are  most 
proficient  in  knowledge  of  the  Arabic  language. 

Secondary  education.  Secondary  edu¬ 

cation. 

The  principal  establishment  of  this  class  is  the  Lycee  of  Lycee  of  Algiers. 
Algiers,  which  has  at  present  78  functionaries  of  various 
orders,  48  of  them  professors ;  and  an  attendance  of  980. 

A  complete  classical  course  is  given  here,  with  special  courses 
in  mathematics. 

There  are  also  10  communal  colleges  in  different  parts  of  Communal  coi- 
the  country,  with  courses  somewhat  adapted  to  local  de-leges' 
mands.  The  average  number  of  children  admitted  each 
year  into  these  different  establishments,  is  3,142,  which  is  at 
the  ratio  of  1  pupil  for  every  109  European  inhabitants,  show¬ 
ing  a  very  favorable  comparison  with  other  and  more  favored 
countries.  Thus  the  proportion  for  similar  conditions  in 

*  It  is  entirely  in  the  large  towns  that  the  irregularity  of  attendance 
appears. 


320  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

_ Algeria.  Germany  is  1  to  500  inhabitants,  and  in  France  1  to  720. 

sohooisCommunal  Of  these  in  the  secondary  schools  of  Algeria,  30  per  cent. 

take  the  classical  course,  23  per  cent,  take  the  special 
mathematics,  and  46  per  cent,  follow  studies  which  properly 
belong  to  the  primary  schools. 

M.  de  Salve  explains  the  latter  item  by  the  fact  that  there 
is  a  scarcity  of  primary  schools,  and  the  colleges  are  tempted 
primary  stud- to  do  what  they  can  to  supply  the  lack.  As  to  the  large 

ies  in  secondary  °  A  A  1  ° 

schools.  proportion  who  take  the  special  courses,  he  reminds  us  that 

society  in  that  country  is  in  a  formative  period,  and,  every 
body  being  anxious  to  grow  rich  as  soon  as  possible,  people 
are  unwilling  to  devote  long  years  to  the  study  of  the  dead 
languages  which  lead  to  a  liberal  profession,  but  prefer  the 
sciences,  which  furnish  the  readiest  instruments  of  fortune, 
statistics  of  at-  The  general  statistics  of  attendance  at  the  secondary 

tendance  at  sec- 

ondary  schools,  schools  may  be  presented  m  tabular  form. 

PUBLIC  INSTITUTIONS. 


Algiers.  Department  of  Algiers  : 

The  Lycde  of  Algiers  . . . . .  980 

College  of  Blidali . . . .  237 

College  of  M^ddah . . .  160 

College  of  Milianah  .  . .  Ill 

Oran.  Department  of  Oran  : 

College  of  Oran  .  238 

College  of  Mostaganem . 165 

College  of  Tlemcen . 181 

Constantine.  Department  of  Constantine : 

College  of  Constantine . . „ . .  393 

College  of  Bone . 180 

College  of  Philippe  ville . 169 

College  of  Setif . 218 

-  3, 030 

Free  institu-  FREE  INSTITUTIONS, 

tions. 

Algiers. — School  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  .  .  83 

Blida.— School  of  St.  Charles  .  87 

Oran. — School  of  Sahut . .  15 

Oran. — School  of  Notre  Dame  . ' . . .  137 

-  322 


Total  in  secondary  schools . . .  3,  352 


antinf6  °f  Con"  The  College  of  Constantine  has  recently  by  law  been  con- 
Lycces.  stituted  a  lycee ,  but  had  not  at  the  time  of  this  report  been 
actually  installed  as  such.  That  of  Oran  will  soon  be  reor¬ 
ganized  in  the  same  manner,  so  that  there  will  be  a  lyc£e 
for  each  department. 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


321 


JAPAN.  JAfAN- 

One  of  the  most  striking  of  the  educational  exhibits  both  Excellence  of 
as  to  variety  and  excellence  was  that  of  Japan.  Nor  can  the 
interest  directed  to  it  by  visitors  be  explained  merely  by  the 
surprise  at  witnessing  such  excellence  from  a  quarter 
where  little  was  looked  for  of  modern  methods  and  broad 
conceptions  of  education.  But  the  fact  is  that  a  very  clear 
picture  was  made  by  this  exhibit,  from  which  it  is  fair  to  in¬ 
fer  that  the  educational  status  and  the  progressive  ideas  of 
Japan  were  well  represented. 

The  exhibit  was  arranged  in  an  orderly  and  scientific  man-  and^tc80pearacter 
ner.  In  one  group  were  works,  charts,  and  tabular  state-  works,  charts, 
ments  illustrating  the  organization  of  public  instruction.  In  lcportb‘ 
another  were  the  reports  and  returns  of  school  officials  and 
the  reports  of  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction.  Two  .  Regulations, 

x  plans,  and  statis- 

others  contained  the  regulations,  programmes,  and  tabulated  tics, 
statistics  of  the  imperial  and  public  schools.  Then  followed 
photographic  views,  plans,  and  sketches  of  the  buildings 
and  grounds  of  these  establishments.  A  very  interesting  Models  of 
class  of  objects  was  the  collection  of  models  in  wood,  repro-  sch°o1  buUdillss- 
ducing  in  the  most  skillful  and  beautiful  manner  many  of  the 
buildings,  new  and  old,  used  for  school  purposes.  Some  of 
these  were  said  to  be  ancient  temples  capable  of  accommo¬ 
dating  1,000  persons,  and  were  certainly  picturesque  and 
charming  to  the  eye,  however  they  may  be  found  to  serve  for 
the  convenience  of  schools.  There  was  also  a  curious  group  tureScl1001  fumi' 
of  school  furniture.  Another  division  was  appropriated  to 
the  classics  of  Japan,  published  by  the  government  for  the  use  Classics  of 

and  instruction  of  the  people,  dictionaries,  works  on  public 
instruction  and  for  the  use  of  professors,  and  journals,  which 
are  coming  to  be  in  Japan  also  powerful  instruments  of  civ¬ 
ilization.  The  range  of  topics  in  these  works  is  very  wide.  ranse  of 

Besides  works  on  all  the  natural  sciences  there  are  quite  a 
number  on  history  and  morals,  and  the  list  is  especially  rich 
in  works  which  bear  directly  on  instruction.  Beports  on  Reports  on  edu- 
education  in  the  most  advanced  countries  of  America  and catKm  a  10 
Europe ;  instructions  on  the  best  methods  of  managing  the 
schools  of  lower  grade ;  manuals  for  professors ;  summary 
notions  of  education ;  considerations  on  schools ;  general 
ideas  on  the  arts  and  sciences,  are  among  the  titles.  There 
were  over  100  of  such  works  exhibited,  many  of  them  with 
English  or  French  translations. 

Another  group  comprised  an  interesting  variety  of  objects  object  teaching, 
intended  to  make  the  education  of  young  children  attract¬ 
ive  and  interesting  to  them  and  to  their  teachers.  They 

21  P  R 


322 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1876. 


Mechanism, 
and  objects  to  se 
cure  attention. 


might  be  called  toys  from  their  prettiness  in  form  and  color, 
and  seemed  especially  designed  to  educate  the  eye  as  well  as 
the  hand,  and  by  aid  of  these  to  develop  the  mind.  Several 
curious  bits  of  mechanism  were  intended  to  cultivate  pa¬ 
tience  and  the  power  of  continuous  attention — an  object  well 
worthy  of  the  best  efforts.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  all  these 
objects — some  fifty  in  number — were  executed  under  the  di¬ 
rection  of  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction, 
charts  and  The  collection  of  charts  and  globes  was  admirable.  There 
was  a  good  show  of  apparatus  for  the  illustration  of  me¬ 
chanics  and  physics. 

A  large  space  was  given  to  a  collection  of  natural  history 
specimens,  prepared  also  under  the  direction  of  the  Minister, 
intended  to  fix  in  the  memory,  by  the  aid  of  the  eye,  the  de¬ 
scriptions  and  classifications  of  objects  in  zoology,  botany, 
and  mineralogy. 

Another  exhibit,  which,  though  not  extensive,  showed  a 
good  deal  of  nicety  and  skill,  was  of  medical  and  surgical 
instruments. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  collection  of  all  was  the  work 
of  pupils,  which  consisted  of  compositions,  plans,  drawings 
and  other  actual  work  of  pupils  at  the  half-yearly  examina 
tions  of  the  public  schools  and  at  the  University  of  Tokio. 
By  an  inspection  of  these — many  of  the  compositions  and 
solutions  being  in  English  or  French — the  visitor  could  gain 
an  adequate  notion  of  what  was  attempted  and  what  was 
really  achieved  in  these  institutions.  The  compositions  were 
generally  very  bright,  and  the  mastery  of  a  foreign  language 
shown  in  them  was  admirable.  The  charts  and  maps  were 
executed  with  great  neatness.  Among  the  works  of  advanced 
pupils  were  solutions  of  difficult  mathematical  problems, 
some  of  tuem  covering  three  sheets  of  square  letter  paper, 
involving  the  use  of  the  instruments  of  the  higher  rnathe 
matics,  such  as  the  differential  calculus,  with  a  readiness  of 
handling  which  testified  to  the  natural  aptitude  of  the  Japa¬ 
nese  people  for  the  exact  sciences. 

The  compositions  of  students  of  law  and  of  the  arts  and 
sciences  at  the  University  of  Tokio  were  worthy  of  mention. 

Books  are  no  novelty  in  Japan.  Indeed,  that  country  has 
been  far  in  advance  of  Europe  in  the  means  of  multiplying 
books.  W ritten  characters  were  introduced  there  from  Corea 
a  hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era.  With  them  came 
Chinese  books,  and  from  that  time  princes  and  emperors  did 
not  think  it  beneath  their  dignity  to  give  earnest  attention 
to  educational  interests,  and  even  to  engage  themselves  in 
literary  pursuits.  Great  stimulus  was  given  by  the  inven- 


llobes 


Natural  his¬ 
tory  specimens. 


Medical  and 
surgical  instru¬ 
ments. 


Pupils’  work. 


Compositions. 


Charts  and  maps. 


Solutions 
of  mathematical 
problems. 


University  of 
Tokio. 


Literature 
introduced  from 
Corea  before  the 
Christian  era. 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


323 


tion  of  the  art  of  printing,  which  was  practiced  for  1,200  years  JAPAy- _ 

before  Coster  and  Guttenberg  astonished  Europe  by  finding  Chinese  inven- 

„  .  _  ,  ,  ,  .  J  _  ..  tion  of  printing. 

out  the  art  of  cutting  types  for  each  several  letter.  In  the 
year  173  the  Japanese  were  using  a  method  something  like 
the  process  of  stereotyping.  The  page  to  be  printed  was  printin!!ock'bo0k 
first  written  and  then  pasted  face  down  upon  a  tablet:  of 
wood,  and  the  wood  being  cut  away  beneath  the  untraced 
portions  left  a  face  of  characters  in  relief.  This  was  then 
brushed  over  smoothly  with  ink,  and  printed  leaves  could  be 
produced  from  it  at  pleasure.  In  1643  movable  characters  Movable  types, 
in  copper  and  wood  were  introduced,  but  did  not  displace  the 
old  method.  This  was  not  altogether  supplanted  by  the  in¬ 
troduction  of  lead  types  in  1850. 

Japan  had  a  university,  with  a  full  corps  of  professors,  in^Japjin^iTmver- 
the  year  669.  In  700  the  Emperor  Mominu  erected  a  college  Ancient  coll  ^ 
in  each  of  the  provinces,  besides  otherwise  anticipating  our 
modern  systems  by  a  protective  tariff  and  a  bureau  of  divi¬ 
nation,  which  seems  to  be  the  prototype  of  our  weather- 
service  bureau.  The  professors  were  in  the  chairs  of  as-  Pr°fessors. 
tronomy,  chronology,  music,  and  medicine  5  and  these  honored 
positions  were  held  by  women  as  well  as  by  men.  There 
were  specialties  in  these  different  departments,  particularly 
in  that  of  medicine. 

There  were  six  regular  courses  of  study  in  the  colleges — Courses  of  study, 
geography  and  history,  philosophy,  law,  mathematics,  music, 
calligraphy.  Examinations  for  something  like  baccalaureate  Examinations 

0  A  °  and  degrees. 

degrees  were  held  in  these.  We  need  not  wonder  that  pen-  penmanship, 
manship  was  made  matter  of  rigorous  examination  when  we 
consider  the  almost  unlimited  number  of  the  Chinese  char¬ 
acters,  and  that  years  of  careful  study  must  be  required  in 
order  to  write  them  with  skill  and  grace. 

It  is  not  attempted  here  to  trace  the  course  of  public  edu¬ 
cation  through  the  long  years  that  have  intervened  until  the 
recent  outburst  of  eager  interest  in  all  that  advances  human 
well-being,  which  has  made  Japan  so  rapid  a  follower  in  the 
arts  of  life  and  civilization.  It  need  only  be  said  that  there  former  .po- 

^  litical  orgauiza* 

could  be  no  well-ordered  educational  system  in  a  country  ^on  of  japan  uu 

^  ^  favorable  to  gen- 

which  had  a  political  organization  like  that  which  Japan  has  erai  education, 
had  until  within  the  past  ten  years. 

TJntil  the  revolution  of  1868,  Japan  may  be  considered  as  Pevolution  of 
mainly  under  a  feudal  regime ,  in  many  respects  resembling 
the  feudalism  of  Europe.  Under  these  conditions,  public  Feudal  system, 
instruction,  being  controlled  in  each  province  according  to 
the  peculiar  notions  of  each  feudal  prince,  was  in  more  or 
less  disorder  and  confusion.  There  was  really  no  system  of 


324 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Organization  of 
the  new  educa¬ 
tional  system. 


Functions  of 
the  Minister  of 
Public  Instruc¬ 
tion. 


Departmental 

divisions. 


Affair’s. 


Finance. 


Reports. 


Imperial  schools. 


education.  Neither  did  the  princes  feel  their  responsibilities, 
nor  did  the  people  consider  their  interests. 

In  the  fourth  year  of  the  present  dynasty  a  Ministry  of 
Public  Instruction  was  created  with  high  powers  of  direc¬ 
tion  and  supervision  upon  all  questions  of  education  through¬ 
out  the  empire.  Since  that  time  the  Ministry  has  under¬ 
taken  a  general  regulation  of  public  instruction  and  has 
given  it  systematic  form  and  solid  foundations.  The  Minister 
is  assisted  by  a  secretary,  a  vice-minister,  and  employes.  But 
the  Minister  alone  is  responsible  for  the  direction  and  ad¬ 
ministration  of  educational  affairs.  He  has  the  power  to 
organize  the  different  branches  of  public  instruction,  to 
reform  academic  districts,  to  fix  the  amount  of  school  taxes, 
to  establish  or  support  schools  subsidized  by  the  state.  In 
these  matters  his  acts  are  submitted  to  the  Emperor  for  ap¬ 
proval,  as  are  also  the  nominations  of  all  functionaries  of 
the  department  above  the  grade  of  second  secretary. 

On  his  sole  responsibility,  however,  the  Minister  publishes 
all  regulations  and  orders  concerning  public  instruction. 
He  prescribes  for  local  authorities  the  best  methods  in  the 
direction  and  supervision  of  education.  He  requires  of  them 
reports  upon  the  educational  situation,  and  authorizes  them 
to  open  or  close  public  schools.  He  establishes  and  puts  in 
practice  the  means  for  giving  instruction  to  the  poor,  con¬ 
fers  diplomas  of  all  degrees,  regulates  the  disposition  of 
subsidies  among  the  different  academies,  publishes  the  ac¬ 
counts  of  expenditures  as  well  as  reports  and  school  statis¬ 
tics  generally.  He  appoints  or  dismisses  all  employes  below 
the  grade  of  second  secretary. 

The  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction  comprises  three  di¬ 
visions  : 

1st.  The  division  of  school  affairs ,  having  charge  of  the 
general  interests  of  the  schools  and  of  teachers  and  pupils. 

2d.  The  division  of  finance,  which  keeps  the  accounts  of 
all  receipts  and  expenses. 

3d.  The  division  of  reports,  which  has  charge  of  the  pub¬ 
lication  of  reports,  books,  and  all  papers  whatever  relating 
to  education. 

Imperial  schools. 


In  theory  the  expenses  of  these  schools  are  covered  by 
school  fees  and  the  balance  by  subsidies  furnished  by  the 
Ministry;  but  actually,  in  consequence  of  the  insufficiency 
of  returns  from  school  fees,  the  rule  is  reversed  in  practice. 
The  imperial  schools  are  the  following : 

The  University  of  Tokio  with  its  preparatory  school. 

The  primary  and  secondary  normal  schools  of  Tokid. 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


325 


The  normal  schools  of  Qsaka,  Miyaghi,  Nagasaki.  _ JAFAy- 

The  primary  schools  attached  to  these.  imperial  school*. 

The  girls’  normal  school  of  Tokio. 

The  Salle  WAsile  attached  to  the  above. 

The  school  of  the  English  language  at  Osaka. 

The  school  of  foreign  languages  at  Tokid. 

The  University  of  Tokio  was  founded  in  1855.  After  hav-  Tok7Aniversity  of 
ing  undergone  numerous  transformations  since  that  date  it 
was  completely  reorganized  in  1873,  at  which  time  were 
created  the  faculties  of  law,  of  sciences,  of  letters,  and  of 
medicine,  as  well  as  courses  preparatory  to  these.  The  uni-  Courses, 
versity  courses  extend  through  six  years.  For  admission, .  Qualification 
students  are  required  to  be  sixteen  years  of  age,  and  to  have 
completed  the  preparatory  course  of  the  university,  or  to 
have  passed  an  examination  upon  studies  announced  in  a 
fixed  programme.  The  total  number  of  pupils  for  1877  was 
1,400. 

The  University  Preparatory  School  is  conducted  in  the  paYatoi^scw6' 
English  language.  The  course  of  studies  extends  through 
three  years.  Students  are  admitted  on  satisfactory  evi¬ 
dence  of  acquaintance  of  the  subjects  of  primary  instruction 
and  also  with  the  elements  of  the  English  language.  The 
present  number  of  pupils  exceeds  300. 

In  the  School  of  the  English  Language  at  Osaka,  founded  at-o2^  SCh°o1 
in  1868,  the  instruction  comprises  special  courses  and  gen¬ 
eral  courses.  The  first  are  specially  intended  for  pupils 
studying  with  a  view  to  the  university  courses.  The  special 
courses  comprise  mathematics,  physics,  and  chemistry.  Courses. 

The  studies  extend  through  six  years,  four  for  the  general 
courses  and  two  for  the  special. 

The  normal  schools  of  Tokid,  founded  in  1872,  have  pro- scllools 
grammes  of  primary  and  secondary  instruction.  Candi¬ 
dates  for  admission  for  the  primary  course  are  required  to 
pass  an  examination  which  shall  show  that  thev  have  a  gen-  „  Qualifications 
eral  and  satisfactory  knowledge  of  Japanese  literature  and 
of  the  elements  of  arithmetic.  They  must  be  at  least  18 
years  of  age.  Candidates  for  admission  to  the  secondary 
course,  who  have  already  pursued  the  primary  normal 
course,  are  admitted  upon  an  examination  in  Japanese,  En¬ 
glish,  and  Chinese,  and  elementary  arithmetic.  At  the  end 
of  each  of  these  courses  is  a  course  in  pedagogy;  but  this  corses, 
course  holds  a  much  larger  place  in  the  instruction  of  the 
primary  normal  school  than  in  that  of  the  secondary.  The 
extent  of  the  primary  course  is  two  years  and  a  half ;  that 
of  the  secondary  course,  three  years  and  a  half.  Pupils 
who  at  the  end  of  their  studies  shall  have  merited  certifi-  Certificates. 


326 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

cates  of  qualification  receive  the  title  of  instructors  of  the 
first  or  second  of  these  grades. 
ofNoosakaChand  normal  schools  of  Osaka  and  Miyaghi,  founded  in 

Miyaghi.  1873,  and  that  of  Nagasaki,  founded  in  1874,  have  the  same 
programmes  as  the  primary  normal  school  of  Tokio.  The 
number  of  pupils  at  present  in  these  four  schools  is  over 
500. 

Primaryschoois  In  the  primary  schools  annexed  to  these  normal  schools 
mai  schools.  children  of  both  sexes  of  proper  school  age  are  instructed 
in  reading,  writing,  and  the  elements  of  arithmetic.  The 
instruction  is  given  by  the  pupil  candidates  of  the  normal 
schools.  The  number  of  these  scholars  exceeds  1,200. 

T  G1irl®’rS°1r™al  The  girls’ normal  school  at  Tokio,  founded  in  1874,  has 
two  courses — the  preparatory,  of  four  years,  and  the  higher, 
of  three  years.  Every  pupil,  however,  who  at  the  examin¬ 
ation  for  admission  gives  evidence  of  a  proficiency  beyond 
Courses.  that  afforded  by  the  preparatory  course  is  admitted  directly 
to  the  higher  course.  A  pupil  desiring  to  enter  the  primary 
course,  and  being  14  years  of  age,  is  admitted  upon  an  ex¬ 
amination  which  shows  that  she  possesses  a  fair  acquaint¬ 
ance  with  the  elements  of  Japanese  and  arithmetic. 

Graduate  mis-  The  graduate  mistresses  will  not  be  entitled  u  instructors  ” 

tresses. 

until  they  shall  have  obtained  their  certificates  of  qualifi¬ 
cation.  The  number  of  pupils  in  this  school  is  upwards  of 
250. 

saiie  d'Asiie.  The  Salle  ffl  Asile ,  connected  with  the  girls’  school,  is  de¬ 
signed  to  cultivate  the  intellectual  and  moral  faculties  of 
the  children  who  have  not  yet  attained  school  age,  to  de¬ 
velop  their  physical  powers  by  appropriate  exercises,  and 
to  give  them  habits  of  order  and  discipline.  These  chil¬ 
dren  are  instructed  by  the  pupil  candidates  of  the  girls’  nor¬ 
mal  school. 

School  of  for-  The  school  of  foreign  languages,  of  Tokid,  organized  in 
eSSnguagesat1873,  has  a  five  years’  course,  and  gives  instruction  in 
French,  German,  Russian,  and  Chinese.  The  present  num¬ 
ber  of  pupils  is  over  250.  Owing  to  the  insufficient  number 
of  native  professors,  the  University  of  Tokio  employs  pro- 
Foreign  profes-  fessors  from  France,  England,  the  United  States,  and  Ger¬ 
many.  Foreign  professors  are  also  attached  to  the  English 
school  at  Osaka,  and  to  the  school  of  foreign  languages  at 
Tokio. 

There  are  now  under  employment  about  fifty  foreign  pro¬ 
fessors.  The  directors  and  professors  of  the  imperial 
schools  are  appointed  by  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction. 
The  amount  of  subventions  furnished  by  the  Minister  of 


Subventions. 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


327 


Public  Instruction  to  the  imperial  or  state  schools,  in  1877,  JAPAy- 
was  $547,706. 

Public  schools.  Public  schools. 


In  the  general  reorganization  of  public  instruction  in  ^Reorganization 
1872,  three  grades  were  established — primary,  secondary,  and 
superior.  The  empire  was  divided  into  seven  academic  dis-  trAtcsa^.™^G 
tricts,  each  comprising  thirty-two  secondary  divisions,  and  Pirc- 
these  in  turn  containing  two  hundred  and  ten  primary  di¬ 
visions  each.  There  should  regularly  be  one  primary  school  school  divisions, 
in  each  primary  subdivision ;  but  as  the  foundation  of  pub¬ 
lic  schools  dates  only  from  the  reorganization  in  1872,  there 
are  still  many  primary  divisions  without  schools. 

According  to  the  needs  of  each  locality  there  have  been  ^  secondary 
established  secondary  schools,  or  colleges,  schools  of  special  schools’  &c. 
secondary  instruction,  normal  schools  for  both  sexes,  and 
schools  of  foreign  languages.  In  these  establishments  no 
pupils  can  be  received  who  have  not  completed  their  pri¬ 
mary  instruction. 

There  are  then  in  the  cities  and  the  departments  five  sorts  rive  different 
of  schools:  Primary  schools,  boys’  normal  schools,  girls’1 
normal  schools,  schools  of  foreign  languages,  and  schools 
of  secondary  instruction,  or  colleges. 

The  last  official  report,  which  is  for  the  year  1875,  shows 
the  number  in  these  different  public  schools  as  22,089,  and 
in  private  schools  of  this  grade  2,428,  giving  a  total  of 
24,517.  By  this  report  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  primary 
schools  is  1,926,126,  and  that  of  pupils  of  the  faculties, 
normal  schools,  colleges  of  secondary  instruction,  and 
schools  of  foreign  languages  is  given  as  21,017,  making  a 
total  of  1,947,143  pupils  of  the  public  schools.  If  we  com¬ 
pare  this  figure  with  that  of  the  total  population,  34,008,087, 
we  find  the  percentage  of  public  school  attendance  to  be  5.7 6.  attendance^ 

The  public  schools  are  supported  directly  by  the  nation,  Mode  of  support, 
by  means  of  special  taxes  established  in  each  department. 


,  sorts  of  schools. 


Attendance. 


Percentage  of 


Public  school  administration. 


Public  school 
administration. 


school  affairs. 


In  the  municipal  offices  of  the  cities  and  the  departments —  Local  bureaus, 
there  is  a  bureau  called  the  division  of  school  affairs,  which  Division  of 
is  especially  charged  with  the  interests  of  public  instruc¬ 
tion.  The  employes  of  this  bureau  and  special  delegates 
appointed  by  the  prefect  charged  with  the  administration 
of  the  schools  have  the  responsibility  of  the  regular  order 
of  instruction  in  the  city  or  in  the  department.  The  sphere 
of  action  of  the  special  deputy  may  extend  over  twenty  or 
thirty  primary  divisions.  He  makes  the  abstract  of  the 


328 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Support  of  the 
schools. 


JAPAN-  number  of  children  of  school  age  and  of  the  boys  and  the 
Functions  of  girls  attending  the  schools.  He  points  out  opportunities  to 
the  special  dep  Qpen  new  scp00ps  or  the  utility  of  maintaining  those  which 

already  exist.  He  is  charged  in  general  with  the  settle¬ 
ment  of  all  questions  arising  on  what  may  be  called  the 
anatomy  of  the  schools.  The  physiology  of  the  schools 
Ministerial  (if  we  may  extend  the  figure)  is  superintended  by  the  Min- 
reguiations.  jster  of  Public  Instruction  himself.  He  makes  the  regula¬ 
tions  of  the  schools,  indicates  in  a  general  manner  what 
ought  to  be  their  working  and  how  they  should  be  adminis¬ 
tered.  Any  changes  in  these  regulations  the  authorities  of 
the  cities  and  of  the  departments  must  refer  to  the  Minister. 

These  schools  are  supported  from  the  foilowing  resources: 
The  school- tax  levied  in  the  primary  division,  individual 
donations,  the  product  of  school-fees,  the  subsidy  allowed 
by  the  Minister.  These  subsidies  granted  to  primary  schools 
are  calculated  upon  the  school  population  of  the  district, 
and  the  subsidies  granted  to  the  normal  schools  supported 
by  the  state  are  cast  annually,  and  are  calculated  in  pro¬ 
portion  to  the  total  population. 

The  school  age  is  from  G  to  14  years.  Within  those  years 
children  are  expected  to  complete  their  primary  instruction. 

Primary  instruction  is  divided  into  two  courses,  the  lower 
and  the  higher.  Each  course  continues  four  years.  The 
lower  primary  course  embraces  the  elements  of  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  morality,  dictation,  and 
composition.  The  higher  course  embraces  outlines  of  gen¬ 
eral  history,  physics,  linear  drawing,  natural  history,  anat¬ 
omy,  and  physiology.  According  to  special  local  demands 
other  elements  may  be  taught,  such  as  singing,  gymnastics, 
and  chemistry.  There  are  also  classes  in  needle- work  for 
girls. 

As  auxiliary  means  of  instruction,  there  have  been  estab¬ 
lished  in  Japan  public  libraries  and  museums.  The  libra¬ 
ries  of  the  three  cities,  Tokio,  Kioto,  and  Osaka,  are  sup¬ 
ported  by  these  cities.  The  library  at  Asakousa  is  supported 
Readingrooms.  by  the  empire.  The  reading  room  of  Aomori  was  founded 
by  individuals. 

In  all  these  establishments  are  Japanese,  Chinese,  Eu¬ 
ropean,  and  American  books,  which  are  put  at  the  disposi¬ 
tion  of  the  public.  There  is  a  law  library  at  the  University 
of  Tokio,  which  is  also  open  to  the  public. 

The  museums  of  Japan  have  been  founded  within  a  very 
short  time.  Two  of  these  have  made  considerable  progress. 
The  Museum  of  Tokio,  connected  with  the  department  of 
the  interior,  has  a  large  collection  of  objects  relating  to 


School  age. 


Primary  in¬ 
struction. 
Courses. 


Libraries. 


Law  library. 


Museums. 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


329 


history  and  agriculture  and  facilitating  the  diffusion  of  the  JAPAy- 
useful  arts.  This  seems  intended  for  a  purpose  something 
like  that  of  the  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers  in  Paris, 
and  the  collections  of  the  Smithsonian,  the  Agricultural 
Department,  and  the  Patent  Office  at  Washington. 

The  Museum  of  Public  Instruction  was  established  to  ex"  Publ  cMujeutm  of 
cite  and  extend  the  desire  for  knowledge  among  the  popu-  tion. 
lation.  It  contains  books,  maps,  drawings,  collections  of 
natural  history,  instruments,  apparatus,  school  furniture, 
and  material,  and  whatever  pertains  to  education  in  general. 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


In  an  educational  point  of  view  the  two  countries  of  South 
America  which  appeared  the  most  interesting  were  Uruguay 
and  the  Argentine  Republic.  The  exhibit  of  school  work 
and  material  was  not  by  any  means  full,  yet  several  most  val¬ 
uable  reports  and  statistical  tables  bearing  on  the  subject gtati^fcaitSbiS1 
of  education  in  both  those  countries  appeared  in  their  col¬ 
lections.  Besides  those  officially  prepared  for  the  purposes 
of  the  Exposition,  the  interesting  work  of  M.  Happ  on  the  XaPP- 
Argentine  Republic,  in  the  German  language,  but  trans¬ 
lated  into  English  for  the  Centennial  Exhibition  at  Phila¬ 
delphia,  and  the  remarkable  work  of  Senor  Jose  Pedro  vareia. 
Varela,  entitled  uMemoria  de  la  Direction  de  Instruction 
Publicav ,  in  Uruguay,  and  his  learned  work,  uLa  Educa¬ 
tion  del  Pueblo ,”  showed  the  great  interest  taken  in  those 
matters  which  lie  at  the  foundation  of  industrial  and  politi¬ 
cal  freedom. 

The  valuable  portions  of  this  paper  are  drawn  largely 
from  those  various  reports  and  memoirs,  although  thanks 
are  due  to  the  gentlemen  representing  those  countries,  par¬ 
ticularly  to  Col.  J.  J.  Diaz,  charge  d’affaires ,  and  SenOr  de  oiaz. 
Kulture,  consul  of  the  Republic  of  Uruguay,  in  Paris,  for  deKuiture. 
their  especial  courtesies  in  supplying  all  information  needed. 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 


ARGENTINE  RE¬ 
PUBLIC. 


The  educational  exhibit  of  the  Argentine  Republic  showed 
the  moral  progress  of  the  country.  It  was  arranged  in 
three  divisions :  (1)  The  comparative  history  of  legislation ; 

(2)  rural  economy ;  (3)  education.  Three  societies  were  also 
represented  in  the  several  departments  of  pantology,  sci¬ 
ence,  and  economy. 

There  was  moreover  a  large  exhibit  of  specimens  in  geol-  Museum, 
ogy  and  paleontology  and  a  good  collection  of  plans  and 
photographs.  Two  specimens  of  school-desks  were  worthy  school  furniture, 
of  note.  They  were  beautifully  executed  in  a  fine  close 


330 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


aeg™bb'  native  wood  taking  a  good  polish,  and  were  excellent  in 

- - design,  being  strong  and  comfortable,  with  a  revolving-seat, 

capable  also  of  being  elevated  or  lowered  at  convenience. 
They  are  probably  too  costly  for  general  use,  but  with  that 
exception  there  was  nothing  better  seen  at  the  Exposition. 
Popular  inter-  Many  things  betoken  the  intellectual  movement  of  this 

est  m  education.  ° 

people.  They  evidently  intend  to  keep  themselves  as  nearly 
as  possible  u  abreast  with  the  times.”  It  is  said  that  France 
exports  more  books  to  this  Republic  than  to  any  other 
country  of  America,  the  United  States  not  excepted. 

Great  interest  is  felt  in  the  subject  of  education  in  the 
Argentine  Republic.  The  government  encourages  this  ob- 
Subventions.  ject  by  contributing  one-third  of  the  sum  required  to  sup¬ 
port  the  schools  of  the  provinces  or  districts,  and  is  also 
bound  to  contribute  $10,000  annually  to  every  province 
which  has  10  per  cent,  of  its  inhabitants  at  school. 
caUonSatoryedu  Primary  education  is  obligatory  in  some  of  the  provinces; 

but  the  local  obstacles  arising  from  the  nature  of  the  coun¬ 
try  and  the  sparseness  of  the  population  in  some  places 
render  this  not  always  practicable. 

Normal  schools.  To  provide  good  teachers,  normal  schools  have  been  estab¬ 
lished  by  the  general  government  and  also  by  the  province 
of  Buenos  Ayres.  There  are  5  normal  schools  for  men 
with  an  attendance  of  300.  There  are  three  normal  schools 
also  for  young  women,  as  there  is  now  an  effort  to  encourage 
women  teachers,  and  there  are  at  present  175  pupils  in  these. 
Secondary  edu-  As  to  secondary  education,  still  more  effective  measures 
are  taken.  There  is  a  national  college  in  each  of  the  prov¬ 
inces.  Of  course  these  cannot  compare  with  the  colleges 
National coi- either  of  the  United  States  or  of  France;  but  they  serve 

leges. 

as  preparatory  schools  for  the  university ;  and  some  of  them 
ha  ve  a  special  scientific  or  technical  course. 

By  the  most  recent  reports  there  appear  to  be  in  these  14 
colleges  and  their  connected  schools  upwards  of  1,900  stud¬ 
ents,  while  in  the  ten  provincial  and  private  establishments 
of  this  grade  there  are  780,  and  in  the  preparatory  schools 
Attend  and  classes  of  the  universities  other  than  those  included 
Schools ;  ’n  ai>  above  there  are  probably  1,500,  and  in  various  special  and 
industrial  schools  there  are  doubtless  as  many  more.  So 
that  we  may  safely  say  there  are  about  5,500  of  the  youth 
receiving  secondary  instruction  in  the  public  and  private 
schools  of  the  Republic.  In  the  two  universities  there  are 
ties.  at  univer81'  1,502  students  who  may  properly  be  said  to  be  receiving 
superior  instruction,  although  it  may  not  correspond  pre¬ 
cisely  with  what  is  understood  by  that  grade  in  Europe. 

The  following  table  from  the  report  of  the  Minister  of 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


331 


Public  Instruction  will  give  some  interesting  points  with 
regard  to  schools  and  school  attendance  in  1874: 


Table  of  primary  schools  and  pupils  in  Argentine  Republic,  1874.  mary  ^ schools  Pri 


Provinces. 

Public  schools. 

Private  schools. 

Total  of  schools. 

Ratio  of  pupils  to 

population. 

Schools. 

Pupils. 

Schools. 

Pupils. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

© 

X 

9 

Boys. 

Girls. 

0 

Girls 

Mixed. 

_ 1 

0 

m 

O 

San  J nan . 

26 

3 

37 

4,018 

2,  798 

4 

9 

255 

183 

1:  6.95 

San  Luis . 

55 

36 

22 

3,613 

2,  943 

li 

1 

1 

65 

47 

116! 

1:  8.15 

Santa  F6 . 

44 

14 

7 

7,  960 

1,084 

15 

6 

1,011 

633 

J  02 

1:  8.48 

Mendosa . 

43 

22 

12 

4,  008 

2, 452 

3! 

4 

3 

370 

266 

87 

1:  9.43 

Corrientes . 

90 

36 

4,  700 

3,  260 

8 

16 

600 

520 

150 

1 : 14.  32 

Bioja . 

29 

19 

1 

1, 980 

1,  340 

49 

1 :  14.  77 

Buenos  Ayres  . . . 

317 

65 

101 

8,719 

10,  246 

86 

32 

160 

7,998 

6,  346 

561 

1 :  14.  92 

Tecumdn . 

14 

7 

70 

4,  229 

2,  569 

3 

4 

5 

274 

126 

103 

1 : 15. 16 

Entre  Rios . 

119 

20 

35 

3,471 

2,  599 

12 

10 

14 

740 

930 

210 

1:  17.  43 

Santiago . 

58 

11 

1  2,  607 

926 

24 

14 

6 

1,  392 

1, 160 

114 

1 : 21.  97 

Salta . 

30 

13 

29 

2,  066 

1,649 

2 

2 

2 

168 

69 

78 

1 : 22.  01 

Jujui . 

17 

12 

... 

670 

458 

1 

1 

15 

70 

31 

1 : 33.  22 

Catamorca . 

13 

6 

11 

1,261 

620 

"”i 

2 

3 

53 

111 

36 

1 : 39. 18 

Cordova  . 

50 

30 

\ 

2,036 

1,  390 

7 

11 

400 

467 

100 

1 :  49.  04 

Total . 

705 

294 

328  51,  338 

34,  331 

167 

112 

210 

13,  341 

10,  928 

1,  816 

1 : 19.  64 

Grand  total 

1, 327  j 

85, 

672 

489 

24, 

269 

Add  number  of  evening  schools,  adjuncts  of  national  colleges  .  - 

14 

Total  attendance  in  all  schools. . 

....  112,222 

1,830 

URUGUAY.  Uruguay. 

The  educational  condition  of  Uruguay  was  admirably 
presented  with  such  meager  materials  as  were  available. 

This  country  exhibited  some  fine  books,  but  no  specimens 
of  the  work  of  pupils  nor  of  school  material. 

Probably  no  nation  in  America  has  shown  so  rapid  a  Rapid  deveiop- 
development  of  population  as  Uruguay.  Hitherto  it  seems  non.1  °f  popula‘ 
to  have  doubled  every  ten  years.  This  is  owing  in  large 
measure  to  the  remarkable  immigration  from  Italy,  Spain,  immigration. 
Portugal,  France,  Switzerland,  Germany,  England,  and 
Brazil,  which  now  makes  up  not  less  than  two-fifths  of  the 
population.  There  are  about  1,000  free  negroes  in  the 
Bepublic,  but  no  Indians  at  all. 

It  is,  therefore,  a  white  population  almost  entirely  $  of  the  ^ of 
Latin  race,  as  the  natives  are  of  European  and  Latin  origin, 
as  well  as  most  of  the  immigrants. 

During  the  changeful  times  of  the  past  no  settled  system 
of  education  could  be  entered  on  in  that  country,  and  it  is 
within  a  comparatively  recent  period  that  real  advance  has 
been  made  in  organization  and  methods  of  instruction. 

Decided  steps  towards  a  reorganization  of  the  school  izftiS£fni877an 
system  of  Uruguay  were  taken  in  1877.  Primary  instruc¬ 
tion  was  made  gratuitous  and  obligatory.  The  pupils  then 


332 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Regulations 
for  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  schools. 


Studies. 


Uruguay,  attending  the  common  schools,  without  classification  as  to 
age  or  proficiency,  were  distributed  in  a  certain  order.  For 
the  lowest  grade  there  were  provided  schools  of  the  first 
schools Cla88e8°fc^ass  5  ^en  followed  schools  of  the  second  class  rural,  the 
second  class,  the  second  class  extended  ( ampliades ),  and 
schools  of  the  third  class.  The  obvious  intention  is  to  sim¬ 
plify  still  further  into  these  three  classes. 

The  regulations  require  that  there  shall  be  at  least  one 
school  of  the  first  grade  in  every  place  where  there  are 
fifty  children  in  a  condition  to  attend  school,  and  that  in 
places  where  there  is  no  school  of  the  second  or  third  grade, 
the  programme  of  those  of  the  first  shall  be  as  much  as 
possible  extended.  Schools  of  the  first  class  are  to  be  en¬ 
tirely  in  charge  of  women,  whether  principal  or  assistants. 
Those  of  the  second  class  are  to  be  directed,  if  girls’  schools, 
by  mistresses ;  if  boys,  by  masters  or  mistresses,  as  circum¬ 
stances  may  indicate.  Schools  of  the  third  class  are  to  be 
in  charge  of  teachers  of  the  same  sex  as  the  pupils. 

The  studies  to  be  pursued  within  these  three  grades  of 
primary  instruction  are:  object  lessons,  reading,  writing, 
drawing,  arithmetic,  composition,  grammar,  rhetoric,  geog¬ 
raphy  and  outlines  of  history,  bookkeeping  and  mercantile 
accounts,  civil  rights  and  duties,  history  of  the  Republic, 
morals  and  religion,  elements  of  algebra  and  geometry, 
physiology  and  hygiene,  physics,  natural  history  and  agri¬ 
culture,  gymnastics,  and  vocal  music.  Besides  these,  the 
girls  are  instructed  in  domestic  arts,  especially  in  all  that 
concerns  dress-making.  This  is  a  wide  range,  but  in  actual 
practice  there  is  an  equally  wide  difference  between  the 
various  schools  even  of  the  same  class,  so  that  an  effective 
classification  is  secured  wherever  possible,  from  the  infant- 
school  to  what  might  be  called  the  high  school.  The  course 
is  actually  divided  into  ten  grades. 

Much  interest  has  also  been  taken  in  evening  classes  for 
adults.  Fifteen  of  these  are  reported  with  an  attendance  of 
570,  of  whom  371  were  men,  and  199  women ;  to  which  num¬ 
ber  should  be  added  75  auditors  or  visitors. 

Their  attend-  These  attendants  are  of  the  three  principal  nationalities, 
native-born*  ( orientals ),  Italians,  and  Spaniards.  Naturally 
they  are  all  from  that  class  who  have  to  live  by  their  daily 
labor,  these  schools  being  established  specially  for  those  of 
that  class  who  aspire  to  a  better  education  and  enlighten¬ 
ment  than  their  former  circumstances  permitted. 

The  necessity  of  a  good  preparation  on  the  part  of  teach¬ 
ers  is  earnestly  felt,  and  as  the  most  direct  means  to  that 

*  Not  the  aborigines,  but  the  descendants  of  the  original  colonists. 


Domestic  arts. 


Evening  classes 
for  adults. 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


333 


end  the  establishment  of  a  state  normal  school  has  been 
authorized  at  Montevideo,  which  shall  be  open,  free  of  all 
tuition  fees,  to  all  young  men  and  women  of  the  Republic 
who  desire  to  devote  themselves  to  teaching. 

Another  subordinate,  though  powerful,  argument  was  set 
forth  in  behalf  of  a  special  public  provision  for  the  educa¬ 
tion  of  young  women  for  teachers,  in  a  most  noble  motion 
and  speech  of  Senor  Balparda  two  years  ago,  in  which  he 
urged  the  natural  aptitudes  of  women  for  this  important 
work,  and  the  narrow  field  of  competition  in  other  employ¬ 
ments  in  which  they  could  appear.  His  motion  for  the 
establishment  of  a  girls’  normal  school  at  Montevideo  was 
unanimously  adopted.  But  at  the  last  accounts  the  limited 
resources  of  the  treasury  had  still  prevented  it  from  being 
carried  into  effect.* 

The  interest  and  advancement  of  teachers  are  promoted  by 
institutes  and  conferences,  which  are  encouraged  by  the 
authorities,  and  have  been  found  very  effective  in  the  in¬ 
terchange  of  experiences  and  the  spread  of  improved  metk 
ods  of  teaching. 

Teachers  are  required  to  pass  examinations  for  the  grade 
for  which  they  apply,  and  diplomas  are  granted  to  the  suc¬ 
cessful  candidates,  who  are  thereupon  authorized  to  teach 
in  their  proper  grade.  It  is  provided,  however,  that  those 
who,  at  any  time,  shall  pass  four  years  without  being  actu¬ 
ally  engaged  in  teaching  shall  not  be  allowed  to  teach  until 
their  diplomas  shall  have  been  renewed  upon  a  new  exam¬ 
ination. 

The  salaries  of  teachers  seem  to  be  liberal  in  comparison 
with  those  in  other  countries.  They  may  be  best  seen  in 
tabular  form : 


URUGUAY. 


Normal  school 
at  Montevideo. 


Balparda. 


Proposed  girls’ 
normal  school. 


Teachers’  insti¬ 
tutes  and  confer- 


Examinations. 

Diplomas. 


Renewed,  diplo- 


Salaries. 


Princi¬ 

pals. 

Assist¬ 

ants. 

Schools  of  first  class _ _  .  -  -  . 

$60  00 
60  00  1 
80  00 
100  00 
125  00 

$30  00 
30  00 
40  00 
50  00 
60  00 

1. 

Schools  of  second  class,  rural  . 

Schools  of  second  class . 

Schools  of  second  class,  extended . . 

Schools  of  third  class . . 

Table  of  sala¬ 
ries. 


These  salaries  are  for  the  month,  and  principals  are  fur¬ 
nished  with  house  rent  also. 

*  This  motion  and  an  interesting  discussion  of  the  whole  subject  may  Varela, 
be  seen  in  the  interesting  work  of  Senor  Varela,  before  referred  to,  vol. 
i,  p.  28. 


334 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


The  following  table,  condensed  from  that  of  Senor  Yarela, 
gives  the  attendance  in  the  public  shcools  of  the  Republic : 


Table  of  attend¬ 


ance. 


Departments  or  provinces. 

No.  of  schools. 

Teachers. 

Pupils. 

No.  of  inhabit¬ 

ants  for  each 
school. 

No.  of  inhabit¬ 

ants  for  each 
pupil. 

s 

s 

i  3 

OJ 

i 

Total. 

a 

Girls. 

Total. 

Montevideo . 

64 

62 

86 

148 

4,  528 

5,  023 

9,  551 

1,  793 

12.  03 

Guadalupe  (Canelones) . 

26 

20 

11 

31 

832 

680 

1,512 

1,  538 

26.45 

San  Jos6  . . . 

6 

3 

3 

6 

242 

341 

583 

3,  750 

38.  59 

Florida . . .  . 

6 

4 

1 

5 

168 

109 

277 

3,  583 

77.  61 

Durazno . 

7 

5 

2 

7 

210 

]  115 

325 

2,928 

63.  07 

Minas .  . . 

9 

6 

3 

9 

250 

120 

370 

2,  388 

58.10 

Maldonado . 

15 

13 

9 

22 

462 

390 

852 

1,  857 

31.53 

Cerro  Largo . . . 

6 

3 

3 

6 

277 

;  235 

512 

5,  500 

64.43 

Tacuarembd  . . . 

8 

6 

2 

8 

270 

1  116 

386 

2,  750 

56.  98 

Salto  . . . . .  . 

13 

8 

5 

13 

430 

375 

805 

2,  769 

44.  72 

Paysandii . . 

14 

11 

10 

21 

484 

487 

971 

2,  571 

37.  07 

Soriano .  . 

13 

8 

5 

13 

450 

:  300 

750 

1,968 

34. 13 

Colonia . 

9 

5 

4 

9 

337 

310 

647 

2,  594 

36.  08 

Totals  and  percentage  . 

196 

154 

144 

298 

8,  940 

8,  601 

17,  541 

3,  268 

25.  34 

South  Ameri-  Perhaps  some  interest  might  attach  to  a  table  of  compar- 
education.  ative  statistics  for  four  South  American  countries. 

At  the  best,  however,  we  cannot  present  figures  of  per¬ 
fect  accuracy,  nor  are  the  reports  for  one  and  the  same  year 
in  all  of  them.  The  figures  for  Uruguay  are  for  1876,  and 
Vaiiiant.  are  from  the  tables  of  Sr.  Vaillant,  Director  of  the  Bureau 
of  Statistics,  while  those  for  the  countries  compared  with 
Leguizamon.  Uruguay  are  gathered  from  the  report  of  Sr.  Leguizamon, 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction  of  the  Argentine  Republic, 
for  1874. 


It  should  be  said,  moreover,  that  the  figures  in  the  column 
for  “ proportion  of  pupils  to  population”  are  given  as  actu¬ 
ally  calculated  from  still  later  returns,  so  that  while  they 
may  not  agree  with  figures  under  similar  headings  in  the 
other  works  referred  to,  they  are  still  more  nearly  accurate 
for  the  present  time  than  the  others. 


Statistics. 

Uruguay. 

Argentine 

Republic. 

Chili. 

Brazil. 

Total  population  .  . . 

Number  of  schools . 

454,  478 
284 
25, 461 

1  :  18.  00 

1  :  1,  600 

1, 836, 490 
1,830 
112,  223 

1  :  16.  45 

1  :  1,  003 

2,  039,  769 
1,256 
80,  609 

1  :  25.  30 

1  :  1,  624 

11,  780,  000 
4,  593 
151,416 
1  :  77.  80 
1  :  2,  565 

Number  of  pupils .  . 

Proportion  of  pupils  to  population 
Proportion  of  schools  to  population 

CANADA.  CANADA. 

Among  the  educational  exhibits  of  America  there  was  a 
good  representation  from  the  province  of  Ontario,  Canada. 
The  specimens  of  books,  school  material,  and  pupils’  work, 
and  the  official  reports  and  illustrations  of  the  school  system 
of  that  province  attracted  considerable  interest. 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


335 


Some  recent  improvements  in  the  requirements  for  teach-  casada. 
ers’  certificates  and  in  the  opportunities  for  obtaining  them 
are  worthy  of  mention,  as  good  teachers  are  direct  agencies 
in  elevating  the  character  and  value  of  common  school  edu¬ 
cation. 

There  are  now  three  classes  of  certificates.  Those  of  the  Teachers’  cer- 
first  and  second  class  are  good  for  the  whole  province  and  1  ca  es 
during  good  behavior  ;  those  of  the  third-class  are  limited 
to  a  particular  county  and  to  a  period  of  three  years.  To 
encourage  teachers  of  the  third  class,  normal  schools  have  Normal  schools, 
been  established  in  every  county $  and  in  1877  more  than 
1,200  candidates  were  reported  as  having  received  that  prac¬ 
tical  instruction,  and  at  an  annual  expense  of  only  eight  dol¬ 
lars  each.  These  schools  are  looked  upon  with  great  favor. 

In  each  county  town  there  is  also  a  public  school,  directed  by  Public  schools, 
a  master  having  a  first-class  certificate,  with  two  assistants, 
who  must  have  at  least  certificates  of  the  second  class.  In 
this  school  candidates  for  certificates  of  the  third  class  are 
trained  in  the  best  methods  of  instruction  by  daily  examina¬ 
tions  and  practical  exercises  which  are  continued  for  eight 
weeks.  Certificates  of  the  third-class  are  granted  on  the  Qualifications, 
following  conditions  :  the  candidate  must  be  eighteen  years  the  third  class, 
of  age  j  if  a  womau,  seventeen $  he  must  pass  the  examina¬ 
tions  on  literary  and  scientific  subjects  as  prescribed  by  the 
central  board  of  examiners ;  he  must  have  attended,  for  at 
least  a  half  year,  the  county  normal  school,  and  must  have 
obtained  the  teacher’s  certificate  given  by  the  director  of  the 
school  and  by  the  examiners  appointed  by  the  Minister. 

These  conditions  having  been  filled,  the  county  board  of  ex¬ 
aminers  grant  the  third-class  certificates. 

For  candidates  for  the  second  class  there  are  increased  fa-  the^ecScLsf 
cilities  for  attending  the  normal  school,  and  such  attendance 
is  obligatory.  In  the  two  normal  schools  of  Toronto  and  0fXTOTontoC  and 
Ottawa  three  sessions  of  about  12  weeks  a  year  are  devoted  ottawa- 
to  the  professional  instruction  of  these  candidates  in  classes 
of  about  50  each  session.  The  expenses  of  travel  and  a  por¬ 
tion  of  the  cost  of  living  are  paid  by  the  province  to  those 
who  are  successful  in  the  examinations.  The  time  is  entirely 
devoted  to  theoretical  and  practical  instruction  in  teaching. 

This  new  method  was  put  into  effect  in  September,  1877,  and 
already  bids  fair  to  produce  annually  300  well-prepared 
teachers  at  an  expense  to  the  province  of  about  thirty-four 
dollars  each. 

Candidates  of  the  second  class  receive  certificates  onlv  on  Qualifications 

v  for  candidates  of 

the  iollowmg  conditions:  they  must  pass  the  prescribed  the  second  class, 
examinations  according  to  notes  prepared  by  the  central 


336 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Teachers  of  the 
first  class. 


Canada. _ board  of  examiners ;  they  must  have  taught  with  success 

for  at  least  one  year  in  a  public  school  of  the  province ;  they 
must  have  atttended  the  provincial  normal  school  at  least 
one  session,  and  have  received  the  certificate  of  fitness  given 
by  the  principal  and  the  examiners  appointed  by  the  Min- 
candidates  ofister.  Besides  the  literary  and  scientific  matter  prescribed, 
the  second  class.  can(udates  are  examined  by  the  central  board  on  the  follow¬ 
ing  subjects :  education,  school  laws  and  regulations,  read¬ 
ing  and  elocution,  practical  chemistry  and  botany,  music, 
drawing,  military  exercises  (for  men),  and  calisthenics. 

The  normal  schools  also  serve  to  form  teachers  of  the  first 
class,  and  to  this  end  there  is  each  year  a  course  of  nine 
months  on  subjects  prescribed  for  that  grade  of  certificate. 

These  certificates  are  given  only  on  the  following  condi- 
Quaiifications.  tions :  the  candidate  must  pass  the  prescribed  examinations  $ 
Certificates.  he  must  have  attended  the  normal  school  for  at  least  one 
session,  and  have  obtained  the  certificate  of  the  second  class, 
and  also  have  received  of  the  principal  and  the  ministerial 
examiners  a  certificate  of  fitness  to  teach  in  the  first  class. 
After  having  taught  with  success  for  two  years  in  the  sec¬ 
ond  class  and  passed  the  examinations  for  the  first  class,  no 
pecuniary  assistance  is  accorded  him  by  the  province. 
numberoSeach-  number  of  teachers  at  the  last  report  was  6,185  :  of 

ers-  these  2,780  were  men,  and  3,405  women. 


Teachers  with  first-class  certificates  (new) . .  . .  241 

Teachers  with  second-class  certificates  (new) .  1, 201 

Teachers  with  first-class  certificates  (old  county  hoard) .  372 

Teachers  with  second-class  certificates  (old  county  hoard) .  139 

Teachers  with  third-class  certificates  (old  county  board) .  51 

Teachers  with  third-class  certificates  (new  county  hoard) .  3, 681 

Teachers  with  intermediate  certificates . .  493 


Salaries.  The  annual  salaries  average  in  the  counties,  men  $367, 

women  $240 ;  in  the  towns,  men  $567,  women  $267  ;  in  the 
cities,  men  $726,  women  $314. 

statistics  of  The  number  of  schools  in  the  province  is  5,042.  The 

schools  and  at¬ 
tendance.  number  of  pupils  464,364 ;  of  whom  253,994  are  from  5  to 

10  years  of  age,  and  210,370  from  11  to  16.  The  total  num¬ 
ber  of  pupils  from  5  to  21  years  of  age  is  502,250.  The 
number  not  having  attended  any  school,  9,260. 

Rural  districts.  In  the  rural  districts  of  Ontario,  as  in  those  of  the  United 
States,  it  is  the  custom  in  the  common  school  for  the  older 
children  to  attend  in  the  winter,  and  the  younger  in  the 
summer. 

Secondary  in-  As  to  secondary  instruction  there  are  high  schools  and 

struction. 

institutes  to  which  children  of  both  sexes  are  admitted  upon 
examinations,  which  are  generally  those  of  the  fourth  class 
of  the  common  schools.  High  schools  which  have  four 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain.  337 


masters  and  sixty  classical  pupils  are  called  collegiate  insti-  Canada. 
tutes.  The  object  of  the  secondary  schools  is  to  afford  a  Secondary 
higher  grade  of  instruction  in  English  studies  and  in  the 
modern  languages,  and  to  prepare  the -pupil  for  the  univer¬ 
sity  or  for  business.  Two-thirds  of  the  expenses  of  these  Expenses, 
schools  are  met  by  local  contributions  ;  the  rest  is  contrib¬ 
uted  by  the  province  and  the  county.  The  head  masters  Subventlons- 
are  required  to  be  graduates  of  the  English  or  colonial  uni-  Qualifications  of 
versities,  and  moreover  to  hold  a  certificate  of  fitness  to 
teach  from  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction.  High  schools  High  schools, 
are  established  in  each  county — in  some  two,  and  even 
more — and  the  law  provides  for  the  establishment  of  others 
as  they  may  become  necessary.  There  are  at  present  104 
secondary  schools  with  8,541  pupils. 

It  appears  therefore  that  the  high  school  is  well  estab¬ 
lished  in  the  province  of  Ontario,  and  the  recent  important 
changes  in  the  whole  school  system  promise  to  be  as  fruit¬ 
ful  of  good  results  in  increasing  the  quality  as  the  extent  of 
popular  education. 


THE  UNITED  STATES.  united  states. 

An  American,  acquainted  with  the  school  work  of  this 
country,  might  be  disappointed  at  the  very  modest  propor¬ 
tions  of  our  educational  section  at  the  Exposition.  It  made 
no  such  impression  on  the  eye  of  the  casual  visitor,  either 
in  brilliancy  or  extent,  as  was  made  by  several  other  national 
exhibits.  The  fact  probably  is  that  America  made  no  effort 
to  show  herself  here,  and  what  was  exhibited  in  this  line 
was  the  result  of  the  labor  and  zeal  of  the  director,  Dr.  Dr.  rhiibrick. 
Philbrick,  who  had  managed  to  crowd  into  the  little  space  Characterofour 

^  exhibition. 

assigned  him  a  wonderful  collection,  amounting  to  a  good 
typical  representation  of  the  schools  and  school  work  of 
the  United  States,  which  well  rewarded  any  genuine  seeker 
after  substantial  information.  And,  indeed,  small  and 
modest  as  it  seemed,  no  other  educational  section  was  sought 
with  half  the  interest  which  centered  upon  this.  The  rep¬ 
resentatives  of  all  countries  were  there,  examining  speci¬ 
mens  and  methods  of  work,  making  notes  or  submitting 
earnest  queries  to  the  director. 

A  particular  account  of  the  exhibits  made  by  the  United 
States  will  probably  not  be  expected  in  this  report.  Some 
may  however  be  mentioned  without  disparagement  to  others 
as  being  typical  in  their  character  or  presenting  some  pecu¬ 
liar  feature  of  interest. 

The  exhibition  made  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  united  states 
Education  was  admirable  in  its  variety  and  extent.  It  con-  S£?auof  Efluca- 
22  p  r 


338 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


united  states.  sisted  of  the  annual  reports  and  special  circulars  of  the 
bureau ;  maps  and  charts  showing  the  educational  condition 
of  38  States  and  190  cities  ;  catalogues  of  public  libraries ; 
and  a  specimen  collection  of  138  volumes  from  the  library 
caUoneauofEdu’°^  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education. 

Massachusetts  The  Massachusetts  State  Department  of  Public  Instruc- 
Pubifc  “instruc-  tion  had  an  exhibit  of  peculiar  merit.  It  contained  two 
complete  sets  of  most  valuable  reports,  one  being  the  reports 
of  the  State  Board  of  Education  in  34  volumes,  and  the 
other  a  complete  set,  in  12  volumes,  of  the  annual  reports 
Reports  of  of  the  school  committees  of  every  municipality  in  the  Stale 
tees  for  1875.  — 344  towns  and  cities — for  the  year  1875. 

The  latter  collection  is  altogether  unique,  and  it  is  safe 
to  say  that  no  such  material  can  be  found  for  minute  study 
of  public  education  as  is  gathered  in  these  details  of  statis¬ 
tics,  observations,  and  suggestions  as  to  the  condition  of 
schools  and  the  means  of  improving  them. 

The  exhibitions  of  the  State  departments  of  Bhode-Island 
and  Connecticut  and  Pennsylvania  were  also  meritorious. 
Ohio  had  a  collection  of  good  reports.  Illinois  should  also 
be  mentioned  for  the  reports  of  her  superintendent.  Indi¬ 
ana  made  a  good  showing,  presenting,  in  addition  to  the 
reports  and  manuals  illustrating  the  State  and  county  super¬ 
vision,  a  very  well  designed  model  of  a  school  house.  Wis¬ 
consin  and  Kansas  showed  great  enterprise  in  what  was 
sent  to  the  Exposition  ;  their  exhibits  consisting  of  reports 
and  public  documents  of  all  kinds  bearing  upon  the  subject 
of  education,  catalogues,  albums  of  photographs  of  school 
houses,  volumes  of  pupils’  work;  and  in  the  case  of  Wis- 
“  journal  of  Ed-  consin  the  u  Journal  of  Education,”  17  volumes,  histories  of 

ucation.”  7 

education  and  colleges  in  that  State,  and  about  20  volumes 
of  other  miscellaneous  material  illustrating  school  work. 

Some  of  the  cities  may  be  mentioned  as  exhibiting  feat- 
Roston.  ures  of  peculiar  interest.  Although  the  city  of  Boston 
evidently  made  no  special  effort  to  show  her  school  system 
to  advantage,  yet  the  excellence  of  much  she  exhibited 
Exhibits  of  could  not  escape  attention.  Her  exhibitions  of  drawing 

drawing. 

w’ere  very  large,  much  more,  in  fact,  than  could  be  shown, 
and  in  excellence  were  superior  to  everything  else  of  the 
kind  from  this  country.  The  extent  and  liberality  of  her 
Plans  of  schools,  high  school  system  attracted  much  notice.  The  plans  of 
the  new  buildings  for  the  Latin  school  and  the  English  high 
school  show  some  of  the  best  features  of  the  foreign  school 
houses,  and  may  be  safely  regarded  as  models  for  schools  of 
that  grade  for  the  whole  country. 


Exhibits  of— 

Rhode-Island. 

Connecticut. 

Pennsylvania. 

Ohio. 

Illinois. 


Indiana. 


Wisconsin. 

Kansas. 


Wisconsin. 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


339 


The  public  schools  of  Milwaukee  were  well  represented  united  states. 
in  all  ways.  A  portfolio  of  photographs  of  school  houses  Milwaukee, 
was  an  attractive  feature;  especially  noticeable  also  was 
her  collection  of  specimens  of  pupils’  work  in  the  district, 
high,  and  normal  schools,  making  120  volumes. 

The  exhibition  of  pupils’  work  in  the  schools  of  Chicago  Chicago, 
was  admirable  in  its  orderly  arrangement  and  general  ex¬ 
cellence. 

That  of  Cincinnati  was  even  more  full,  including  normal  Cincinnati, 
school  work,  and  made  a  collection  of  written  exercises, 
embracing  everything  that  could  be  expressed  in  writing, 
which  excited  the  wonder  of  many  foreign  educators. 

Saint  Louis  presented  a  fine  set  of  school  reports  and  a  saint  Louis, 
general  collection  of  kindergarten  material.  The  latter 
formed  a  very  attractive  exhibition,  and  was  superior  to  Drawing, 
anything  else  of  the  kind  from  this  country,  and  shows 
that  city  to  be  in  this  branch  of  instruction  more  advanced 
than  any  other  in  the  United  States. 

Washington  City  made  an  exhibition  quite  remarkable  as  .  Washington 
a  representative  collection  and  highly  creditable  in  its°lty 
quality.  Among  other  things  were  a  full  set  of  the  super¬ 
intendents’  reports;  a  collection  of  nearly  75  volumes  of 
school  books  and  books  of  reference,  which  made  an  attract¬ 
ive  feature;  55  volumes  of  pupils’  work  during  the  year 
1878;  portfolios  of  plans  and  views  of  school  buildings,  and  Plans  and  model, 
a  model  of  the  u  Henry”  school  house. 


In  the  class  of  what  would  be  denominated  secondary 
education,  and  verging  closely  upon  what  would  be  called 
superior  education,  perhaps  nothing  attracted  more  interest 
in  the  American  section  than  what  served  to  illustrate  the . .  HisJer  educa'- 

non  ot  women. 

higher  education  of  women.  Three  institutions  were  pre¬ 
eminent  in  this  class :  Mount  Holyoke,  Y assar,  and  W ellesley .  vaslsar.H°ly°ke' 
The  catalogues,  memoirs,  descriptions,  drawings,  plans,  and  Wellesley, 
photographs  of  these  institutions  were  objects  of  great 
attention,  and  what  was  gathered  from  the  representations 
of  all  kinds — printed,  written,  pictured,  and  oral — undoubt¬ 
edly  made  a  great  impression  on  the  minds  of  European 
visitors. 

Harvard  was  well  represented  by  reports,  catalogues,  and  H2^raitie8  oi 
histories,  and  by  the  u Harvard  Book”  with  its  heliotype 
illustrations.  Wisconsin  University  had  a  good  exhibit.  Wisconsin 
Michigan  University,  although  not  making  a  large  exhibit,  Michigan, 
appeared  to  commend  itself  very  much  to  the  jury  which 
gave  the  awards  of  merit. 


340 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


UNITED  STATES. 


Industrial  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Illinois. 


Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Tech¬ 
nology. 


Cooper  Institute. 


Worcester  Free 
Institute. 


Perkins  Insti¬ 
tution. 

Massachusetts 
Blind  Asylum. 


Mason’s  musical 
publications. 


Prof.  Walter 
Smith. 


Dr.  Henry  Bar¬ 
nard. 

American 
;  ‘  J ournal  of  Edu¬ 
cation.  ’ 


In  the  specialty  of  technical  instruction  the  appearance 
of  the  Industrial  University  of  Illinois  was  very  fine,  and 
was  much  praised.  Among  its  illustrations  were  7  volumes 
of  reports,  3  photographic  views  of  buildings  and  grounds, 
64  specimens  of  the  work  in  the  mechanical  shops,  30  speci¬ 
men  plates  of  drawings,  and  6  portfolios  of  students’  work 
of  various  kinds. 

The  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  showed  some 
architectural  drawings  by  students,  which  were  not  sur¬ 
passed  by  any  at  the  Exposition. 

The  Cooper  Institute,  of  New  York,  exhibited  some  ad¬ 
mirable  specimens  of  industrial  drawing. 

The  Worcester  Free  Institute  made  an  excellent  exhibit 
of  drawing.models,  as  well  as  other  work  of  a  miscellaneous 
character. 

The  Perkins  Institution  and  Massachusetts  Asylum  for 
the  Blind  exhibited  some  very  interesting  work  by  Laura 
Bridgman  and  other  pupils,  together  with  5  volumes  of  text 
books  and  maps  in  raised  characters,  which  were  undoubt¬ 
edly  superior  to  anything  of  the  kind  elsewhere  presented. 
The  instruction  of  the  blind  is  a  matter  of  peculiar  interest 
to  Europeans,  and  a  great  deal  was  exhibited  to  illustrate 
what  is  done  in  different  countries  in  this  direction.  From 
all  that  was  seen  and  heard  at  the  Exposition  the  conclusion 
was  clear  that  the  United  States  had  made  the  greatest 
advancement  in  the  means  and  methods  of  this  specialty  of 
instruction. 

Some  individual  exhibitors  received  deserved  notice.  Mr. 
Luther  W.  Mason,  of  Boston,  attracted  attention  by  his 
musical  publications,  charts,  and  manuscript  text  books, 
and  teachers’  guides,  and  also  a  system  of  musical  instruc¬ 
tion  in  Japanese,  in  which  work  the  author  is  now  engaged. 

Prof.  Walter  Smith  had  a  fine  exhibit  of  publications  and 
appliances  relating  to  industrial  art,  which  made  a  decided 
impression.  The  French  published  a  pamphlet  on  the  in¬ 
fluence  of  the  American  system  of  teaching  drawing  in 
public  schools.  One  had  supposed  we  were  learners  of 
Europe  in  this  regard,  but  it  would  seem  as  if  already  there 
were  a  refluent  wave  and  America  were  beginning  to  teach 
her  masters. 

The  works  of  Dr.  Henry  Barnard  received  the  attention 
and  honor  which  they  so  richly  deserve.  His  u  American 
Journal  of  Education,”  in  26  large  octavo  volumes,  cannot 
fail  to  be  regarded  as  the  most  comprehensive  collection 
extant  of  all  matters  of  interest  relating  to  pedagogy. 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


341 


The  valuable  reports  of  Dr.  Philbrick,  as  superintendent  united  states. 
of  the  public  schools  of  Boston,  50  in  number,  and  bound  ^  ^  Reports  of 
in  7  octavo  volumes,  were  also  highly  appreciated.  This  schools, 
reference  to  the  works  of  these  gentlemen  readily  suggests 
an  answer  to  the  question  so  often  put,  why  our  American 
educators  have  written  no  formal  treatise  on  pedagogy.  It 
would  appear  that  those  who  are  able  to  produce  such  works 
prefer  to  present  their  valuable  information  and  sugges¬ 
tions  in  connection  with  existing  facts  and  the  current  ques¬ 
tions  of  the  day,  believing  that  to  be  a  form  more  service¬ 
able  to  the  interests  of  education  than  abstract  and  didactic 
treatises.  It  hence  results  that  these  “ reports”  and  “jour¬ 
nals”  are  of  far  more  importance  in  their  scope  and  depth 
than  might  be  looked  for  under  such  titles. 

Small  as  our  section  and  our  exhibit  were,  the  awards  of^wK^o?  pri- 
the  jury  showed  the  high  esteem  in  which  our  educational  ^s^the^group 
institutions  and  efforts  were  held.  Of  the  principal  grades 
on  the  list,  France,  of  course,  stands  at  the  head,  receiving 
422  awards.  Next  comes  the  United  States,  with  121. 

Then  Austria-Hungary,  with  102 ;  Belgium,  93  j  and  others 
with  lessening  ratios. 

No  list  of  items  and  persons  receiving  honors  is  given 
here,  as  these  awards  did  not  always  correspond  with  what 
was  shown  at  the  Exposition,  but  were  determined  by  other 
evidences  of  excellence. 

LESSON'S  AND  RESULTS.  Lessons  and  re¬ 

sults  of  the  Paris 

In  seeking  to  draw  from  the  Paris  Exposition  such  les- Expositlon • 
sons  as  we  might  profitably  give  or  receive  in  exchange  Exchange  of 

•  views 

with  the  most  advanced  nations  of  Europe,  it  would  be 
difficult  and  perhaps  of  little  advantage  to  undertake  to  say 
what  particular  country  is  behind  or  before  others  in  cer¬ 
tain  respects  in  which  they  differ  and  certain  directions  in 
which  they  tend.  A  movement  may  possibly  be  a  back¬ 
ward  one,  or  a  forward  movement  may  be  carried  too  far. 

But  it  may  perhaps  be  safely  concluded  that  a  movement 
which  is  directed  by  the  efforts  of  the  most  enlightened 
minds,  after  deliberation  and  free  discussion  and  exchange  what  consti. 
of  ideas,  and  which  is  the  accepted  result  of  the  best  ex. tutesanadvancc- 
perience  and  observation,  may  properly  be  regarded  as  a 
true  advance.  If  one  country  has  made  better  attainments 
than  others  in  directions  so  determined,  it  may  be  said  that 
it  is  “ahead”  of  them. 

1.  One  of  the  tendencies  which  seems  to  be  in  accordance 
with  the  general  voice  of  reason  and  experience  is  that 
represented  by  the  watchwords  of  the  progressive  party  in 


342 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Lessons  and  re 
suits. 

The  watch 
words  of  the  pro 
gressives. 


Obligatory  at 
tendance. 


Religious  neu 
trality. 


Unsectarianism , 


Coeducation. 


Unpopular  in 
Europe  except  for 
primary  grades. 


Tendency  in  this 
country  to  sepa¬ 
rate  schools  for 
older  pupils. 


education  throughout  Europe — u  Education  obligatory,  gra¬ 
tuitous,  and  neutral  in  religion.”  It  would  not  be  correct  to 
'  say  these  ends  have  been  better  attained  in  the  United 
States  than  in  some  other  countries.  With  respect  to  the 
absence  of  tuition  fees  for  public  school  instruction  we  are 
clearly  in  advance.  As  to  the  obligatory  requirement  of  a 
certain  degree  of  education,  but  few  of  our  States,  if  any, 
have  reached  the  point  attained  in  several  other  countries. 

Where  instruction  is  provided  at  the  public  expense 
there  is  certainly  a  strong  reason  to  require  children  to 
profit  by  the  privilege;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  the  tend¬ 
ency  of  society  is  toward  that  end.  With  regard  to  the 
third  point,  the  religious  neutrality  of  public  education,  it 
already  exists  in  the  modified  form  of  unsectarianism  in 
the  United  States.  Whether  we  can  ever  be  induced  to  en¬ 
force  an  absolute  neutrality  in  which  the  general  principles 
of  Christianity  on  which  our  codes  of  morals  and  tests  of 
virtuous  character  are  based,  shall  have  no  favorable  pre¬ 
sumption,  but  all  religions  and  no  religion  shall  have  equal 
regard,  is  a  question  we  may  have  to  face.  But  probably 
unsectarianism  will  be  a  satisfactory  resting  point  for  our 
people.  Most  European  nations  which  have  declared  for 
neutrality  of  religion  in  the  schools  have  insisted  that  they 
shall  still  inculcate  the  u  Christian  virtues.”  It  would  ap¬ 
pear  that  the  Christian  nations  of  the  earth  are  not  yet 
ready  to  reform  the  calendar. 

2.  Another  subject  of  comparative  study  is  coeducation. 
The  feeling  in  Europe  is  very  decided  for  separate  schools 
for  the  sexes.  There  are  indeed  some  mixed  schools  for  the 
lowest  grades,  and  in  cases  where  the  circumstances  of  a 
people  of  certain  localities  render  this  necessary  (as  has 
been  shown  in  the  course  of  this  report),  but  in  general  it  may 
be  said  there  is  not  a  country  in  Europe  in  which  young  men 
and  young  women  are  taught  together. 

If  we  grant  that  some  of  the  feeling  here  referred  to  re¬ 
sults  from  false  teachings,  and  low  views  of  the  true  signifi¬ 
cance  and  office  of  sex,  and  the  correspondingly  low  state 
of  sexual  morality  in  such  countries,  there  are  still  natural 
and  permanent  reasons  why  coeducation  of  the  sexes  is  not 
likely  to  become  the  settled  policy  of  advanced  educational 
systems.  Even  in  this  country  the  tendency  is  toward  sep¬ 
arate  schools  for  older  pupils,  as  it  must  be  observed  that 
the  first-class  institutions  for  the  separate  education  of  girls 
are  better  patronized  than  those  which,  being  principally 
designed  for  young  men,  are  thrown  open  also  to  young 
women. 


EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  CHAMBERLAIN. 


343 


3.  In  the  employment  of  female  teachers  for  primary  suft%s8onsandre' 
schools  the  practice  in  Europe  has  until  lately  been  widely  Female  teach 
different  from  that  of  the  United  States.  They  have  been  schools.  immary 
very  largely  employed  in  the  United  States  and  scarcely  at 

all  in  Europe.  The  present  tendency  seems  to  be  from  both 
extremes.  There  is  an  energetic  movement  in  the  progres¬ 
sive  countries  of  the  Old  World  to  open  the  way  for  what 
seems  to  be  the  natural  vocation  of  woman,  while  it  is  ap¬ 
parently  felt  in  America  that  we  have  given  up  the  schools 
too  much  to  the  charge  of  women,  and  a  reaction  in  this  Feminine 
respect  has  begun.  There  is  a  just  mean  somewhere.  But 
it  will  probably  remain  true  that  the  reserved  force  and  the 
power  to  command  and  to  deal  with  masses,  which  is  aan(i  masculine 
characteristic  of  manhood,  will  be  deemed  an  essential  factor  quallties- 
in  the  proper  discipline  of  youthful  character,  and  the  suc¬ 
cessful  administration  of  schools  on  any  considerable  scale. 

4.  In  respect  to  school  books,  Europe  is  too  far  one  way,  school  hooks, 
and  we  are  too  far  the  other.  Most  of  the  school  books  of 

Europe  are  poorly  printed  and  poorly  bound.  This  may  be 
said  especially  of  Germany,  north  and  south.  But  then  European  and 
these  books  are  cheap.  On  the  contrary,  our  school  books 
are  too  fine  and  too  costly.  The  printer’s  and  the  engraver’s 
art  have  reached  such  a  point  here,  and  publishers  have  so 
vied  with  each  other  to  make  a  u  splendid  book,”  that  we 
have  run  into  a  bad  extreme.  Our  text  books  have  too  tr<^Ssncan  ex" 
often  become  picture  books ;  that  is  to  say,  the  pictures  are 
not  for  illustration  but  for  ornament  and  luxury.  The  edu¬ 
cating  influence  of  such  artistic  work  may  possibly  count 
for  something,  but  the  added  expense  is  a  serious  item  for 
the  mass  of  children.  A  school  book  ought  to  be  attractive,  Expensive- 

-  .  ness  of  American 

but  should  not  be  burdensome  with  beauty.  Our  attention  school  hooks, 
has  recently  been  called  to  the  hard  finish  and  glaring 
whiteness  of  much  of  the  paper  used  in  our  fine  books,  and 
in  some  of  our  fine  school  books,  which  is  very  trying  to  the 
eye  and  likely  to  be  injurious  to  the  eyes  of  the  young.*  In 
this  respect,  certainly,  most  countries  of  Europe  have  the 
advantage  of  us,  the  paper  being  soft  and  tinted  so  as  not  „ Soft  tiuts, 

°  7  x  a  o  European  school 

to  throw  a  violent  reflection  of  light.  We  might  exchange  books, 
some  ideas  with  our  friends  abroad,  with  advantage  to 
both  parties. 

5.  Great  attention  is  giren  in  the  schools  of  Europe  to  Penmanship, 
penmanship.  Three  hands  are  usually  taught — the  gothic, 

the  round,  and  the  current.  The  first  is  used  for  headings. 

The  fault  ot'the  current  hand  is  a  tendency  to  stiffness  and 
angularity.  But  there  is  a  cheering  absence  of  a  superfluity 

Adams,  in  the 
“Nation.” 


By  the  Rev.  F.  A.  Adams,  of  Orange,  N.  J.,  in  “  The  Nation. 


344 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Lessons  and  re¬ 
sults. 

Excellence  of 
European  school 
penmanship. 


Cultivation  of 
ihe  eye  and  the 
hand. 


Our  needs  in 
this  respect. 


Education 

;irls. 


of 


School  build¬ 
ings. 


Covered  play- 
courts. 


Mode  of  light¬ 
ing. 


System  of  grad¬ 
ed  schools. 


of  hair-lines,  and  this  goes  to  promote  legibility,  which  is 
supposed  to  be  one  aim  of  penmanship.  The  excellence  of 
the  writing,  of  which  there  was  a  vast  amount  presented 
at  the  Exposition,  was  its  clearness,  strength,  and  legibility. 
To  this  might  justly  be  added  the  excellence  of  beauty, 
meaning  by  this  the  symmetry  and  truth  of  the  curves  and 
angles.  In  this  country  we  have  lost  something  by  giving 
up  almost  entirely  the  round  full-faced  hand  we  may  be 
fortunate  enough  to  see  in  the  writings  of  our  fathers. 

6.  We  are  behind  Europe  in  the  education  of  the  senses, 
of  the  power  of  observation,  and  manipulation.  The  sharp 
competitions  of  the  different  countries  of  Europe  demand 
the  cultivation  of  the  eye  and  hand,  and  long  practice  has 
given  an  aptitude  and  ability  transmitted  perhaps  as  an 
inheritance  and  so  become  a  second  nature.  But  we  cer¬ 
tainly  need  to  do  a  great  deal  more  in  this  direction,  and 
we  cannot  begin  too  soon.  If  the  brain  of  man  conceives 
the  strategy  by  which  we  master  nature,  it  is  by  the  eye 
and  the  hand  that  the  real  victory  is  to  be  achieved.  A 
large  amount  of  the  educational  effort  of  this  country  is 
directed  to  sharpen  the  wits  and  quicken  the  inventive 
genius  of  our  people,  but  our  lack  in  bodily  training  will 
before  long  make  itself  painfully  evident. 

7.  In  respect  to  the  education  of  girls,  Europe  is  in  some 
respects  far  behind  us.  In  the  lower  grades  we  succeed  in 
giving  equal  facilities  to  girls  and  boys ;  but  in  higher,  and 
especially  in  the  highest  grades,  it  would  seem  that  we  are 
hardly  keeping  pace  with  the  newly  awakened  Old  World. 

8.  All  countries  are  now  striving  to  improve  their  school 
buildings.  The  marked  feature  of  the  school  houses  in  the 
towns  and  cities  of  Western  Europe  is  the  u  covered  court,” 
a  free  covered  space,  sometimes  lighted  from  the  side  and 
sometimes  canopied  with  glass,  where  the  children  may  not 
only  take  their  exercise  in  all  weathers  alike,  but  where 
they  may  also  take  their  noon  meal.  The  buildings  are  not 
generally  above  two  stories  high,  and  the  best  of  them  are 
now  so  constructed  that  the  light  shall  come  only  on  one  side 
of  the  room,  and  so  as  to  fall  over  the  pupiPs  left  shoulder. 
It  is  claimed  also  that  this  has  a  good  educating  effect  upon 
the  eye  and  upon  the  judgment  of  form  and  of  the  truth  of 
light  and  shade. 

1).  It  must  be  conceded  that  there  is  an  economy  of  force 
in  the  system  of  graded  schools.  But  observation  at  home 
and  abroad  has  raised  a  serious  doubt  whether  the  advan¬ 
tage  of  the  economical  result  may  not  have  been  at  the 
expense  of  the  best  educational  effect.  It  seems  as  if  the 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


345 


classification  of  children  has  become  too  sharp  and  scientific,  suf^80ns  and  re' 
the  grading  too  fine.  This  is  especially  observable  in  the  case 
of  the  younger  children.  In  the  order  of  nature,  children 
learn  largely  by  example ;  and  even  in  the  presence  and 
atmosphere  of  older  ones,  the  younger  seem  to  grow  uncon¬ 
sciously  and  by  imbibition.  But  shut  up  to  themselves,  the  ti0n^ofSth°efjSr 
little  ones,  who  have  not  yet  learned  to  study  books  with  real  Pupils- 
interest,  when  their  appointed  routine  task  is  over  have 
only  to  sit  blank  and  inane  5  whereas,  by  merely  looking  on 
while  others  are  doing  work  even  wholly  above  what  the 
younger  can  comprehend,  they  might  gain  more  of  real 
knowledge  than  by  the  methods  which  the  teacher  so  pains¬ 
takingly  and  painfully  employs.  It  is  a  serious  question 
whether  it  would  not  be  better  to  make  fewer  grades,  even 
if  it  spoils  our  theory  of  u  progress  by  differentiation.” 

10.  The  relation  of  the  government,  or  rather  the  body  b0dylapoStic 
politic,  to  the  schools  of  a  country,  and  the  extent  of  its^e  schools  of 

17  °  7  the  country. 

powers  and  duties  with  regard  to  them,  is  a  question  which 
enters  into  that  of  the  theory  of  the  State,  and  will  prob¬ 
ably  be  differently  regarded  according  to  the  theory  of 
government  which  may  be  dominant  in  any  mind  or  in  any 
country.  But  the  tendency  is  unmistakable  in  Europe,  and  General tenden- 

cy  to  plcicG  educa- 

in  America  also,  to  extend  practically  the  care  of  the  State  tion  in  aiibranch- 

7  es  under  State 

over  the  schools  to  any  and  every  degree  which  the  best  care, 
interests  of  education  may  demand.  This  is  seen  in  things 
small  as  well  as  great.  It  is  coming  to  be  the  practice  in 
Europe  to  provide  scholars  with  everything  needed  for  their 
school  work;  and  even  so  distinguished  a  philosopher  and 
savan  and  so  conservative  a  mind  as  M.  Greard,  Inspector-  Grdard. 
General  of  Public  Instruction  in  France,  recommends  that 
the  city  of  Paris  should  pay  for  the  dinners  of  all  the  schol¬ 
ars  in  its  schools.  But  the  question  chiefly  at  issue  in  this  Duty  of  state 
country  is  scarcely  raised  at  all  in  Europe,  namely,  whether  grade J^ot^edu- 
the  State  has  any  duty  or  right  to  provide  a  higher  grade  ^r^recognS 
of  education  than  the  primary  at  the  public  expense.  All m  Europe' 
that  is  proper  to  be  said  on  this  matter  in  a  paper  like  this, 
is  that,  however  conservative  our  theories  may  be  as  to  the  Questioned  in 
sphere  of  government  or  the  proper  objects  of  taxation,  the  mcrica‘ 
movement  of  the  age  is  in  sympathy  with  the  public  provis¬ 
ion  for  instruction  of  the  higher  and  even  highest  grades,  tioEroljaljl0  solu' 
and  it  is  likely  to  be  irresistible. 

11.  Another  and  equally  interesting  question  of  education  Mutual  relation 

•  -ir.  °  „  of  form  of  go  vc  ru¬ 

in  the  State  is  its  relation  to  the  forms  of  government.  We  ment  and  systems 

claim  in  this  country  that  the  common  schools  are  the  foun-  °  eauca  '°n‘ 
dation  of  our  liberties — this  is,  of  the  guarantees  of  our  lib¬ 
erties.  Popular  education  is  doubtless  essential  to  republi- 


346 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


sidtsSOns  and  re" can  institutions,  but  the  converse  would  hardly  hold  true — 
that  republican  institutions  are  essential  to  popular  education. 
stron-er  centraf  ^  strong  central  government,  if  it  is  well  disposed,  can  be  a 
well  disposed  much  more  efficient  educator  than  a  democracy  or  a  republic. 

A  democracy,  left  to  itself,  is  by  no  means  sure  to  aspire  to 
rise  beyond  its  present  condition,  and  certainly  could  not  be 
always  trusted  to  carry  education  to  its  highest  point.  It 
would  require  a  rare  enlightenment  and  ennoblement  of  spirit 
Tendency  offor  a  pure  democracy  to  foster  an  education  which  naturally 
tutions.  produces  an  aristocracy.  Saxony,  Wurtemburg,  and  many 

other  states  of  Germany,  abundantly  illustrate  what  a  strong 
government  can  enforce  in  the  way  of  general  education, 
popular  n°educa5  But  when  benevolent  monarchies  thus  foster  the  common 
non  m  monarch-  scp0(q  ^ey  wep  Rn0w  that  the  tendency  of  popular  educa- 

Education  tion  is  adverse  to  all  absolutism,  and  that  they  are  preparing 

adverse  to  abso-  '  .  . 

lutism.  the  way  for  republics.  By  such  tides  of  action  and  reaction 

the  world  moves.  But  the  representative  element  in  all  gov¬ 
ernments,  even  the  strongest  monarchies,  is  one  of  the 
striking  characteristics  of  the  present  times.  In  all  of  them 
the  wisest  and  best  are  devising  methods  of  a  more  complete 
General  move-  enfranchisement  of  the  people.  Whatever  the  form  of  gov- 
freedom.  ‘  eminent,  the  movement  of  all  the  civilized  nations  of  the 
what  is  “free- earth  is  towards  freedom, — by  which  word  we  mean  a  con¬ 
dition  where  the  will  of  the  people,  and  not  the  will  of  a 
monarch  or  of  any  master,  makes  the  laws  and  rules  the 
i i^ious  influences  ^auc^  -^n  extreme  conservative  influence,  like  that  of  the 
bring  education  Boman  Catholic  Church,  may  in  some  countries  make  educa- 
mto  politics.  ^ion  a  question  of  politics.  Thus  we  seethe  progressive  and 
liberal  parties  in  France  and  Italy  and  Spain — parties  whose 
principles  we  should  call  democratic  and  republican — enthu- 
Effect  of  cdu-  siastic  in  the  cause  of  popular  education.  In  order  for  men 
ing1  liberty eserv  to  comprehend  their  duties  they  must  know  their  rights,  and 
they  can  only  know  these  by  discovering  their  destinies 
through  learning  their  capabilities. 

social  and  po-  12.  Connected  with  this  is  the  deep  interest  now  felt  in  the 

litical  science. 

enlightened  countries  of  Europe  in  the  study  of  social  and  po¬ 
litical  science.  Our  schools  and  colleges  in  America  are  far 
behind  in  this  matter.  Bor  can  there  be  any  branch  of  the 
our  need  of u  humanities v  more  important  or  more  urgently  demanded 
rectfon.  by  the  times  than  the  knowledge  of  the  facts,  the  forces,  and 

the  laws  by  which  civilization  advances,  and  man  emerges 
from  the  brute.  Nowhere  is  this  study  more  demanded  than 
in  our  own  country,  and  never  more  than  at  the  present  time. 
Present tenden-  13.  Among  the  observations  from  which  valuable  sug- 

cies  of  Europea, n  .  . 

schools  to  dissem- gestions  can  be  drawn  is  that  m  regard  to  the  present 

inate  knowledge  ,  .  ,  .  „„  . 

widely.  tendencies  of  the  great  schools  of  Europe  to  difluse  their 


education:  commissioner  chamberlain. 


347 


light  as  widely  as  possible  among  the  people.  Xot  content  suf°ssons  nnd  re' 
with  educating  those  within  their  walls,  and  with  conduct¬ 
ing  original  investigations  in  science,  they  are  throwing 
open  their  lecfure-rooms,  and  even  going  out  into  the  neigh¬ 
boring  towns,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  popular  courses  of  Public  lectures 

.  7  x  -I  T  -  i  i  and  popular  cour- 

mstruction  and  making  the  people  sharers  m  the  advance- ses  by  the  faculty 

_  .  .  ,  .  .  . .  .  . . ,  . .  .  .  of  hisher  institu- 

ment  of  knowledge.  These  aristocratic  institutions  taking  tions  of  learning. 

pleasure  in  such  work  afford  a  striking  example,  creditable 

to  them  and  to  our  times.  More  of  this  sort  could  be  done 

in  our  higher  schools  of  learning.  The  college  should  not  a  hint  for  our- 

only  be  a  place  where  a  student  can  get  an  education;  it 

should  be  a  light  set  on  a  hill,  to  shine  into  the  dark  places 

below  it. 

14.  Our  final  thought  naturally  turns  to  the  educating  in-  Educating  in 
fluence  of  these  international  exhibitions.  As  children  learn  naSai0  exmia 
by  example  and  observation,  so  do  men,  and  so  do  nations. tl0ns' 

A  principle  of  natural  selection  on  a  grand  scale  works  here. 

Each  people  shows  its  best,  and  every  other  admires  and  international 
learns ;  and  where,  in  any  point,  one  surpasses  all,  the  most 
able  may  make  this  excellence  their  point  of  departure,  and 
the  very  least  may  take  it  as  their  goal.  Thus  each  one  The  excellences 
learns  its  best  hold  and  line  of  work  ;  the  sharpness  of  com-  theeach  common 
petition  is  softened  by  the  interchange  of  human  sympathies  wealtl1  of  aU 
and  quickening  ideas,  and  the  excellences  of  each  become 
the  common  wealth  of  all. 

JOSHUA  L.  CHAMBEELAIN, 

Additional  Commissioner . 


THE  PROVISION  FOR  HIGHER  INSTRUCTION  IN 
SUBJECTS  BEARING  DIRECTLY  UPON 
PUBLIC  AFFAIRS. 


HON.  ANDREW  D.  WHITE,  LL.  D. 


349 


[For  the  Classification  of  the  Second  Group  (Education),  see  page  182.] 


350 


REPORT 


ON 

THE  PROVISION  FOR  HIGHER  INSTRUCTION  IN  SUBJECTS 
BEARING  DIRECTLY  UPON  PUBLIC  AFFAIRS. 


Being  called  upon  for  the  results  of  studies  upon  the 
higher  education  as  represented  at  the  Exposition  of  1878, 
it  has  seemed  best  to  confine  my  report  to  the  division  above 
named. 

The  reasons  for  thus  restricting  the  field  are  as  follows :  Reasons  for  re- 

stnctmg  the  field 

No  striking  advance  or  change  in  the  provision  for  higher  of  the  report, 
education  in  Europe  has  taken  place  since  the  exhaustive 
report  of  Commissioner  Hoyt,  published  in  1870,  save  in 
two  departments. 

The  first  of  these  is  the  department  of  natural  and  phys-  Two  depart 
ical  sciences.  The  new  laboratories  and  other  provisions  STancehalTbeel! 
for  instruction  at  Oxford,  Cambridge,  Paris,  Berlin,  Naples, made— 
Zurich,  and  elsewhere,  and  the  exhibits  of  remarkable  ap¬ 
paratus  from  the  Parisian  special  schools,  indicate  a  great 
advance  in  this  respect;  but  a  report  upon  these  comes  Natural  and 
within  the  province  of  one  of  my  colleagues,  whose  author-  ph>sicalsciences- 
ity  will  be  generally  recognized. 

The  second  of  these  departments  embraces  the  higher  in¬ 
struction  in  history,  political  and  social  science,  and  general  sociaisci- 
jurisprudence,  including  international  and  administrative  euce>  &c> 
law.  This  is  not  included  in  any  of  tbe  divisions  assigned 
to  my  fellow  commissioners,  and  has,  it  seems  to  me,  very 
important  bearings  upon  the  welfare  of  our  own  republic.  The  latter  tlie 
For  these  reasons  I  have  made  it  the  subject  of  my  report,  siibjcctofthisre- 

At  various  visits  to  European  universities  during  the 
past  twenty -five  years,  especially  during  the  past  two  years, 
as  also  at  the  recent  Exposition,  I  have  been  especially  in¬ 
terested  in  this  department,  embracing  those  studies  by 
which  men  are  fitted  to  take  part  in  public  affairs,  and  I 
purpose  giving  a  general  account  of  its  recent  growth  and 
present  condition  at  some  of  the  centers  of  European  in¬ 
struction,  and  then  to  bring  the  knowledge  thus  obtained 
to  bear  on  what  seems  a  great  practical  need  in  our  own 
country. 


351 


352 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


GERMANY. 


University 

Tubingen. 


Training  of 
men  for  public 
service. 


In  the  foremost  In  every  important  university  in  Europe,  during  many 
rant.  years  past,  extended  courses  of  instruction  in  history,  polit¬ 

ical  and  social  science,  and  general  jurisprudence  have  been 
presented.  The  foremost  rank  hitherto,  in  this  instruction, 
has  been  taken  by  Germany.  While  it  is  true  that  the  want 
of  practical  political  instruction,  that  which  comes  by  taking 
part  directly  in  political  affairs,  has  stood  in  the  way  of  a  com¬ 
plete,  well-rounded  political  education  of  the  whole  people  in 
that  country,  it  is  also  true  that  to  these  courses  is  due  almost 
entirely  that  excellence  in  German  administration  which  is 
at  last  acknowledged  by  the  entire  world.  We  may  dis¬ 
believe  in  the  theories  of  government  prevalent  among  the 
Germans,  but  we  cannot  deny  their  skill  in  administration. 
of  Among  the  German  institutions,  in  which  a  leading  place 
is  given  to  instruction  relating  to  public  affairs,  probably 
the  most  interesting  is  the  University  of  Tubingen. 

Several  j^ears  ago  far-seeing  statesmen  established  there  a 
distinct  faculty,  devoted  to  the  training  of  men  for  the  serv¬ 
ice  of  the  state.  The  results  are  now  before  the  world. 
The  graduates  of  this  department  hold  to-day  leading  places 
not  only  in  the  administration  of  the  Kingdom  of  Wiirtem- 
berg,  but  throughout  the  German  Empire.  In  conversation 
with  leading  men  in  Southern  Germany,  I  have  not  found 
one  who  did  not  declare  this  and  similar  courses  of  instruc¬ 
tion  a  main  cause  of  the  present  efficiency  in  the  German 
administration. 

The  faculty  at  Tubingen,  dealing  practically  and  directly 
with  political  and  social  instruction  [StaatswirthschaftlicJie 
Facultdt ],  in  the  years  1878-’9  embraced  six  professors,  be¬ 
sides  sundry  associate  instructors,  and  in  the  faculties  of 
law  and  philosophy  were  several  other  professors  constantly 
giving  instruction  bearing  upon  these  subjects.  From  their 
courses  of  lectures,  recently  announced,  I  select  the  following : 

1.  Political  economy. 

2.  The  theory  and  practice  of  taxation. 

3.  The  history  of  commerce  and  its  recent  developments. 

4.  Questions  of  the  day  regarding  political  economy  and 
general  administration. 

5.  Administrative  law  and  practice,  including  dealings 
with  crime. 

6.  The  history  of  political  theories. 

7.  The  dealing  with  social  questions,  and  especially  those 
relating  to  trade. 

8.  The  philosophy  of  law. 

9.  Constitutional  law. 


Faculty. 


Curriculum . 


POLITICAL  EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  WHITE. 


353 


10.  The  constitution  of  the  English  Parliament.  germane. 

11.  The  representative  institutions  of  the  great  modern 
nations. 

12.  Money  and  banking. 

13.  History  of  communism  and  socialism  during  the  last 
hundred  years. 

14.  Philosophy  of  German  law. 

15.  Universal  history. 

10.  History  of  the  English  revolution. 

17.  History  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

18.  History  of  the  year  1848  and  its  consequences,  &c. 

19.  Institutions  and  history  of  the  Roman  law. 

20.  History  of  the  German  imperial  law. 

The  above  selection  is  made  to  show  the  extent  of  the  in¬ 
struction.  There  are  also  many  other  lectures  in  other  fac¬ 
ulties  on  kindred  topics.  It  should  also  be  noted  that  these  For  a  single 
are  the  subjects  presented  in  a  single  term  of  a  single  year.  ycai  8  C(,urso' 
During  the  time  given  by  the  student  to  his  university  course 
many  other  important  subjects  would  be  taken  up. 

The  University  of  Tubingen  may  be  taken  as  a  type  of 
those  institutions  in  Central  Europe  which  group  studies  re¬ 
lating  to  public  affairs  [Stciats-und  Gamer  alwissenscliafi]  in  a 
single  faculty ;  but  in  most  of  the  universities  these  studies 
are  not  thus  grouped,  but  simply  scattered  through  various 
faculties,  and  especially  through  those  of  law  and  philosophy. 

Of  this  latter  class  of  institutions  the  University  of  Leipsic  university  of 
may  b.e  taken  as  typical.  From  the  courses  given  through  Lcipsi<" 
the  winter  semester  of  1877-’8  I  select  the  following,  to 
show  the  scope  of  instruction : 

1.  The  general  philosophy  of  law.  Curriculum. 

2.  International  law.* 

3.  Public  instruction  and  the  national  school  system. 

4.  Modern  history.  [In  this  ten  different  periods  and  sub¬ 
jects  were  presented  in  as  many  different  courses  of  lectures.] 

5.  Important  questions  of  the  day  in  political  and  social 
science. 

G.  Practical  and  national  economy 

7.  Finance  and  banking. 

8.  Theory  and  practice  of  taxation. 

9.  History  and  theory  of  statistics. 

10.  Theoretical  and  practical  statistics. 

11.  The  army  system  in  its  relation  to  the  public  admin¬ 
istration. 

12.  Agricultural  policy. 

13.  Book-keeping  and  accounts. 

14.  Theory  of  estimates  of  public  revenue,  &c. 

23  p  R 


354 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Germany.  Connected  with  this  in  the  announcement  were  grouped 
a  number  of  those  studies  which  with  us  are  generally 
brought  into  the  courses  of  our  agricultural  colleges.  In 
other  German  such  universities  as  Berlin,  Bonn,  Heidelberg,  Goettingen, 
Jena,  Koenigsberg,  Marburg,  &c.,  similar  provisions  were 
made.  It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  in  all  these  the 
professors  were  ready  to  grapple  with  living  questions,  and 
that  courses  were  given  in  nearly  all  of  them  by  distin¬ 
guished  men  upon  questions  raised  by  the  socialistic  party, 
paratf on°for  such  ^s  regards  the  preparation  of  young  men  for  these 
course.  courses,  it  is  certainly  not  more  than  equivalent  to  that  ob¬ 

tained  in  American  colleges  and  universities  of  a  good  grade 
by  the  end  of  the  freshman  year.  Having  heard  recitations 
of  classes  in  various  departments  of  the  German  gymnasia, 
or  preparatory  colleges,  I  make  this  statement  with  confi¬ 
dence. 

Austria- hun-  AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

GARY. 


In  the  Austrian  Empire  the  new  and  liberal  government 
has  carried  out  largely  the  same  system, 
university  of  The  announcement  of  the  University  of  Vienna  for 
1878-’9  shows  that  it  has  adopted  the  Tubingen  plan  of  a 
distinct  faculty  for  subjects  relating  to  political  and  social 
science.  In  one  term  of  1878-* 2 3 4 5 * 7 8 9 109  courses  of  lectures  were 
presented  by  this  faculty  from  which  I  select  the  following : 
Curriculum.  i.  National  economy  and  public  administration. 

2.  International  law  in  peace  and  war. 

3.  The  system  of  public  accounts. 

4.  General  political  economy. 

5.  Constitutional  and  administrative  law. 

0.  Financial  law  in  its  connection  with  the  administration 
of  finances. 

7.  The  theory  of  taxation  in  relation  to  the  Austrian  tax 
laws. 

8.  Constitutional  law  with  reference  to  Austria. 

9.  Austrian  history  with  especial  refeience  to  industrial 
progress. 

10.  Comparative  statistics  of  the  European  states  with 
especial  reference  to  the  Austro  Hungarian  Government. 

Besides  this,  provision  was  made  in  other  faculties  for  ex¬ 
tensive  instruction  in  various  departments  and  periods  of 
history. 


Doea  not  pro-  As  to  the  general  character  of  all  this  instruction  among 

(luce doctrinaires.  ~ 

German-speaking  peoples,  whatever  it  may  have  been  m 
the  past,  it  is  not  at  present  calculated  to  breed  doctrinaires  ; 
it  is  large  and  free ;  the  experience  of  the  whole  world  is 


POLITICAL  EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  WHITE. 


355 


laid  under  contribution  for  tlie  building  up  of  its  students;  AUS™RyHrN‘ 

questions  of  living  interest  have  their  full  share  in  the- - - — - 

various  lecture-rooms.  To  know  how  our  own  democracy  German  inter 
is  solving  its  problems,  one  of  the  German  universities  sends  fe^ical  prob' 
to  this  country  for  study  one  of  its  most  gifted  professors, 
one  from  whom  thinking  men  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic 
have  been  glad  to  learn  the  constitutional  history  of  their 
own  country.  The  lectures  of  Professor  Von  Holst,  as  deliv-  Prof  Ton  Holst- 
ered  here,  and  his  work  upon  the  Constitutional  history  of 
the  United  States,  are  sufficient  to  show  that  this  instruc¬ 
tion  in  the  German  universities  is  given  in  a  large  way,  and 
is  not  made  a  means  of  fettering  thought.  At  no  seats  of 
learning  in  the  world,  probably,  is  political  thought  more 
free.  The  University  of  Berlin  stands  on  the  main  avenue  ^  University  of 
of  the  capital  of  the  German  monarchy,  directly  opposite 
the  Imperial  Palace.  Within  a  stone’s  throw  of  the  Emperor’s 
work-table  are  the  lecture  desks  of  a  large  number  of  pro¬ 
fessors,  who  have  never  hesitated  to  express  their  views  Freedom  of 

....  .  .  .  speecli  and  de- 

fully  upon  all  the  questions  arising  between  democratic  and  bate, 
monarchical  systems;  I  have  myself,  in  these  lecture-rooms, 
heard  sentiments  freely  uttered  which  accorded  perfectly 
with  the  ideas  of  Republican  and  Democratic  American 
statesmen. 

SWITZERLAND.  Switzerland. 

In  the  Swiss  Republic,  instruction  in  political  and  social 
science  is  held  in  especial  honor.  At  the  universities  of  tiegWiss  univer8i' 
Zurich,  Basle,  Berne,  and  Geneva  a  large  number  of  pro 
fessors  are  constantly  engaged  in  it;  young  men  come  to 
them  with  the  direct  purpose  of  fitting  themselves  for  a 
political  career. 

FRANCE.  ^ance. 

In  France,  for  many  years,  history,  political  and  social 
science  and  general  jurisprudence  have  held  a  leading  place 
in  all  the  great  institutions  for  higher  instruction.  What¬ 
ever  may  have  been  the  political  mistakes  of  that  country, 
many  of  which  are  directly  traceable  to  the  wapt  of  popular 
education,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  internal  administra-  Admirable  m- 

.  ’  temal  ad  minis - 

tion  of  the  country  is  conducted  with  great  ability,  and  its  tration. 
ordinary  legislation  with  great  foresight.  The  financial  Financial 

......  soundness. 

errors  which  in  times  gone  by  have  cost  France  so  dear,  and 
which  have  since  been  so  ruinous  to  other  nations,  have 
been  skillfully  avoided  during  this  century.  It  is  common 
to  ascribe  the  speedy  recovery  of  France  from  various  catas¬ 
trophes  to  the  subdivision  of  land  among  her  people.  This 
is  doubtless  an  important  factor  in  her  success,  but  it  is  by 
no  means  all;  a  similar  subdivision  of  land  in  our  own 


356 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


College  of 


France. 


Laboulaye  and 
Ids  associates. 


FRAycE-  country  lias  produced  no  such  rapid  recovery  from  financial 
disease.  No  one  can  read  French  discussions  of  economic 
questions  without  seeing  that  to  the  trained  skill  of  her 
statesmen  is  in  very  great  measure  due  that  stimulus  to  the 
^Recuperation,  production  of  wealth,  and  that  recuperative  power  after 
disaster,  which  have  astonished  the  world  within  the  last 
ten  years,  and  which  present  the  financial  history  of  the 
French  Republic  in  such  striking  contrast  to  our  own. 

To  these  results  have  contributed  in  no  small  degree  the 
courses  at  the  College  of  France.  At  that  institution,  in 
the  heart  of  Paris,  a  knot  of  men  has  long  been  giving  the 
highest  political  and  historical  instruction.  In  the  center 
stands  Laboulaye,  who,  though  now  somewhat  withdrawn 
by  his  duties  in  the  French  senate,  has,  during  many  years, 
delivered  lectures,  not  only  uxion  general  political  history, 
and  especially  upon  the  Constitutional  history  of  the  United 
States,  but  upon  comparative  legislation.  About  him  have 
stood  such  men  as  Wolowski,  Chevalier,  Levasseur,  Franck, 
Maury,  Roziere,  the  younger  Guizot,  and  others,  treating  of 
various  great  historical,  political,  and  social  questions,  pre¬ 
senting  the  best  thoughts  of  the  past  and  present.  Among 
the  courses  of  lectures  at  the  College  of  France  in  1878  I 
note  especially  the  following: 

1.  International  law. 

2.  Comparative  history  of  legislation. 

3.  Political  economy. 

4.  History  of  economic  doctrines. 

5.  History  and  morals. 

6.  History  of  political  literature. 

At  the  Sorbonne,  and  various  institutions  throughout 
France,  as  at  Dijon,  Caen,  Poictiers,  Bordeaux,  Grenoble, 
Toulouse,  Rennes,  Aix,  and  others,  similar  instruction,  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  is  presented  by  vigorous  men. 

But  perhaps  the  most  interesting  creation  of  the  last  25 
years,  as  regards  the  preparation  of  young  men  for  the  service 
of  the  state,  is  the  Independent  School  of  Political  Sciences. 
At  the  head  of  this  stands  M.  Boutmy  as  director,  and  about 
him  are  grouped  a  body  of  the  most  thoughtful  and  ener¬ 
getic  men  in  France.  Of  these  may  be  mentioned  such  as 
Bethmont,  vice-president  of  the  chamber  of  deputies,  H. 
Passy,  Viel  Castel,  Declercq,  and  Baudin,  cabinet  ministers 
and  ministers  plenipotentiary  in  the  diplomatic  service ;  La¬ 
boulaye  in  the  senate  and  the  institute,  Aucoc  and  Petit- 
jean  in  the  council  of  state  and  the  court  of  audit,  besides 
Levasseur,  Molinari,  Janet,  Dareste,  and  others  noted  as 
members  of  the  Institute  of  France  and  of  various  import- 


Curriculum. 


Sorbonne  and 
provincial  insti¬ 
tutions. 


Independent 
School  of  Politi¬ 
cal  Science. 


Bo  utmy  and  bis 
associates. 


POLITICAL  EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  WHITE. 


357 


ant  political  bodies.  In  the  programme  of  lectures  for  the  FRAKCE- 
years  1878-9,  22  subjects  are  presented,  as  follows :  school^?' Poiu? 

1.  Comparative  administrative  organization.  cai  sciences. 

2.  Administrative  affairs.  Curriculum. 

3.  Financial  systems  of  the  principal  nations. 

4.  Public  revenues  and  taxation. 

5.  Financial  organization  and  system  of  public  accounts. 

6.  Financial  legislation  and  the  audit  system. 

7.  Political  economy. 

8.  Comparative  commercial  legislation. 

9.  History  of  commercial  treaties  since  1786  ;  French  cus¬ 
tom-house  system. 

10.  History  of  treaties  from  the  peace  of  Westphalia  to 
1789. 

11.  Analysis  of  the  principal  treaties  from  1648  to  1789. 

12.  Diplomatic  history  of  Europe  from  1789  to  1872. 

13.  Organization  of  the  diplomatic  service. 

14.  Constitutional  history  of  France,  of  England,  and  of 
the  United  States  for  the  past  one  hundred  years. 

15.  Parliamentary  and  legislative  history  of  France  from 
1789  to  1852. 

16.  Analysis  of  the  constitutions  of  Belgium,  Switzerland, 

Germany,  and  the  Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy. 

17.  International  law  in  general. 

18.  International  law  resulting  from  treaties  ;  the  consu¬ 
lar  service. 

19.  Geography  and  ethnography. 

20.  Statistics. 

21.  Industrial  and  commercial  geography. 

22.  Comparative  civil  legislation. 

The  whole  of  this  instruction  is  divided  into  two  sections.  Administrative 

section. 

The  first  is  known  as  “  the  administrative  section  ”5  this  is 
subdivided  as  follows : 

1.  Administrative  organization  and  practice  in  France  and 
other  countries. 

2.  Financial  organization  and  administration  in  France 
and  other  countries. 

3.  Comparative  civil  legislation. 

The  second  division  of  this  instruction  is  known  as  the  .Diplomatic sec- 

tion. 

‘‘diplomatic  section”;  this  is  subdivided  as  follows: 

1.  Geography  and  ethnography. 

2.  Modern  diplomatic  history  of  Europe. 

3.  General  international  law. 

4.  International  law  resulting  from  treaties. 

5.  Statistics  and  economic  geography. 

6.  Political  economy. 


358 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


tranche.  jn  addition  to  these,  and  connected  with  both,  is  u  a  course 
school^  PojS-iu  moc^ern  languages,”  the  two  on  which  especial  stress  is 
cai  Sciences.  laid  being  German  and  English. 

school.  While  the  purpose  of  this  school  is  to  prepare  young  men, 

Modern  lan-  A  A  u  °  7 

guagcs.  in  a  general  way,  for  public  affairs,  it  has  immediately  in 

view  preparation  for  certain  branches  of  the  administration 
mentscial  <lepart"  under  the  French  civil-service  system.  In  the  programme 
of  the  year  are  specially  noted  the  following  departments  for 
which  the  institution  aims  especially  to  fit  young  men  : 
Eventual  offi-  1.  Diplomacy  [ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  legations,  con 

cial  employment 

of  the  students.  SlllateSj. 

2.  Council  of  state  [auditorships  of  first  and  second  class], 

8.  Administration,  central  and  departmental  [under-pre¬ 
fectures,  secretaryships  of  departments,  councils  of  prefect¬ 
ures]. 

4.  The  ministry  of  finance  [inspection,  &c.]. 

5.  The  court  of  claims  and  auditor’s  department. 

This  system  of  instruction  presupposes  the  average  sec¬ 
ondary  education,  which  may  be  considered  practically  equiv¬ 
alent  to  that  given  up  to  the  end  of  the  first  year  in  our 
better  colleges.  The  regular  course  of  instruction  in  these 
schools  is  arranged  to  extend  through  two  years. 

Success  of  the  A  very  interesting  indication  of  the  results  obtained  in 

graduates  of  the  ^  . 

School  of  Poiiti-  this  school  is  seen  in  the  ofiicial  statement  regarding  the 

cul  Sciences.  °  0 

success  of  its  graduates  in  taking  positions  in  the  French 
administration  under  the  civil-service  rules.  From  the  pub¬ 
lic  competitive  examinations,  the  following  appointments 
*  have  resulted : 

Council  of  State. 

Department  of  1876. — Of  six  candidates  appointed,  four  belonged  to  this 

State.  .  , 

school. 

1877. — Of  six  candidates  appointed,  five  belonged  to  this 
school. 

Ministry  of  Finance. 

Department  of  1876. — Of  six  candidates  appointed,  the  first  four  belonged 
to  this  school. 

1877.  — Of  six  candidates  appointed,  the  first  four  belonged 
to  this  school. 

1878.  — Of  six  candidates,  all  came  from  this  school. 

Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs. 

Department  of  1876. — Of  six  candidates  appointed,  four  belonged  to  this 

Foreign  Affairs.  ,  , 

school. 

Diplomatic  Examinations. 

Diplomacy.  1877. — The  candidate  admitted  to  highest  rank  came  from 

this  school. 


POLITICAL  EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  WHiTE. 


359 


Consular  Examination.  fbakck. 

1877. — The  candidate  admitted  to  the  highest  rank  came  sciiooidofpoiaJ 


from  this  school. 


cal  Sciences. 


It  will  he  seen,  then,  that  this  school,  founded  with  an  in-  ic£onsular  scrv' 
dependent  organization  by  a  number  of  energetic  scholars 
and  political  men,  is  already  beginning  to  place  its  graduates 
in  leading  positions  under  the  French  Government,  and  to  act 
with  force  upon  the  amelioration  of  the  French  public  service. 

No  one  will  wonder  at  these  results  who  has  conversed 
with  the  professors  and  students.  If  in  the  lecture-room  of 
the  College  of  France,  at  various  visits  during  the  last  quar¬ 
ter  of  a  century,  I  have  admired  the  impulse  given  to  general 
political  thinking,  I  have  admired  not  less  in  this  newly 
founded  school  of  political  science  the  directness  with  which 
the  best  thought  is  applied  to  the  immediate  needs  of  the 
nation.  Besides  this,  the  French  Government  has  taken 
pains  that  such  instruction  shall  be  brought  to  bear  upon 
men  in  trainin  g  for  the  great  industries  of  the  county.  W  olo  w-  tu^supon  poim- 
ski,  distinguished  throughout  Europe  as  a  political  econo- cal  econom;'- 
mist,  was  employed  to  give  lectures  upon  political  economy 
at  the  Conservatory  of  Arts  and  Trades  [  Conservatoire  des  Arts 
et  Metiers].  He  is  now  succeeded  by  Professor  Levasseur,  Levasseur. 
of  the  Institute,  and  rarely  have  I  seen  an  audience  so  at¬ 
tentive  as  the  body  of  workingmen  which  fills  his  lecture- 
room.  Lectures  are  also  given  by  M.  Burat  in  industrial  Burat- 
economy  and  statistics. 


In  the  universities  of  Italy,  studies  in  political  and  social 
science  and  general  jurisprudence  have  long  been  promi¬ 
nent.  By  the  triumphs  of  Beccaria,  Filangieri,  and  their 
successors,  a  great  impulse  was  given  to  these  subjects,  and 
to  this,  probably,  more  than  to  anything  else,  is  due  the  skill 
of  Italian  political  management  during  the  trying  times 
of  the  last  twenty  years. 

For  a  quarter  of  a  century  there  has  not  been  any  striking  si^haa  umvor' 
increase  in  the  number  of  persons  engaged  in  teaching  these 
subjects,  but  there  has  been  great  progress,  notwithstanding. 

In  a  second  visit  recently  made  to  several  Italian  universi¬ 
ties,  and  among  others  to  those  of  Naples,  Pisa,  Padua,  and 
Bologna,  I  found  a  new  scholastic  atmosphere.  When,  over 
twenty  years  ago,  I  entered  some  of  them  for  the  first  time,  I 
was  struck  with  the  listlessness,  the  trifling,  the  dalliance  wi  th  Former  trifling, 
what  may  be  called  the  mere  fringes  of  civilization,  and,  as  a 
consequence,  with  the  waste  of  vigorous  thought  ;  but  as  I 
stood  again  last  year  in  some  of  those  lecture-rooms,  in  the 


3G0 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1378. 


ITALY-  midst  of  a  crowd  of  young  men  intently  listening  to  lectures 
^Present  activ-  upon  history,  political  economy,  and  kindred  subjects,  I  could 
Rossi  and  others see  that  Rossi,  Settembrini,  Yillari,  Pierantoni,  De  Guberna- 
woiS^oFfjavonr  and  their  compeers,  had  not  labored  in  vain — that  the  coun  - 

and  his  associ-  ^ry  was  aroused  to  the  necessity  of  training  up  a  body  of  men 
fitted  to  continue  the  work  of  Cavour,  D’Azeglio,  and  Ratazzi. 
The  higher  instruction  in  Italy  suffers  undoubtedly  from  the 
scattering  of  resources  through  a  multitude  of  universities; 
still  the  provision  in  the  best  of  them  is  by  no  means  small. 
R<Srersity  °f  University  of  Rome,  which  may  be  taken  as  a  type,  we 
have,  in  the  studies  which  concern  this  report,  the  following: 

1.  The  philosophy  of  history. 

2.  General  geography. 

3.  International  law. 

4.  Roman  law. 

3.  Philosophy  of  law. 

6.  Political  economy. 

7.  Introduction  to  the  study  of  jurisprudence. 

8.  Diplomacy  and  the  history  of  treaties. 

9.  History  of  law. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 

The  tendency  toward  strengthening  this  side  of  the  higher 
education  is  also  evident  in  the  English  universities ;  perhaps 
in  none  is  the  change  within  the  last  quarter  of  a  century 
more  striking.  My  first  visit  to  them  was  made  25  years 
since.  The  provision  at  that  time  for  instruction  in  politi¬ 
cal  and  social  science,  to  say  nothing  of  the  natural  sciences, 
was  wretchedly  inadequate.  Now,  although  they  fall  far 
influence  of  short  of  what  they  should  be,  the  influence  of  such  men  as 

modern  thought  ' 

and  methods.  Whewell,  Arnold,  Srnythe,  Sir  James  Stephen,  Goldwin 
Smith,  Charles  Kingsley,  Thorold  Rogers,  Montague  Ber¬ 
nard,  Harcourt,  Jevons,  Stubbs,  Bryce,  Fawcett,  and  their 
associates,  is  telling  for  good  upon  the  generation  which  is 
beginning  to  take  hold  of  public  affairs. 

Faculty  it  is  true  that  there  is  not  yet  at  the  English  universities  at 

in  political  and  .  . 

social  science  any  one  time  any  such  extended  taculty  in  this  department  as 

still  inadequate  ,  .  ,  .  _  „  , 

as  compared  with  we  find  in  the  great  institutions  ot  Trance  and  Germany,  but 
many.  T  these  subj  ects  are  beginning  to  assert  themselves,  and  already 
concessions  have  been  made  to  them  by  the  university  author¬ 
ities  in  the  matter  of  examinations  and  degrees  which  a  quar¬ 
ter  of  a  century  ago  the  most  sanguine  could  not  expect. 
c  ^  Preparatory  ]s[or  js  this  all ;  the  more  recently  founded  public  schools, 
or,  as  they  might  be  called,  preparatory  colleges,  are  direct¬ 
ing  much  attention  to  the  fitting  of  men  for  the  public  serv¬ 
ice.  Under  the  new  civil-service  system  of  the  British 


Curriculum. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


English  uni- 


POLITICAL  EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  WHITE. 


361 


Empire,  such  training  has  received  a  great  impulse.  In  its  great  Britain. 
whole  development  throughout  the  lower  colleges  and  the  British  civil 

universities  it  is  becoming  more  and  more  prominent,  and 
the  same  tendency  is  clearly  seen  in  the  leading  universities 
of  Scotland. 

Having  thus  called  attention  to  the  main  lines  on  which  ,  General  re . 

°  marks. 

this  department  of  instruction  has  been  developed,  I  would 
briefly  point  out  what  seems  to  me  a  very  suggestive  char¬ 
acteristic  of  the  instructing  bodies. 

Whenever  a  faculty  of  instruction  is  entirely  made  up  of  Danger  of  doc- 
men  held  aloof  from  the  usual  currents  of  public  life,  there 
is  danger  of  doctrinairism  and  pedantry,  if  not  of  cynicism. 

But  this  European  instruction  in  political  and  social  science 
seems  to  have  steadily  warded  off  these  evils. 

The  cause  of  this  will  be  easily  found,  I  think,  by  any  one  Avoided  by  ac- 
who  will  study  the  lists  of  professors.  In  every  great  nation 
of  Europe  it  will  b:  seen  that  in  these  faculties  there  is  a 
considerable  number  of  professors  who,  while  carrying  on 
their  university  duties,  take  an  active  part  in  iiublic  affairs. 

Professor  Fawcett,  of  Cambridge,  is  a  most  energetic  mem-  Fawcett, 
ber  of  the  British  Parliament ;  Professor  Montague  Bernard,  Montague  Ber- 
of  Oxford,  is  hardly  less  energetic  in  the  diplomatic  service; 

Professor  Yen' on  Harcourt,  of  Cambridge,  has  shown  himself  vemon  Har- 

a  statesman  in  the  parliament  and  in  the  cabinet ;  Professor 
Goldwin  Smith,  of  Oxford,  has  exercised  a  constant  influ-  Goidwin  smith, 
ence  as  a  debater  and  writer  in  centers  of  political  activity. 

...  .  French  pro- 

In  France,  among  professors  now  in  service,  m  addition  lessors  in  public 
to  Laboulaye  and  the  others  already  mentioned,  such  men  Labouiaye, 
as  Flourens,  Dunoyer,  Foville,  Machart,  Colmet,  Vergniaud,  Fiourens,  &c. 
and  many  others,  are  actively  engaged  in  various  important 
departments  of  the  public  service. 

In  Germany,  we  may  name  out  of  a  multitude  who,  as  active  in  Germany— 
men  of  affairs,  bring  constantly  into  the  lecture  room  new 
currents  of  thought  from  the  ivorld  outside,  such  men  as  Hefftei. 
Heffter,  Gneist,  Bluntschli,  Boscher,  Holst,  and  many  others.  goist  &c 

In  Italy,  the  active  interchange  between  professorial  and  in  Italy— 
public  life  is  even  more  striking;  every  new  ministerial^6 
cabinet  shows  a  strong  representation  from  the  great  in-  P^6glife 
s  true  ting  bodies,  and  we  constantly  see  leading  men  speak¬ 
ing,  during  one  part  of  the  year,  from  their  seats  as  senators 
and  deputies,  and  during  another  part  from  their  profes¬ 
sorial  chairs  at  the  various  universities. 

By  this  rapid  summary,  from  which  I  have  attempted  to 
exclude  confusing  details  as  much  as  possible,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  leading  nations  of  Europe,  republics  as  well  as 


362 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


monarchies,  have  committed  themselves  fully  to  the  idea 
that  the  service  of  the  state  requires  a  large  body  of  men 
carefully  and  thoroughly  trained ;  that  in  consequence  a 
system  of  higher  instruction  has  been  adopted  to  meet  the 
needs  of  those  nations  in  this  respect,  and  that  the  higher 
instruction  has  been  kept  in  the  current  of  the  national  life. 

Practical  ap-  Application  of  European  experience  to  ourselves. 

plication  to  our- 

selves ■  I  now  turn  to  the  practical  application  of  this  European 

experience  and  the  modification  of  European  methods  with 
reference  to  the  development  of  a  system  of  instruction 
directly  bearing  upon  public  life  in  our  own  country, 
our  great  need  The  demand  of  this  nation  for  men  trained  in  history, 

ot  trained  public  17  7 

men.  political  and  social  science,  and  general  jurisprudence,  can 

hardly  be  overstated. 

.  congress  is  lay-  In  the  United  States  we  have,  lirst  of  all,  the  national 

for  future  centu-  Congress,  composed  of  two  bodies,  each  called  upon  to  dis¬ 
cuss  and  decide  the  most  important  political  questions,  and 
to  some  extent  the  most  important  social  questions.  They 
thus  discuss  and  decide  for  a  nation,  to-day  of  forty  millions 
of  people,  and  which  many  now  living  will  see  numbering 
a  hundred  millions.  Nor  is  it  alone  the  appalling  element 
of  numbers  which  strikes  the  thoughtful  citizen.  Time 
stretches  before  us  in  a  way  even  more  appalling j  founda¬ 
tions  are  now  laying  for  centuries ;  what  is  done  now  is  to 
tell  for  good  or  evil  upon  a  long  line  of  generations. 

Nations  are  ac-  Nor  is  this  all ;  the  nations  of  the  earth  may  be  divided 
passive.  iu|0  actjve  anq  passiYe.  Active  nations  are  those  which  are 
to  work  out  the  development  of  the  world  by  thought  and 
by  act,  by  the  speech  and  the  book,  by  the  missionary 
and  the  soldier,  by  the  machine  and  the  process — nay,  by 
mere  bales  and  boxes ;  passive  nations  are  those  which  are 
to  be  acted  upon,  and  often  in  ways  more  or  less  brutal. 
For  good  or  evil,  ours  is  to  be  among  the  active  nations  ; 
its  influence  is  to  be  felt  not  only  upon  the  hundred  mil¬ 
lions  of  its  own  citizens,  but  upon  the  still  greater  number 
of  the  human  race  outside  its  boundaries, 
state  legisia-  Besides  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  we  have  nearly 

to wnsh?p  boards .  forty  State  legislatures,  each  composed  of  two  houses,  and 
besides  these,  county  boards,  town  boards,  and  municipal 
councils  innumerable. 

There  are  also  executive  officers  corresponding  to  these 
legislative  assemblies,  and  all  these,  whether  entrusted  with 
executive  or  legislative  functions,  are  called  upon  to  think 
out  and  work  out  these  problems,  probably  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  human  race. 


POLITICAL  EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  WHITE.  363 

Besides  these  regularly  constituted  bodies,  there  are,  from  constitutional 
time  to  time,  constitutional  conventions  in  the  various 
States,  fixing  the  basis  of  legislation;  these  exercise  an  in¬ 
fluence  exceedingly  far-reaching,  for  they  discuss  political 
and  social  questions  with  especial  reference  to  the  past  ex¬ 
perience  and  future  needs  of  the  country;  they  fix  the 
grooves,  they  lay  the  track  in  which  political  and  social  de¬ 
velopment  will  largely  run. 

Hot  less  important  are  certain  other  bodies,  having  a 
more  profound  influence  on  real  legislation  than  men  usually 
suspect ;  despite  the  theoretical  separation  of  jrnwers  in  our 
government,  the  judicial  body,  throughout  this  land,  is,  in  Judiciary, 
a  certain  sense,  a  legislative  body ;  judge-made  law  is  felt 
throughout  our  system  and  always  will  be  felt;  the  judi¬ 
ciary  of  this  country,  from  the  honored  bench  sitting  at  the 
Capitol  to  the  multitude  of  State  courts  of  every  grade, 
has  an  influence  far  outreaching  the  settlement  of  tran¬ 
sient  questions  in  accordance  with  recognized  legal  princi¬ 
ples  ;  for  good  or  evil,  their  ideas  of  public  policy  are  knit 
into  the  whole  political  and  social  fabric  of  the  future.  The  its  influence  in 
relations  of  capital  to  labor,  the  connection  of  production  great  questions 
with  distribution,  education,  taxation,  general,  municipal,  ofpubllcpollC5‘ 
and  international  law,  pauperism,  crime,  insanity,  all  are 
constantly  coming  before  these  bodies ;  policies  are  fixed, 
institutions  created,  laws  made  with  reference  to  all  these 
questions — policies,  institutions,  laws,  in  which  lie  the  germs 
of  glory  or  anarchy,  of  growth  or  revolution. 

More  important  in  some  respects  than  the  demand  for 
better  political  training,  among  those  destined  for  the  pub-  - 
lie  bodies,  is  the  demand  by  the  pres«.  Even  those  of  us  The  press, 
who  had  best  realized  the  immense  grasp  which  the  news¬ 
paper  press  has  upon  modern  civilization,  were  amazed,  dur¬ 
ing  the  recent  Expositions  at  Philadelphia  and  Paris,  at  the 
revelations  of  the  extent  to  which  newspaper  publishing  is 
now  carried. 

When  it  is  considered  that  at  each  of  these  myriad  presses 
a  knot  of  men  is  teaching  large  bodies  of  citizens,  espec¬ 
ially  as  to  their  rights  and  duties  in  society,  and  advising 
them  on  the  most  important  political  and  social  questions, 
it  will  be  seen  that  here  is  an  enormous  demand  for  men 
trained  in  the  subjects  already  referred  to. 

That  there  is  not  sufficient  training  of  this  kind  at  pres¬ 
ent  is  lamented  by  none  more  than  by  the  leading  editors 
of  our  greater  journals  ;  it  has  passed  into  a  proverb  among 
them,  that  it  is  easier  to  obtain  a  score  of  men  with  striking 
ability  as  versifiers,  novelists,  critics,  and  humorists,  than 


364 


Mistakes  of  law 
makers :  in  res — 


Education, 

Pauperism, 

Insanity. 


one  man  who  can  write  brief,  pithy,  comprehensive  articles 
on  living  questions. 

The  pulpit.  The  pUipit  too,  honored  as  it  is  throughout  our  land,  and 

pledged  to  -every  form  of  humane  work,  is  acknowledged  by 
those  who  most  adorn  it  to  need  greatly  this  same  instruc¬ 
tion.  The  charities  of  our  cities  are  dispensed  largely 
through  church  organizations,  and  those  who  have  attended 
meetings  of  the  Social  Science  Association  of  the  United 
States  will  remember  the  lament  of  one  of  the  most  honored 
Mistakes  in  cli vines  of  the  American  pulpit  at  the  mistakes  made  in 

conduct  ot  city 

charities.  '  these  charities,  and  in  other  dealings  with  pressing  social 
questions  in  which  the  clergy  are  greatly  interested. 

That  there  is  a  constant  danger  of  error  in  the  present  is 
shown  by  the  experience  of  the  past. 

There  is  no  nation  in  the  world  to-day  which  is  not  suf¬ 
fering  from  the  mistakes  of  law-makers  on  all  these  ques¬ 
tions  ;  no  thoughtful  student  in  social  science  is  ignorant 
that  education  has  been  crippled  by  ill-studied  institutions; 
that  pauperism  has  been  increased  by  the  very  legislation 
intended  to  alleviate  it ;  that  up  to  a  recent  period  insanity 
was  aggravated,  and  even  made  incurable,  by  the  usual 
system  of  public  provision ;  that  ill-advised  systems  of  ward¬ 
ing  off  popular  distress — systems  embodying  wliat  is  called 
good  common-sense — have  again  and  again  brought  great 
populations  to  the  verge  of  starvation,  and  sometimes  to  the 
reality  qf  it ;  and  that  down  to  a  period  within  the  memory 
of  men  now  living,  crime  was  rendered  more  virulent  by 
the  repressive  system  of  every  civilized  country. 

In  the  midst  of  this  necessity  for  thought  and  care,  how 
stands  it  with  our  own  legislation  ?  It  was  recently  remarked 
by  one  of  the  most  able  and  devoted  men  who  ever  left  a  for- 
America  foi-  eign  country  to  do  noble  work  in  this,  that  it  saddened  him  to 
nate*18 European  see  many  of  the  same  lines  of  policy  adopted  in  America  that 
methods.  pad  pr0Ug]1^  misery  upon  Europe ;  to  see  the  same  errors 
in  the  foundation  of  these  new  states  which  have  brought 
such  waste  and  disaster  and  sorrow  in  those  old  states. 

No  one  who  knows  anything  of  our  legislation  can  deny 
that  serious  mistakes  are  constantly  made,  and  often  with 
the  best  intentions.  Of  course  I  do  not  pretend  that  there 
are  not  many  excellent  public  servants  who  obtain  their 
knowledge  of  political  and  social  questions  in  later  life ;  nor 
do  I  claim  at  all  that  none  but  men  educated  in  these  ques¬ 
tions  should  enter  public  life ;  nor  do  I  deny  the  great  serv¬ 
ice  of  many  men  who  have  received  no  such  training — recent 
Complexity  of  events  have  revealed  many  such;  but  more  and  more,  as 
liticai  eSd^ocmt  civilization  advances,  social  and  political  questions  become 


Charity. 


Crime. 


POLITICAL  EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  WHITE. 


365 


Common 

inacle- 


COmpleX  ;  more  and  more  the  men  who  are  to  take  part  in 
public  affairs  need  to  be  trained  in  the  best  political  think* 
ing  of  the  world  hitherto,  need  to  know  the  most  important 
experiences  of  the  world,  need  to  be  thus  prepared  by  ob¬ 
servation  and  thought  to  decide  between  old  solutions  of 
state  problems  or  to  work  out  new  solutions. 

It  will  hardly  be  denied  that  the  want  of  such  knowledge  Train  ing  neccs- 
and  such  training  is  seriously  felt  in  all  parts  of  the  country. sary> 

In  various  constituted  bodies,  theories  have  been  proposed 
which  were  long  ago  extinguished  in  blood ;  plans  solemnly 
considered  which  have  led,  without  exception,  wherever 
tried,  to  ruin,  moral  and  financial;  systems  adopted  which 
have  been  sometimes  the  tragedies,  sometimes  the  farces 
upon  the  stage  of  human  affairs. 

All  this,  too,  not  mainly  by  knaves  or  fools,  but  often  by 
men  of  vigorous  minds,  of  considerable  reading,  of  what  is  quate 
called  good  common  sense. 

As  to  State  legislation,  we  note  a  prodigious  amount  of  Errors  in 
waste  and  error  in  dealing  with  political  and  social  questions,  fw  mi!glslatl0n’ 
Institutions  for  the  poor,  the  insane,  the  inebriates,  the  erimi-  insanity, 
uals,  are  constantly  created  at  vast  expense,  yet  often  so  inebriety, 
placed  and  built  and.organized  as  to  thwart  their  highest  pur¬ 
poses.  Laws  for  the  repression  of  crime  are  often  discussed  crime, 
with  an  utterly  inadequate  knowledge  of  principles,  that  in 
some  other  lands  have  been  carefully  settled;  in  questions 
of  taxation,  the  settled  experience  and  simplest  reasonings  Taxation, 
and  conclusions  of  thoughtful  men  in  various  nations  often 
pass  for  nothing,  and  a  spirit  of  anarchy  results,  only  equaled 
by  that  of  France  just  before  the  revolution  of  1789 ;  as  re¬ 
gards  pauperism,  means  are  often  taken  similar  to  those  Pauperism, 
which  in  England,  over  300  years  ago,  began  the  creation  of 
a  permanently  pauperized  class;  in  dealing  with  education,  Education.  f 
codes  are  made  and  millions  voted  with  no  thorough  discus¬ 
sion,  and  the  relations  of  education  to  industry,  the  problem  industry 
now  occupying  every  other  great  nation  of  the  earth,  argued 
with  far  less  care  than  the  location  of  a  canal  bridge. 

In  county,  town,  and  municipal  bodies  the  same  thing  is 
hardly  less  glaring;  almost  every  municipal  abuse  which  take? 

Arthur  Young  found  in  France  under  Louis  XVI,  and  which 
May  found  in  England  under  George  III,  seems  to  find  its 
counterpart  somewhere  in  our  own  land  and  time.  In  one 
of  the  most  enlightened  counties  of  one  of  our  most  enlight¬ 
ened  States,  a  body  of  excellent  reputation  and  sound  com¬ 
mon  sense  has,  at  large  expense,  for  years  and  years,  kept 
up  an  institution,  not  merely  for  the  punishment  of  old 
criminals,  but  for  the  development  of  new  criminals ;  it  has 


Municipal  fail¬ 
ures  and  mis- 


366 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


resisted,  and  is  steadily  resisting  to-day,  any  movement  to 
prevent  the  institution  being  what  it  has  long  been — a 
criminals.  5  for  criminal  high  school,  taking  large  numbers  of  novices  and 
graduating  them  masters  of  criminal  arts.  And  such  insti¬ 
tutions  are  to  be  found  probably  in  every  State  in  the  Union 

This  is  not  on  account  of  want  of  integrity  or  capacity  in 
the  body  concerned;  it  is  composed  of  men  who  manage  their 
own  affairs  honestly  and  prudently;  but  there  is  probably 
not  one  among  them  who  has  ever  seen  any  discussion  of 
the  best  modes  of  dealing  with  crime  in  civilized  nations. 
ion^by3  the^ peo-  let  us  leave  the  various  constituted  bodies  and  go 

Ple-  among  the  people  at  large.  In  a  republic  like  ours,  the  people 

are  called  on  at  the  last  to  decide  upon  all  fundamental  ques¬ 
tions  ;  on  their  decision  rest  the  strength,  the  progress,  nay, 
in  many  cases,  the  existence  of  the  republic. 

To  any  such  proper  discussion  and  adjustment  of  political 
and  social  questions  by  the  people  there  are  two  conditions : 
political educa-  first,  there  must  be  education  of  the  mass  of  the  citizens, 
ion  necessary.  ^  ieas|  Up  a  p0jnt  where  they  can  grasp  simple  political 

questions;  that  is,  up  to  the  ability  to  read,  to  concentrate 
and  exercise  their  reasoning  powers  on  simple  problems, 
and  to  know  something  of  their  own  country  and  its  relations 
to  the  world  about  it. 

Public  schools  Such  an  education  is  given  in  the  public  schools  of  our 
curity.  country;  with  such  a  basis,  the  first  great  element  in t the 

safety  of  the  nation  is  reasonably  secure.  I  am  convinced  that 
such  an  educated  democracy  is  the  best  of  all  bodies  to  which 
general  public  questions  can  be  submitted,  and  for  this  belief 
there  is  high  authority  where  we  might  little  expect  it :  the 
recent  utterances  of  leading  statesmen  and  thinkers  inEng- 
}on  nof ' ^popular  ^m(l?  regarding  the  submission  of  questions  of  fundamental 
judgments.  policy  to  a  fairly  educated  people,  as  compared  with  the  sub¬ 
mission  of  such  questions  simply  to  the  most  highly  educated 
classes,  are  very  striking ;  the  most  thoughtful  contemporary 
English  statesman  has  declared  that  the  judgment  of  the 
mass  of  the  English  voters  on  the  leading  political  and  social 
questions  of  the  past  fifty  years  has  been  far  more  just  than 
that  of  the  most  highly  educated  classes,  and  he  brings  to 
Gladstone.  the  support  of  this  statement  historical  arguments  which 
cannot  be  gainsaid.* 

As  to  this  first  condition,  the  general  education  of  the 
people,  we  have  made  in  most  of  our  States  large  provision. 
I  do  not  contend  that  our  primary  education  is  perfect ; 
its  imperfections  are  evident,  but  the  people  are  awake  to 

*See  the  articles  of  Mr.  Gladstone  and  others,  in  recent  numbers  of 
“The  Nineteenth  Century.* 


POLITICAL  EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  WHITE. 


367 


its  importance,  and  show  on  all  sides  a  desire  to  continue  ,  Opponents 
it ;  of  course,  demagogues  here  and  there,  seek  to  gain  bits  Jf™ceddiscounte‘ 
of  special  favor  by  attempting  to  undermine  the  system, 
but  their  tendencies  are  well  known,  and  are  steadily  becom¬ 
ing  better  known. 

The  second  condition  of  the  proper  maintenance  of  the 
republic,  is  suitable  instruction  for  the  natural  leaders  rising 
from  the  mass.  The  rise  of  such  leaders  is  inevitable;  they  raneadersfrk^ng 
are  sure  to  appear  in  every  sphere  of  political  and  social  ac-  Squire  advSd 
tivity;  they  come  from  all  classes,  but  mainly  from  the  en-  economy" 
ergetic,  less- wealthy  classes,  from  the  classes  disciplined  to  Snc?*1  80 


vigor  and  self-denial  by  poverty. 

These  are  to  influence  the  country  in  all  executive,  legis¬ 
lative  and  judicial  positions ;  they  are  to  act  in  the  forum 
and  through  the  press ;  nay,  perhaps  more  strongly  still, 
by  stimulating  that  imitation  which  a  recent  writer  has 
shown  to  be  one  of  the  most  powerful  factors  in  the  devel¬ 
opment  of  nations  to  higher  political  and  social  life.* 

For  the  development  of  these  with  reference  to  this  leader¬ 
ship,  for  the  training  of  their  powers  of  observation  and 
reasoning,  for  the  giving  of  that  historical  knowledge  of 
past  failures  which  is  the  best  guarantee  for  future  success, 
there  is  at  present  in  our  higher  education  in  the  United 
States  no  adequate  provision.  The  educational  exhibits  at 
the  recent  expositions  at  Philadelphia  and  Paris  show  that 
here  and  there,  in  a  few  of  our  higher  institutions,  begin¬ 
nings  have  been  made,  and  good  beginnings ;  but  such  in¬ 
stitutions  are  few ;  in  most  of  them  political  economy  is  not 
taught  save  by  a  short  course  of  recitations  from  a  text-book ; 
in  very  few  of  them  is  there  the  slightest  instruction  worthy 
of  the  name,  in  history — the  very  department  which,  in  the 
European  universities,  is  made  to  give  a  basis  and  a  method 
for  studies  in  political  and  social  science. 

The  results  of  this  defect  in  our  higher  education  are  con-  Results  of 
stantly  before  us ;  among  these  natural  leaders  m  our  coun-  training, 
try,  whether  in  the  public  assemblies  or  the  press,  there  is 
certainly  no  lack  of  talent,  and  even  genius ;  among  the  most 
striking  characteristics  of  the  country,  as  noticed  by  unpre¬ 
judiced  foreigners,  is  the  great  number  of  men  of  ability  in 
every  direction,  and  the  power  with  which  they  are  able  to 
present  their  ideas  to  their  fellow-citizens.  But  how  is  this 
power  exercised?  With  few  exceptions,  the  presentation  of 
political  and  social  questions  at  public  meetings  is  even  less 
satisfactory  than  in  our  representative  bodies ;  the  speakers 
generally  have  ability,  but  rarely  have  they  studied  the  main 


See  Walter  Bagehot,  “Physics  and  Politics. 


368 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

inadequate  questions  involved ;  what  they  know  has  been  mainly  gath- 
pubiic  questions  ered  here  and  there  at  haphazard,  from  this  magazine  and 
te°nd?ncyecSfSE  that  newspaper  ;  the  result  is  natural ;  instead  of  real  argu¬ 
ment,  too  often  invective;  instead  of  illustration,  buffoonery; 
instead  of  any  adequate  examination  of  the  history  involved, 
personal  defamation;  instead  of  investigation  of  social  ques¬ 
tions,  appeals  to  prejudice. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  cause  of  this  lies  in  the  natural 
tendency  of  democracy  from  the  days  of  Cleon  before  the 
Athenian  Assembly,  to  the  gyrations  of  sundry  politicians 
before  certain  American  assemblies.  This  theory  is  easy 
and  convenient,  but  any  one  much  accustomed  to  public 
meetings  in  our  country  can  see  many  reasons  for  disbeliev¬ 
ing  it;  an  American  assembly  enjoys  wit  and  humor  keenly; 
but  there  is  one  thing  that  it  enjoys  more,  and  that  is  the 
vigorous,  thorough  discussion  of  pressing  xiolitical  or  social 
questions.  The  history  of  the  past  few  years  gives  striking 
examples  of  this;  within  the  past  year  several  statesmen  of 
very  different  views,  but  powerful  and  thoughtful,  have  gone 
before  large  public  meetings  lamenting  the  fact  that  the  ques- 

Cogent  reason- tions  discussed  were  questions  of  finance — the  very  dryest 

mg  appreciated.  1 

in  political  science;  and  yet  those  large  audiences  were  held 
firmly  from  first  to  last  by  their  interest  in  vigorous  argu¬ 
ment. 

I  am  convinced  that  the  difficulty  is  not  in  the  want  of 
popular  appreciation  of  close  argument,  but  rather  theffre- 
quent  want  among  political  leaders  of  adequate  training  for 
discussion. 

Remedial meas-  The  question  now  arises  what  this  training  in  political 
and  social  science  should  be. 

study , of  poiit-  I  answer  first,  that  there  should  be  close  study  of  the 
history.  0  m  political  and  social  history  of  those  peoples  which  have  had 
the  most  important  experience,  and  especially  of  our  own ; 
thus  alone  can  the  experience  of  the  past  be  brought  to  bear 
upon  the  needs  of  the  present;  thus  alone  can  we  know  the 
real  defeats  and  triumphs  of  the  past,  so  that  we  may  avoid 
such  defeats  and  secure  such  triumphs  in  the  future. 

In  the  next  place,  I  would  urge  the  teaching  of  political 
economy  in  its  largest  sense,  not  the  mere  dogmas  of  this 
study <of  political or  that  school,  but  rather  the  comparative  study  of  the  gen- 
economy.  eral  principles  of  the  science  as  laid  down  by  leading  think¬ 
ers  of  various  schools ;  and  to  this  end,  I  would  urge,  the  his¬ 
torical  study  of  the  science  in  its  development,  and  in  its  pro¬ 
gressive  adaptation  to  the  circumstances  of  various  nations. 
Under  this  would  come  questions  relating  to  national  and 
State  policy,  industrial,  commercial,  financial,  educational, 


POLITICAL  EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  WHITE. 


369 


to  the  relations  of  capital  to  labor,  and  producers  to  dis¬ 
tributors,  to  taxation,  and  a  multitude  of  similar  subjects. 

Next,  I  would  name  the  study  of  what  is  generally  classed  Social  science, 
as  social  science,  including  what  pertains  to  the  causes,  pre¬ 
vention,  alleviation,  and  cure  of  pauperism,  insanity,  crime, 
and  various  social  difficulties.  Nor  would  I  neglect  the  study 
of  the  most  noted  theories  and  plans  for  the  amelioration  of 
society,  the  arguments  in  their  support,  the  causes  of  theii 
failure ;  and  I  would  also  have  careful  investigation  into  the 
relations  of  various  bodies  and  classes  which  now  apparently  ' 
threaten  each  other.  1  would,  for  example,  have  the  student 
examine  the  reasons  why  the  communistic  solution  of  the  Communism, 
labor  question  has  failed,  and  why  the  co-operative  solution  Co  operation, 
has  succeeded. 

As  another  subject  of  great  importance,  I  would  name  the  Principles  of 
general  principles  of  jurisprudence,  and  especially  those ih68oompe5ative 
principles  which  are  more  and  more  making  their  way  in  method.111310™™1 
modern  civilized  nations.  The  advantage  of  this  is  evident ; 
apart  from  the  practical  uses  of  such  a  study,  who  does  not 
constantly  feel  in  our  general  legislation  too  much  of  the  at¬ 
torney  and  too  little  of  the  jurist  ? 

And  in  the  study  of  general  jurisprudence,  I  would  urge  the 
comparative  and  historical  method.  No  country  in  the 
world  affords  so  fine  a  field  for  such  a  method  as  our  own. 

In  all  our  States,  political  experiments  are  making ;  in  all 
our  legislatures,  active -minded  men  are  applying  their  solu¬ 
tions  to  the  problems  presented.  The  study  of  the  compar¬ 
ative  legislation  of  our  own  States,  if  supplemented  by  the 
study  of  the  general  legislation  of  other  countries,  could  not 
fail  to  be  of  vast  use  in  the  improvement  of  society. 

I  would  also  have  instruction  given  in  the  general  princi-  international 
pies  of  international  law.  In  the  development  of  this  science law’ 
lies  much  of  happiness  for  the  future  of  the  world ;  but  there 
is  an  important  practical  interest.  Though  the  injunction 
of  the  Father  of  his  Country  to  avoid  entangling  alliances 
has  sunk  deep  into  the  American  mind,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  before  our  country  shall  have  attained  a  hundred 
millions  of  inhabitants,  our  diplomatic  relations  with  other 
countries  will  require  much  more  serious  thought  than  now. 

It  is  not  too  soon  to  have  this  in  view. 

Happily,  on  all  these  subjects,  and  especially  within  the 
present .  century,  a  vast  mass  of  precious  experience  and 
thought  have  been  developed ;  many  of  the  strongest  men  of 
the  century  have  given  their  efforts  to  this ;  when  Buckle  says 
that  Adam  Smith,  in  his  book,  rendered  to  the  world  the  Adam  Smith, 
greatest  services  that  any  one  man  has  ever  thus  rendered, 

24  p  r 


370 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  J87S. 


Sismondi. 

Say. 

Stuart  Mill. 

Lieber. 

Woolsey. 

W ells,  etal. 


whether  we  agree  with  him  or  not  as  to  the  claim  of  his 
hero,  we  can  hardly  disagree  as  to  the  importance  of  the 
subject.  There  is  something  inspiring  in  this  succession  of 
great  thinkers  in  these  departments  who  have  as  their  ob¬ 
ject  the  amelioration  of  society.  Even  to  take  the  most 
recent  of  them,  a  line  beginning  with  Adam  Smith  and  con¬ 
tinuing  in  our  day  with  such  men  as  Sismondi,  Say,  Stuart 
Mill,  Roscher,  Lieber,  Woolsey,  Carey,  Wells,  and  Field, 
can  hardly  fail  to  afford  matter  for  study  and  thought. 

In  the  thinking  of  such  men,  in  the  practice  of  the  world 
as  influenced  by  them,  there  is  much  to  be  learned ;  and  if 
our  country  is  to  move  forward  with  steadiness,  or,  indeed, 
if  it  is  to  lead  in  any  particular  direction,  its  statesmen  must 
be  more  and  more  grounded  in  this  thinking  and  practice. 

Something  should  also  be  done  in  what  is  known  in  the 
as 


.  Science  of  European  universities 

administration.  ■L 

and  “  administrative  law.” 


“ the  science  of  administration” 
The  comparative  study  of  sta- 


statistics.  tistics  would  come  in  here  as  a  most  important  element. 

There  is  probably  no  legislator  in  the  land — there  is  cer¬ 
tainly  no  earnest  student — who  would  not  be  greatly  profited 
by  a  course  of  lectures  based  upon  the  tabulated  statements, 
the  graphic  representations,  and  the  maps  of  the  last  census 
Walker.  report,  so  ably  superintended  by  Professor  Walker. 

The  present  The  question  now  arises  as  to  the  possibility  of  establish- 

tuno  opportune  .  .  . 

for  a  new  depart-  ing  a  better  provision  for  this  advanced  instruction.  I  fully 
believe  that  circumstances  are  most  propitious,  and  for  the 
following  reasons : 

First.  The  tendencies  of  large  numbers  of  active-minded 
young,  men  favor  it.  No  observing  professor  in  any  college 
has  failed  to  note  the  love  of  young  Americans  for  the  study 
and  discussion  of  political  questions ;  it  constantly  happens 
that  students  who  evade  ordinary  scholastic  duties,  will 
Predilection  of  labor  hard  to  prepare  themselves  for  such  a  discussion.  So 
strong  is  this  tendency  that  college  authorities  have  often 
taken  measures  to  check  it ;  these  measures  have  to  a  certain 
extent  succeeded,  yet  I  cannot  but  think  that  it  is  far  better 
to  direct  such  discussions  than  to  check  them.  They  seem  to 
be  a  healthy  outgrowth  of  our  political  life.  Better,  it  seems 
to  me,  to  send  out  one  well-trained  young  man,  sturdy  in  the 
town  meeting,  patriotic  in  the  caucus,  vigorous  in  the  legis¬ 
lature,  than  a  hundred  of  the  gorgeous  and  gifted  young 
cynics  who  lounge  about  city  clubs,  talk  about  “art”  and 
“  culture,”  and  wonder  why  the  country  persists  in  going  to 
the  bad. 

The  second  thing  which  augurs  well  for  the  promised  re- 
is  the  adaptability  to  it  of  our  present  university 


students 


Adaptability  to 


it  of  our  present 
system.  form, 


POLITICAL  EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  WHITE.  371 

methods.  Not  many  years  since,  it  would  have  been  almost 
impossible  to  make  any  adequate  provision  for  these  studies. 

Even  in  our  foremost  universities,  the  old  collegiate  system 
was  dominant;  each  college  had  its  single  simple  course, 
embracing  a  little  Latin,  Greek,  and  mathematics,  with  a  smat¬ 
tering  of  what  were  known  as  the  physical,  intellectual,  and 
moral  sciences. 

At  present  the  tendency  is  more  and  more  toward  uni-  university 
versify  methods,  toward  the  presentation  of  various  courses,  method8- 
toward  giving  the  student  more  freedom  of  choice  among 
these.  When  carefully  carried  out,  this  has  been  found  to 
yield  admirable  results ;  and  the  fact  is  now  established  that 
large  numbers  of  young  men,  who  under  the  old  system  con¬ 
fined  rigidly  to  a  single  stereotyped  course,  would  have 
wasted  the  greater  part  of  their  time,  would  have  injured 
the  quality  of  their  minds  by  droning  over  their  books,  and 
injured  their  morals  by  slighting  their  duties,  have  become? 
when  allowed  to  take  courses  more  fitted  to  their  tastes  and 
aims,  energetic  students.  The  same  reasons  which  have 
caused  the  creation  of  courses  in  our  large  universities,  in 
which  the  principal  studies  are  in  the  direction  of  philosophy, 
science,  and  modern  literature,  are  valid  for  the  creation  of 
a  course  in  which  the  studies  shall  relate  to  that  science  and 
literature  most  directly  bearing  upon  public  life. 

I  come  now  to  the  methods  of  such  instruction,  and  would  Suggested  mod- 

ideation  of  school 

preface  them  by  saying  that,  as  regards  our  system  of  m-  studies, 
struction  at  large  in  the  public  schools,  it  seems  to  me  that 
more  instruction  should  be  given  in  general  history,  especially 
through  political  biography  and  in  the  history  of  our  own 
country,  as  well  as  some  training  in  the  outlines  of  elements 
of  political  science;  but  on  this  I  will  not  dwell.  We  are 
chiefly  concerned  now  with  the  methods  of  this  reform  in 
advanced  instruction  in  the  higher  preparation  of  those  who 
are  to  instruct  and  lead  in  political  and  social  matters. 

Of  these  methods,  I  would  name,  first,  a  post-graduate  Post-graduate 
course.  In  this  there  is  one  considerable  ad  vantage:  students  JXur8e  8Uggest' 
would  come  to  it  at  ripe  age  and  with  considerable  prelimi¬ 
nary  instruction.  This  advantage  I  do  not  underrate.  No 
better  use  of  funds  could  be  made  for  our  universities,  or 
for  the  country,  than  in  endowing  postgraduate  lecture¬ 
ships  and  fellowships  in  the  main  subjects  involved.  1  would 
urge  this  method  upon  every  man  of  wealth  who  wishes  to 
leave  a  fame  that  will  not  rot  with  his  body. 

But  valuable  as  this  plan  is,  it  has  one  great  disadvantage — 
it  is  insufficient.  The  number  of  those  who  could  afford  the 
time  and  expense  for  such  a  course  after  an  extended  school 


372 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1678. 


Undergradu¬ 
ate  course  recom¬ 
mended,  embrac¬ 
ing— 


History, 
Political  and 
Social  science, 
Jurisprudence. 


Special  objec¬ 
tions. 

Conservatism. 


and  college  and  university  training,  and  before  a  course  of 
professional  study,  is  comparatively  small ;  besides  this,  we 
must  take  into  account  American  impatience. 

While,  then,  the  plan  of  post-graduate  courses  would  doubt¬ 
less  result  in  great  good,  it  would  fall  far  short  of  the  work 
required.  It  would  doubtless  provide  many  valuable  lead¬ 
ers  in  thought,  but  not  enough  to  exercise  the  wide  influence 
needed  in  such  a  nation  as  ours. 

The  second  method,  then,  which  I  propose  is  the  estab¬ 
lishment  in  each  of  our  most  important  colleges  and  univer¬ 
sities  of  a  full  undergraduate  course,  which,  while  including 
studies  in  science  and  literature  for  general  culture  and 
discipline,  shall  have  as  its  main  subjects  history,  political 
and  social  science,  and  general  jurisprudence. 

A  great  advantage  of  this  plan  is  the  large  number  of 
students  who  would  certainly  profit  by  it. 

I  am  convinced,  by  observation  in  four  different  colleges 
and  universities  with  which  I  have  been  connected  as  stu¬ 
dent  and  professor  in  our  own  country,  and  in  several  with 
which  I  have  had  more  or  less  to  do  in  foreign  countries, 
that  such  a  course,  in  any  institution  properly  equipped, 
will  attract  large  numbers  of  our  most  energetic  young  men, 
many  of  whom  would  not  otherwise  enter  college  at  all ; 
and  that  it  would  give  forth  a  large  body  of  graduates 
whose  influence  would  be  felt  for  good  in  all  our  States  and 
Territories. 

My  proposal  is  that  these  studies,  which  are  now  mainly 
crowded  into  a  few  last  months  of  the  usual  college  course, 
be  made  the  staple  of  an  entire  four  years7  course ;  that  they 
be  made  a  means  of  discipline,  a  means  of  culture,  a  means 
for  the  acquisition  of  profitable  knowledge. 

Objections  will  of  course  be  urged ;  there  will  probably  be 
none  from  any  quarter  against  a  post-graduate  course ;  they 
will  be  entirely  against  the  establishment  of  a  full  under¬ 
graduate  course. 

The  first  objection  will  doubtless  be  an  appeal  to  con¬ 
servatism.  This  must  be  expected  from  a  multitude  of 
excellent  men,  who  generally  look  backward  instead  of  for¬ 
ward  ;  who  think  the  past  was  on  the  whole  good  enough; 
who  dislike  change ;  who,  when  they  have  become  accus¬ 
tomed  to  a  system  and  fitted  to  it,  instinctively  dislike  a 
new  system,  to  which  they  may  possibly  find  themselves 
not  so  well  fitted.  Their  standing  argument  will  be  that 
the  men  who  have  achieved  high  political  knowlege  in  spite 
of  the  present  system,  have  done  so  by  means  of  it. 

A  second  and  more  precise  objection  will  be  on  the  score 


Discipline. 


POLITICAL  EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  WHITE. 


373 


of  discipline.  Perhaps  no  word  has  been  so  unfortunate  in 
American  instruction  as  this ;  it  has  been  made  the  fortress  of 
every  educational  absurdity.  In  this  particular  case,  we  may 
ask  why  are  not  studies  of  political  and  social  questions  fully 
equal  to  any  others  in  giving  discipline  ?  They  call  out  our 
intellectual  powers  in  discussing  problems  of  the  deepest 
human  import ;  they  bring  into  play  our  higher  moral  powers 
in  judging  between  plans  of  institutions  and  lines  of  conduct 
on  the  plane  of  right  and  duty. 

I  claim  for  the  studies  in  the  course  proposed  an  especial 
value  in  discipline.  Any  worthy  discussion  in  political  econ¬ 
omy  and  social  science  gives  valuable  discipline  for  con¬ 
centration  and  directness  of  mind  ;  any  proper  discussion  in 
history  gives  a  discipline  for  breadth  of  mind  ;  and  these  two 
sorts  of  discipline  are  fully  equal  to  any  given  in  any  other 
courses  of  instruction. 

It  may  also  be  objected,  by  men  devoted  to  the  physical  de°Jjee!?0o?ph/ 
sciences,  that  the  powers  of  observation  should  be  trained. sical  science. 

In  answer  to  this,  it  is  sufficient  to  point  out  many  men  who 
in  political  studies  have  gained  as  great  quickness  in  obser¬ 
vation  as  can  be  found  in  any  class  of  scientific  men.  It  is 
hard  to  see  that  the  observing  powers  of  Montesquieu  and 
John  Stuart  Mill  and  Francis  Lieber  were  not  as  highly 
trained  as  those  of  Cuvier  and  Huxley  and  Agassiz. 

The  next  objection  will  probably  be  on  the  score  of  cul-  Culture, 
ture.  In  this  objection  I  see  no  force,  because  it  is  perfectly 
possible  to  bring  studies  for  culture  into  the  course  pro¬ 
posed  ;  nay,  it  is  indispensable  to  bring  in  studies  of  at 
least  one  or  two  languages  of  the  great  modern  states  or 
their  master-pieces  hi  literature  and  art ;  while  as  to  that 
culture  which  comes  from  a  knowledge  of  nature  it  will 
not  be  difficult  to  give  good  instruction  in  scientific  methods 
and  results. 

Again,  it  may  be  urged  that  young  men  are  not  mature  Questionable 
enough  and  not  sufficiently  instructed  to  take  up  such  SfcStors°f  ma" 
studies  on  entering  college.  I  answer,  that  it  is  not  proposed 
to  admit  young  men  to  these  courses  without  reasonable 
preparation,  nor  is  it  proposed  during  the  first  year  of  such 
a  course  to  plunge  the  student  into  the  most  difficult  jiarts 
of  it.  He  will  be  brought  to  these  gradually  by  preliminary 
studies,  properly  combined  with  the  subjects  having  as  their 
aim  general  discipline  and  culture.  The  same  objection 
could  be  made  with  equal  force  against  any  scientific  course 
or  any  course  in  philosophy. 

But  granting  that  the  objection  has  some  force,  the  ques-  The  ideal  and 
tion  is  not  what  is  ideally  the  best  course,  it  is  simply  what the  practlcabl0. 


374 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

is  the  best  course  possible 5  and  experience  shows  that  only 
undergraduate  courses  of  the  sort  proposed  will  give  any 
great  number  of  the  well- trained  men  we  require.  Against 
these  objections  should  be  constantly  kept  in  view  the 
main  advantage,  which  is,  the  large  number  of  students 
who  would  certainly  take  such  a  course. 

General  objec-  But  objections  will  be  made  on  more  general  grounds. 

The  optimist  ^he  first  may  be  called  the  optimist  objection,  that  the 
people  can  be  intrusted  to  enlighten  themselves,  that  they 
trusted16  toailseeare  directly  interested,  and  that  self-interest  is  a  most  pow- 
est  (?)  °wn  inter" er^  stimulus  ;  that  the  world  has  improved  steadily,  and 
will  continue  to  do  so.  This  is  partly  true.  hTo  one  can 
deny  that  self-interest  is  a  most  powerful  stimulus  ;  but  the 
point  is  to  give  more  of  that  education  which  shall  enable 
men  to  find  out  where  their  real  self-interest  is. 

As  to  the  fact  that  the  world  has  improved  steadily,  I  do 
not  deny  it,  but  simply  observe  that  it  is  a  question  of  cost ; 
for  few  realize  what  a  fearful  price  has  been  paid  hith¬ 
erto  for  the  simplest  advances  in  political  and  social  sci¬ 
ence  when  achieved  by  the  gradual  growth  of  the  popular 
mind.  Take  a  few  examples  out  of  many, 
what  England  Before  England  could  learn  what  are  to-day  the  simplest 

paid  in  the  school  0  ./  x 

of  experience ;  things  in  the  proper  adjustment  of  legislative  and  execu¬ 
tive  powers,  the  nation  was  dragged  through  a  fearful  civil 
war  and  through  a  long  period  of  consequent  demoraliza¬ 
tion  :  one  king  losing  his  head  and  another  his  crown.  Be- 

what  France 

paid,  fore  France,  in  the  17th  century,  could  understand  the  sim¬ 

plest  relations  between  her  industrial  policy  and  that  of 
neighboring  states  ;  before  she  could  realize  that  workmen 
on  one  side  of  a  frontier  are  not  necessarily  the  enemies  of 
those  on  the  other  side,  but  rather  helpers  and  co-workers, 
she  was  dragged  through  a  series  of  wars  which  brought 
her  to  utter  ruin;  before,  in  the  18th  century,  she  could 
learn  what  are  now  the  axioms  of  political  science  applied 
to  taxation,  she  had  to  go  through  a  period  of  revolution,  a 
period  of  anarchy,  two  periods  of  bankruptcy,  two  periods 
of  despotism,  with  endless  shedding  of  blood  upon  scaffolds 
and  battle-fields  and  street-pavements.  Before  the  world 
learned  to  accept  the  simplest  modern  axioms  of  toleration 
at  the  treaties  of  Passau  and  Westphalia,  rivers  of  blood 
flowed  through  every  great  nation  in  Europe.  Before 
and  Prussia,  the  Prussian  State  could  learn  to  allow  political  thinkers 
like  Stein  to  work  out  the  problem  of  her  adjustment  to 
modern  ideas,  she  had  to  be  crushed  in  battle,  humbled  in 
the  dust  by  diplomacy,  and  to  go  through  ten  years  of  waste 
and  Austria.  and  war.  Before  the  Austrian  Empire  could  learn  the  prin- 


POLITICAL  EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  WHITE. 


375 


cipal  relations  of  education  to  public  policy,  several  genera¬ 
tions  had  to  be  taught  by  military  humiliations,  and,  among 
these,  Austerlitz,  Magenta,  and  Sadowa.  Before  Italy  could 
work  out  the  problem  of  political  unity,  there  came  three  what  it  cost 
hundred  years  of  internal  suffering  ;  and  possibly  the  future 
historian  may  point  to  a  case  hardly  less  striking  on  this  side 
the  Atlantic.  Is  it  at  least  not  worth  an  heroic  effort  to 
substitute  a  thorough  education,  reaching  many  of  those 
who  are  to  lead  in  public  affairs,  and  so  reaching  the  people 
themselves — an  education  in  the  observation  of  human  ex¬ 
perience  and  in  reasoning  upon  it — in  the  hope  that  we  may 
hereafter  make  progress  at  something  less  than  the  fearful 
price  which  the  world  has  heretofore  paid"? 

I  confess  that  I  am  sanguine  enough  to  hope  that  with  is  there  no 

,  .  cheaper  way  ? 

more  complete  extension  oi  political  and  social  knowledge, 
with  some  training  for  better  discussion  of  important  polit¬ 
ical  and  social  problems,  the  world  may  in  the  future  begin  to 
advance  without  paying  the  appalling  cost  for  progress  which 
she  has  paid  and  is  still  paying ;  but  to  bring  this  about, 
there  must  be  effort ;  problems  are  arising  at  this  moment 
before  us  as  fearful  as  any  that  have  ever  disappeared  be¬ 
hind  us ;  the  question  between  capital  and  labor  alone  is 
enough  to  exercise  our  best  thought;  it  can  easily  give  rise 

to  scenes  as  fearful  as  any  in  human  history.  The  question  Reason  and  ob¬ 
servation  instead 

is  whether  such  problems  shall  be  solved  by  observant,  of  passion,  arti- 
patient,  well- trained  men,  looking  over  large  fields  of  human  c’  m  V1° 
experience,  applying  to  them  the  best  human  thought,  or 
whether  they  shall  be  dealt  with  by  declamation,  passion, 
demagogism,  trickery,  nay,  with  the  torch,  the  rifle,  and 
the  gallows. 

Xext  comes  the  pessimist  argument;  it  will  be  said  “the  The  pessimist 

'  argument. 

greatest  factor  in  republican  development  is  personal  force  ; 
the  people  will  elect  men  of  will-power,  they  will  not  elect 
your  men  of  study  and  thought.” 

My  answer  is,  first,  that  the  effort  in  our  proposed  course 
is  to  lay  hold  on  some  of  these  men  of  personal  force  and 
will  power,  to  bring  them  into  the  harness  of  real  statesman¬ 
ship  rather  than  to  leave  them  tethered  by  crotchets  and 
half-truths. 

But  suppose  all  our  men  of  study  and  thought  are  not 
elected,  official  positions  are  not  the  only  means  of  influence; 
pen  and  tongue  are  often  most  powerful  outside  of  official 
imsitions. 

What  we  want  is  training  for  public  service  among  men 
of  various  sorts  of  power;  some  in  office,  some  in  the  press, 
some  in  the  pulpit,  some  in  the  ordinary  vocations  of  life. 


376 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Ability  of  pub¬ 
lic  men  to  ap¬ 
proach  new  ques¬ 
tions. 


Macaulay’s 
letter  to  Gcneial 
Randall. 


How  shall  sub- 
verters  of  social 
order  be  met  ? 


Revolution  ? 
Ccesarism  ? 


Healthful 
development  tho 
check  to  popular 
unreason. 


In  all  these,  we  need  men  so  trained  that  when  a  new 
question  comes  up,  not  only  law-makers,  hut  citizens  in 
general,  may  be  put  in  the  way  of  right  reasoning  upon  it; 
especially  in  times  of  excitement,  or  doubt,  or  distrust,  do 
we  need  such  men  to  lead  the  thinking  of  the  community 
against  political  zealots  or  social  desperadoes. 

The  time  is  surely  coming,  predicted  in  Macaulay’s  letter 
to  General  Randall — the  time  when  disheartened  popula¬ 
tions  will  hear  brilliant  preaching  subversive  of  the  whole 
system  of  social  order. 

How  shall  this  be  met?  Shall  it  be  met  by  force?  How 
by  force  where  all  is  decided  by  majorities  ?  Shall  it  be  met 
by  denunciation  ?  Hardly ;  two  can  play  at  that,  and  while 
one  side  has  the  disadvantage  of  property  to  be  destroyed, 
the  other  has  the  advantage  of  torches  with  which  to  de¬ 
stroy  it.  Shall  it  be  met  by  revolution?  As  Danton  said, 
“The  revolution,  like  Saturn,  destroys  its  own  offspring.” 
Shall  it  be  met  by  Caesarism  ?  The  first  thing  that  Caesar 
always  does  is  to  distribute  bread  and  pageants  to  the  mob, 
and  rob  the  people  to  pay  for  them. 

All  these  methods  history  shows  to  be  futile;  the  only 
safeguard  is  in  thorough  provision  for  a  regular,  healthful, 
political  development  by  the  checking  of  popular  unreason, 
and  by  the  spreading  of  right  reason ;  we  must  provide  that 
when  a  brilliant  lie  is  put  forth,  it  shall  be  struck  quickly 
and  mortally,  and  before  its  venom  has  pervaded  the  social 
organism. 


To  do  this  we  need  men  trained  to  grapple  with  political 
questions  in  every  part  of  society.  Shall  we  flatter  our¬ 
selves  that  such  gladiators  in  subversive  thought  as  Proud - 
communists  hon,  Carl  Marx,  Ferdinand  Lasalle,  and  Bradlaugh  can  be 
piatitmfesable  to  met  with  platitudes  ?  In  the  coming  grapple  with  their 
apostles  we  shall  find  need  of  our  best  trained  athletes.  Can 
we  trust  to  the  subdivision  of  land  in  our  country  and  the 
large  number  of  small  proprietors  ?  So  has  it  been  in  France 
for  eighty  years,  and  yet  she  has  not  escaped. 

What  we  need  is  not  talk,  but  discussion.  Within  the 
past  few  years  we  have  seen  the  uses  of  such  discussion ; 
many  of  us  have  seen  political  and  social  heresies,  some 
wild,  some  contemptible,  put  forth  with  force,  with  brilliancy, 
even  at  times  with  sincerity ;  in  some  quarters  they  have 
swept  all  before  them ;  but  wherever  they  have  been  met 
vigorously  by  men  trained  to  grapple  with  them,  they  have 
been  throttled,  and  the  tide  running  in  their  favor  has  gen¬ 
erally  been  turned. 


POLITICAL  EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  WHITE. 


377 


If  it  be  said  that  this  has  not  constantly  been  the  case, . 
my  reply  is,  that  under  our  present  system,  we  have  no 
right  to  expect  it ;  we  cannot  expect  two  or  three  men  to 
breast  the  tide  in  a  State  containing  millions  of  inhabitants, 
when  such  mistaken  views  are  spreading  like  wild-fire  ;  and 
yet,  what  has  been  done  in  some  of  our  States  by  two  or 
three  men  of  force  and  thought,  shows  that  if  a  small  per¬ 
centage  of  our  college  graduates  had  been  as  thoroughly 
instructed  as  these  two  or  three,  these  heresies  would  have 
been  met  at  the  outset,  and  would  never  have  attained  dan¬ 
gerous  proportions. 

It  may  be  objected  that  such  a  system  of  instruction  would  Doctrinaires 
give  us  doctrinaires.  Those  who  make  this  objection  misread  theoretical  pou- 

^  tics  divorced 

history ;  doctrinaires  are  created  where  theoretical  politics  frompoiiticaiiife. 
are  divorced  from  vigorous  political  life,  where  practical 
training  and  theoretical  training  are  not  at  the  same  time 
present  to  modify  each  other.  The  French  doctrinaires  arose 
at  a  time  when  there  was  political  discussion  among  a  small 
knot  of  scholars,  but  no  practical  political  life  in  the  nation 
at  large ;  the  same  thing  was  true  until  recently  in  Germany, 
and  it  has  been  true  in  Italy  from  the  days  of  Machiavelli 
to  the  days  of  Cavour;  it  is  true  to-day  in  Russia;  hence 
Nihilism,  with  all  its  miseries;  but  we  look  in  vain  for  any 
perceptible  influence  of  doctrinairism  in  England;  there, 
political  theory  has  never  run  away  with  leaders ;  it  has  been 
constantly  modified  by  political  practice.  Edmund  Burke  de®£rJj|’  Juries 
was  a  close  student  of  principles  and  theories,  but  who  that  anti  »  practical 
has  read  his  speech  on  American  conciliation  does  not  see 
that  he  justly  claims  to  be  a  more  practical  statesman  than 
any  of  his  compeers,  who  trusted  merely  to  instinct  and  what 
is  called  sound  sense?  Had  Thomas  Jefferson  remained  in 
France,  he  would  doubtless  have  been  a  doctrinaire ;  as  it  was, 
we  have  in  him  a  wonderful  union  of  theoretical  and  practical 
training — Rousseau  modified  by  the  Virginia  house  of  bur¬ 
gesses.  The  strength  of  tho great  men  who  gave  this  Repub¬ 
lic  its  political  foundation  lay  in  the  fact  that  no  practical 
men  ever  studied  theory  and  principles  more  thoroughly 
than  they ;  Jefferson,  Hamilton,  John  Adams,  Jay,  were 
close  students  of  political  principles  and  political  history ; 

Franklin  and  Washington,  acute  students  of  contemporary 
political  history. 

Besides  this,  the  doctrinaires  are  by  no  means  all  on  the 
theoretical  side ;  there  are  not  a  few  on  the  practical  side. 

Our  American  life  furnishes  constant  examples  of  this  doctrin¬ 
airism  of  practical  men,  quite  as  absurd  as  anything  put 
forth  by  men  of  theory. 


J  efferson. 


Hamilton. 

Adams. 

Jay. 

Franklin. 

Washington. 


378 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Men  of  affairs  Moreover,  in  the  system  of  instruction  proposed,  I  would 

to  loctixxo  for  '  J 

Bhort  terms.  take  effective  means  of  preventing  pedantry  and  doctrin- 
airism  by  bringing  in  a  constant  circulation  of  healthful 
political  thought  from  the  outside.  Much  instruction  should 
be  given  by  lecturers  holding  their  positions  for  short  terms ; 
these  lecturers  should  be  chosen,  so  far  as  possible,  from 
men  who  take  part  in  public  life  or  business  affairs  practi¬ 
cally,  while  not  giving  up  the  study  of  principles.  The 
example  cited  in  the  first  part  of  this  report  from  European 
institutions  will  show  that  this  plan  is  by  no  means  im¬ 
practicable. 

Such  will  doubtless  be  the  main  objections  to  the  plan 
proposed ;  they  have  been  made  in  opposition  to  the  same 
system  in  other  countries,  but  the  result  has  refuted  them, 
journalism  As  to  the  influence  of  a  better  system  on  this  country,  we 
to  evince  the  ef-  should  doubtless  find  it  exercised  first  through  the  press, 
system.  ,e  er  For  the  past  ten  years  there  has  been  a  striking  tendency 
observable  among  our  most  active  young  men  toward  the 
p  rofession  of  j  ournalism.  The  difference  of  feeling  regarding 
such  a  career  between  the  great  body  of  students  to-day 
and  those  of  twenty  years  since  is  one  of  the  curious  things 
in  the  history  of  thought  in  this  country. 

The  press  would  doubtless  reveal  the  influence  of  this 
new  education  in  quick,  compact,  thorough  discussion  of 
important  subjects ;  it  is  not  too  much  to  hope  that  there 
would  be  much  less  declamation,  defamation,  and  sensation 
writing,  and  much  more  vigorous  reasoning. 

Then  the  lower  ®  ® 

strata  of  public  We  should  doubtless  next  see  this  influence  in  the  lower 

life 

strata  of  public  life.  The  young  man  who,  on  arriving  from 
college  and  from  his  professional  course,  could  supply  really 
valuable  information  and  make  a  straightforward  argument 
upon  living  political  and  social  questions  in  his  town¬ 
meeting  or  board  of  supervisors,  would  take  the  first  step 
Next  m  train-  ill  an  honorable  career.  The  character  of  our  people  is 
doseerelsonSerasnd especially  favorable  to  this;  no  people  in  the  world  so 
quickly  recognize  a  man  who  can  stimulate  valuable  thought ; 
no  country  is  so  open  to  the  influence  of  facts  cogently  pre¬ 
sented.  Even  if  men  thus  trained  arrive  sometimes  at  wrong 
conclusions,  as  doubtless  they  would,  the  habit  of  discussing 
questions  with  a  more  thorough  knowledge  and  with  closer 
reasoning  could  not  fail  to  be  of  vast  use;  it  would  be 
found  that  political  science,  like  other  sciences,  may  be 
made  to  progress  almost  as  much  by  mistaken  reasoning,  if 
influence  it  only  be  real,  as  by  correct  reasoning.  Quesnay ,  Turgot,  and 

of  French  phvs-  ,  '  .  ....  . 

iocrats  on  the  the  French  physiocrats,  by  then*  errors  as  well  as  by  their 
economists.  *  truths,  stimulated  Adam  Smith,  Ricardo,  John  Stuart  Mill, 


POLITICAL  EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  WHITE. 


379 


and  the  English  economists,  and  these  in  their  turn,  by 
their  half  truths  as  well  as  truths,  stimulated  List,  Carey, 

Eoscher,  Wells,  and  th  e  German  and  the  American  econo-  And  of  these  on 

,  ,  .  the  German  and 

mists ;  the  only  thing  that  permanently  hinders  the  growth  American, 
of  any  science  is  dogmatism — the  substitution  of  inherited 
opinions  for  thought,  of  accustomed  inferences  for  real  ob¬ 
servation.  Eeal  thinking,  however  wrong  some  of  its  con¬ 
clusions  may  have  been  temporarily,  has  always  helped  on 
mankind  in  the  long  run. 

Next,  we  should  doubtless  see  the  influence  of  such  cour-  influence  on  the 
ses  of  instruction  upon  the  legislative  bodies  of  all  grades  5  ies. 
even  our  strong  untutored  men — men  who  rise  by  virtue 
of  rough,  uncultured,  native  force  and  will-power — would 
feel  strongly  the  influence  of  this  instruction,  even  though 
they  never  came  under  it  directly;  better  observations,  bet¬ 
ter  modes  of  thinking,  better  ideas  would  become  common 
property;  they  would  become  an  element  in  the  political 
atmosphere,  and  the  rude  statesman  of  the  future  could  not 
but  feel  its  influence ;  thereby  would  he  be  stimulated  to 
think  more  and  orate  less. 

N  or  should  we  forget  the  influence  of  such  instruction  upon  Then  on  the  uni- 
the  universities  themselves ;  it  would  make  them  far  greater  selves, 
powers  in  the  formation  of  public  opinion,  therefore  of  far 
greater  importance  in  public  estimation.  The  present 
state  of  things  is  certainly  not  very  encouraging  to  univer¬ 
sity  officers ;  they  know  too  well  that  their  graduates  have 
not  taken  that  place  in  the  conduct  of  public  affairs  which 
their  education  would  seem  to  warrant ;  young  men  who 
have  received  so  much  greater  advantages  than  others 
should,  one  would  think,  exercise  much  greater  influence. 

Unfortunately,  statistics  carefully  collected  show  that  Number  of  eoi- 
the  relative  number  of  college  graduates  in  the  executive pubifcaaffiSrsSd? 
and  legislative  positions  of  the  country  has  been  diminish- mmis  mg' 
ing  for  many  years.  The  main  reason  for  this,  is,  probably,  Cause  of  this, 
that  the  majority  of  college  students,  under  the  present  sys¬ 
tem,  while  obtaining  their  education,  have  been  separated 
from  the  current  of  practical  politics,  and  have  not  secured,  to 
compensate  for  this  separation,  any  education  in  theoretical 
politics ;  during  four  years  in  college,  as  well  as  four  or  flve 
years’  preparation  for  college,  they  have  been  studying  mat¬ 
ters  often  useful  for  culture,  often  important  for  discipline ; 
but  all  this,  so  far  as  public  influence  is  concerned,  leaves  Effect, 
them  frequently  at  the  first  public  meeting  they  attend,  or 
the  first  public  body  in  which  they  sit,  inferior  to  many  who 
have  never  enjoyed  their  advantages. 


380 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  ]878. 


keeping ted  aToof  ^ave  lieard  muck  of  our  educated  men  keeping  aloof 
from  politics.  from  politics ;  the  examples  of  the  older  nations  would 
lead  us  to  believe  that  were  scholarly  youug  men  trained 
steadily  in  political  questions  from  the  outset,  they  would 
enter  public  life  at  such  an  advantage  that  this  charge 
would  be  brought  to  naught. 

The  good  results  of  such  courses  as  are  now  proposed 
would  doubtless  be  speedily  seen  then,  not  only  in  the  na¬ 
tion  at  large,  but  iu  the  universities  adopting  them 5  such 
institutions  could  hardly  fail  to  find  their  numbers  increased ; 
many  young  men,  who  do  not  go  to  college  now,  but  who 
This  may  be  on  leaving  preparatory  schools  enter  at  once  upon  profes¬ 
sional  study,  would  think  it  worth  their  while  to  take  a 
course  embracing  studies  for  which  they  have  a  taste,  and 
fitting  themselves  for  duties  for  which  they  have  an  ambi¬ 


tion. 

Desirable  for  From  every  point  of  view,  then,  in  the  interest  of  indi- 
versity,  and  legis-  vidual  students,  many  of  whom  would  find  scope  for  their 
lative  interests.  p0wers?  which  they  do  not  find  in  the  existing  courses  5  in 

the  interests  of  the  universities  themselves,  which  might 
attract  to  their  halls  numbers  of  energetic  young  men,  who 
now  stand  aloof  from  them  ;  and  above  all,  in  the  interest 
of  State  and  national  legislation — the  example  of  our  sister 
nations  in  establishing  such  courses  is  oue  which  merits  our 
close  attention. 

No  better  ex-  In  looking  over  the  whole  field  of  education  in  the  light 
effort.  of  our  own  experience  and  that  of  other  nations,  I  see  no 

better  object  for  the  earnest  efforts  of  those  called  upon  to 
administer  our  greater  institutions  for  advanced  education. 
I  am  well  aware  that  few,  if  any,  have  means  enough,  even 
for  the  present  courses  5  it  is  then  a  case  for  the  exercise  of 
American  munificence  5  here  there  is  reason  to  hope  for  much. 

The  oid  world  In  the  Old  World,  with  its  systems  of  primogeniture  and 
ambitions.ersoiial  its  means  of  entailing  fortunes,  men  of  great  wealth  can 
found  families  and  hand  their  property  down  to  remote  gen¬ 
erations.  So  it  is  not  in  our  own  land ;  the  great  fortune  of  the 
first  generation  rarely  lasts  farther  than  the  third.  While, 
then,  some  reason  exists  there  for  hoarding  enormous  sums 
for  heirs,  here  there  is  none,  and  to  this  fact  are  doubtless 
due  many  acts  of  munificence  which  have  honored  the  Arner- 
can  name,  and  blessed  the  country.  Let  us  hope  that  it  will 
not  be  the  ambition  of  our  wealthy  men  to  become  the  fatty 
tumors  of  society— abnormal  growths — accumulating  for¬ 
tunes  which  are,  at  best,  only  to  be  reabsorbed  into  the 

Americans  in-  ordinary  business  channels ;  but  that  they  will  see  the  duty 

sure  enduring  '  .  .. 

monuments,  as— and  the  honor  lying  before  them;  that  m  making  provision 


POLITICAL  EDUCATION:  COMMISSIONER  WHITE. 


381 


Harvard,  for  the  higher  education  of  their  fellow-citizens,  and  espe- 
Smitiison,  cially  in  those  branches  which  insure  better  government  and  a 

johnsrkopkms,  higher  type  of  citizenship,  they  will  rear  to  themselves  mon- 
Comeii,  et  ai.  uments  more  lasting  than  statues  of  bronze  or  obelisks  of 
granite;  on  such  imperishable  monuments  already  stand 
the  names  of  Harvard,  Yale,  Smithson,  Peabody,  Cooper, 
Packer,  Johns  Hopkins,  Cornell,  Yassar,  Sage,  Wells, 
McGraw,  Sibley,  and  their  noble  compeers.  Let  us  hope  that 
worthy  successors  of  these  may  arise  to  provide,  upon  the 
foundations  already  laid  by  our  stronger  universities  and 
colleges,  means  for  an  instruction  worthy  of  our  land,  in  his¬ 
tory,  political  and  social  science,  and  general  jurisprudence — 
in  all  that  directly  fits  and  strengthens  men  to  advance  the 
nation  by  taking  part  in  public  affairs. 

All  of  which  is  very  respectfully  submitted. 

ANDBEW  H.  WHITE, 

Honorary  Commissioner  and  Vice-President  of 
Group  II  (. Education  and  the  Liberal  Arts), 
in  the  International  Jury. 


MANUAL  TRAINING  SCHOOLS  REPRESENTED  AT 
THE  EXPOSITION. 


ELIOT  C.  JEWETT. 


383 


[For  the  Classification  of  the  Second  Group  (Education),  see  page  182.] 


384 


THE  MANUAL  TRAINING  SCHOOLS  REPRESENTED 
AT  THE  EXPOSITION. 


The  eight  exhibits  of  manual  training  schools  at  Paris  in 
1878  were  in  many  respects  disappointing. 

The  countries  which  have  taken  the  lead  in  this  branch 
of  education  are  Russia,  France,  Germany,  Austria,  and 
Belgium,  while  within  the  last  few  years  America  has  taken 
rapid  strides  in  the  same  direction.  Of  these  countries, 
Russia  and  France  alone  sent  satisfactory  and  complete  ex¬ 
hibits.  Austria  was  represented  by  a  few  of  her  schools  for 
art-industry,  while  Germany  and  America  were  not  repre¬ 
sented  at  all. 

This  was  the  more  to  be  regretted  because  Germany  pos¬ 
sesses  excellent  schools  of  this  description,  while  the  Amer¬ 
ican  schools — the  Worcester  Free  Institute,  the  Boston  In¬ 
stitute  of  Technology,  and  others — though  young,  are 
turning  out  capital  work. 

Belgium,  which  now  possesses  59  apprentice  schools,  ex¬ 
hibited  none  of  their  work,  although  her  educational  ex¬ 
hibit  in  other  respects  was  magnificent,  nearly  filling  a  large 
annex.  Drawings  and  written  exercises  were  shown  in 
abundance,  but  none  of  the  actual  handiwork  of  the  pupils 
was  exhibited. 

The  apprentice  schools  of  Italy  were  also  u conspicuous 
by  their  absence,”  and  it  was  left  for  France  and  Russia, 
with  some  help  from  the  ^Netherlands  and  Denmark,  and 
that  already  mentioned  from  Austria,  and  the  watch¬ 
making  interest  of  Switzerland,  to  fill  the  breach. 

From  the  account  which  will  be  given  of  the  exhibit  and 
the  organization  of  each  school,  those  who  saw  the  Exhibi¬ 
tions  at  Vienna  and  Philadelphia  will  be  able  to  judge  for 
themselves  of  the  amount  of  progress  made  and  of  the  in¬ 
terest  shown  by  those  countries  which  sent  specimens  of 
their  pupils’  work. 

RUSSIA. 

Indisputably  the  finest  exhibit  of  pupils’  work  was  made 
by  the  Russian  schools.  As  is  now  well  known  to  those  in- 

385 


Manual  train 
ing  schools  of— 


Russia. 

France. 

Germany. 

Austria. 

Belgium. 


Germany  and 
America  not  rep¬ 
resented. 


Apprentice 
schools  of  Bel¬ 
gium  not  repre¬ 
sented  ; 


nor  those  of 
Italy. 


RUSSIA. 


386 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


RtJSSIA- _ terested  in  the  subject,  Eussia  has  a  system  of  her  own  in 

8tracUonhop  in'  workshop  instruction,  and  at  the  last  three  International 
Exhibitions  her  schools  have  made  a  most  extensive  and 
complete  showing  of  their  methods  and  appliances  for  man¬ 
ual  education.  Four  of  these  schools  were  represented  at 
Paris.  Two  of  them  belonged  to  Class  8,  in  Group  II,  com¬ 
prising  “  Organization,  Methods,  aud  Appliances  for  Su¬ 
perior  Instruction” j  and  two  to  Class  7,  in  Group  II,  u Or¬ 
ganization  and  Appliances  for  Secondary  Instruction.”  The 
Four  technical  first  two  were  the  Imperial  Technical  School  of  Moscow, 
represented.  “  and  the  Technological  Institute  of  St.  Petersburg;  the  last 
two  were  the  Alexander  Technical  School  of  Tcherepovetz, 
and  the  School  of  Trades  of  the  Czarewitch  Nicholas  of  St. 
Petersburg. 


Imperial  Tech¬ 
nical  School  of 
Moscow. 


Della- Vos. 


Purpose. 


The  Imperial  Technical  School  of  Moscow. 

First  in  the  magnitude  of  its  exhibit  was  the  Imperial 
Technical  School  of  Moscow.  So  complete  an  account  of 
this  institution  is  given  in  a  pamphlet  by  M.  Victor  Della- 
Vos,  director  of  the  school,  and  so  well  does  he  present  the 
argument  in  favor  of  such  schools  and  of  the  Eussian 
method  of  instruction,  that  it  seems  preferable  to  give  it  in 
his  own  language. 


Divisions. 


Course. 


“  The  Imperial  Technical  School  of  Moscow  is  a  high  class  special 
school,  principally  intended  for  the  education  of  mechanical  construct¬ 
ed,  mechanical  engineers,  and  technical  engineers. 

“The  school  consists  of  two  divisions,  general  and  special,  each  of 
which  has  a  course  of  three  years.  The  special  division  is  divided  into 
three  branches  :  Mechanical  construction,  mechanical  engineering,  and 
technological  engineering. 

“  The  three  years’  course  of  the  general  division  embraces  the  follow¬ 
ing  subjects  :  Religion,  free-hand  and  linear  drawing,  descriptive  geom¬ 
etry,  general  physics,  zoology,  botany,  mineralogy,  chemistry,  geodesy, 
analytical  geometry,  higher  algebra,  differential  and  integral  calculus, 
general  mechanics,  drawing  of  machine-parts,  the  French  and  German 
languages,  i.  e.,  all  scientific  subjects,  the  previous  knowledge  of  which 
is  required  from  the  pupils  of  all  the  three  following  branches. 

Special  courses.  “In  the  special  department,  the  three  years’  course  of  the  three 
branches  contains  the  following  subjects :  Organic  and  analytical 
chemistry,  metallurgy,  practical  physics,  mechanical  and  chemical 
technology,  technics  of  wood  and  metals,  analytical  mechanics,  con¬ 
struction  of  machines,  practical  mechanics,  railway  construction,  en¬ 
gineering  and  constructive  art,  projecting  and  estimating  of  machines, 
works,  and  mills,  industrial  statistics,  and  book-keeping. 

Practical  sec-  1  ‘A  fourth  division  is  designed  exclusively  for  the  education  of  foremen 

tx' School  for  fore-  (contremaitres),  and  is  called  the  Practical  Section.  It  is  reserved  for 
men-  pupils  who  have  received  good  marks  for  conduct  and  for  manual  work, 

but  whose  theoretical  attainments  are  insufficient  for  the  requirements 
of  the  third  class.  Instead  of  passing  into  this,  they  are  put  in  the 


MANUAL  TRAINING  SCHOOLS:  COMMISSIONER  JEWETT.  387 


Practical  Section,  where  much  more  attention  is  paid  to  workshop  Russia. 
practice.  The  whole  duration  of  their  studies  is  then  only  three  years. 

“  Every  one  of  the  appointed  sciences  is  taught  fully,  or  in  a  condensed  Imperial  Tech- 
form,  according  as  it  is  considered  a  fundamental  or  collateral  subject  Moscow, 
of  the  given  branch.  The  students  of  all  the  classes  are  occupied  in  work' 

during  a  stated  time  in  practical  work  in  the  laboratories  and  mechan¬ 
ical  workshops. 

“Admission  into  the  school  as  boarder  or  day  scholar  is  obtained  by  Admission, 
competitive  examination,  in  accordance  with  the  ordained  programme. 

‘ 1  Pupils  who  have  passed  through  the  full  school  course  of  the  gym¬ 
nasiums  may  be  admitted  without  further  examination  to  the  lectures 
of  the  second  general  class  of  the  school,  but  pupils  of  the  last  class  of 
the  gymnasiums,  who  have  not  passed  their  final  examinations,  are  ad¬ 
mitted  only  to  the  first  general  class  of  the  school. 

“The  pupils  weai*the  appointed  half-military  uniform. 

“  Pupils  who  have  obtained  in  the  school  the  appointed  grades  receive  Graduated 

acknowledged  rights  in  the  service  of  the  government.  pupils. 

“  The  school  is  maintained  by  funds  from  the  following  sources :  Per-  Maintenance, 
centageon  funded  capital,*1  fees  of  private  boarders  and  foreign  hear¬ 
ers,  and  profits-received  from  the  mechanical  works. 

“The  annual  receipts  of  the  school  amount  to  $160,000. 

“The  annual  expenses  of  the  school  amount  to  $140,000. 

“The  technical  school  is  under  the  immediate  patronage  of  their  im¬ 
perial  majesties. 

“ Auxiliaries  to  instruction. — The  school  possesses  a  special  library,  con-  Libraries,  cabi- 
taining  more  than  six  thousand  volumes  of  works  on  specialties,  a  cab- nets’  an(lslloPs- 
inet  of  physics,  two  chemical  laboratories,  a  cabinet  of  mechanical 
models,  a  cabinet  of  natural  history,  extensive  mechanical  works  with 
separate  smithy  and  foundry,  and  also  school  workshops. 

******* 


“No  one  will  deny  that  a  close  acquaintance  with  hand  labor,  and,  Advantages  of 
in  general,  practical  experience  in  mechanical  works,  are  matters  of  the  chanica?  experi- 
utmost  importance  to  every  engineer,  t  The  drawings  of  an  engineer  ence- 
thus  trained  will  always  be  distinguished  by  solidity  and  that  practical 
judgment  which  is  the  result  not  only  of  the  study  of  scientific  truths, 
but  also  of  the  acquirement  of  a  certain  familiarity  in  their  applica¬ 
tion  to  practice.  That  the  knowledge  of  hand  labor  is  of  extreme  im¬ 
portance  to  a  young  man  devoting  himself  to  technical  activity,  and 
that  it  is  considered  an  absolute  necessity  to  him,  we  are  convinced  by 
the  circumstance  that  the  greater  number  of  the  polytechnic  schools 
of  Western  Europe  demand  from  the  students  who  enter  them  either  a 
previous  stay,  of  a  certain  duration,  at  some  works  of  industry,  or 
issue  to  them  a  diploma,  attesting  their  accomplishment  of  the  course, 
after  they  are  in  position  to  show  that  they  have  been  occupied  prac¬ 
tically  for  a  definite  period  at  some  such  works  on  their  leaving  the 
school.! 

“If  we  contemplate  the  matter  itself  more  profoundly,  and  acquaint  ^  C°mp^aratbro 
ourselves  more  closely  with  the  circumstances -of  the  practician  at  pri-  WOrk  at  private 
vate  works  and  mills,  we  must,  disregarding  exceptional  cases,  since  it  establishments, 
is  not  those  which  form  the  rule,  arrive  at  the  sad  conclusion  that  a 


*  The  school  capital  amounts  to  about  $2,030,000. 

tWe  speak  here  of  mechanical  engineers  and  constructors. 

{This  statement  is  decried  by  Professor  Ludwig  of  the  Munich  Poly¬ 
technic  School,  than  whom  no  man  is  in  a  better  position  to  judge. 


388 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Russia.  young  man,  desiring  to  acquire  practical  experience  in  a  short  time, 


Imperial  Tech-  and  without  the  aid  of  an  experienced  guide,  loses,  at  private  works, 
Moscow-0*1001  °f nine-tenths  of  his  whole  time  entirely  unprofitably.  As  we  are  at 
present  addressing  persons  well  acquainted  with  this  matter,  we  do  not 
consider  it  necessary  to  bring  forward  arguments  in  support  of  our 
statement.  The  practical  information  acquired  in  works  by  a  young 
man  before  entering  a  polytechnical  school  is  very  inconsiderable,  and 
therefore  does  not  possess  the  desired  significance. 

“Such  information  is,  on  account  of  its  defectiveness,  of  little  assist¬ 
ance  in  promoting  the  study  at  school  of  practical  mechanics — the  con¬ 
struction  of  machines,  or  the  drawing  up  of  plans  and  estimates  for  mills 
and  works. 

Proper  aim  of  “A  young  man  on  leaving  a  polytechnic  school  should  endeavor  to 
students  leaving  J  _  .&  ,  ,  fl  1  *  ,  . 

the  school.  carry  on  his  practical  education ;  should  fix  upon  some  mill  or  works  m 

which,  being,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  of  course,  left  to  his  own  ini¬ 
tiative,  he  may  find  place  and  opportunity  for  his  further  self-education. 

Critical^period  “At  this  moment,  so  critical  in  the  career  of  the  youthful  engineer, 
the  young  engi-  the  insufficiency  of  material  resources  is  the  cause  that  the  majority 
neer-  take  service,  at  a  very  low  rate  of  remuneration,  as  draftsmen  in 

the  drawing  office  of  mechanical  works,  or  in  the  drawing  offices  of 
railway  companies ;  others,  more  fortunate,  enter  works  in  the  quality 
of  artisans ;  but  even  they  are  hardly  to  be  envied,  simply  from  the 
fact  that  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  specialty  of  the  first  works  which 
they  happen  to  enter  becomes  their  own  specialty  through  life.  An 
experienced  observer  will  find  no  difficulty  in  perceiving  all  the  incon¬ 
veniences  to  a  technical  education  which  arise  as  the  result  of  such  an 
order  of  things.  Let  us  explain  this  by  examples :  A  young  man,  hav¬ 
ing  received  thorough  scientific  preparation  in  a  polytechnic  school, 
has  entered  as  artisan  practician  some  extensive  joiner  works,  and  in  a 
year  or  two  begins  to  serve  in  the  capacity  of  a  workman,  receiving 
pay  from  the  works.  If,  from  any  circumstance  whatever,  he  becomes 
deprived  of  his  place,  he  finds  it  necessary  to  seek  another  in  a  similar 
joiner  works,  or  else  to  enter  again  as  practician  in  another  specialty, 


Tendency 

specialize. 


to 


Tendency 
become  and 


to 

re¬ 


sources  of  young  men  preclude,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  the  possibility 
of  their  deciding  on  the  latter  alternative. 

If  the  observant  directors  of  polytechnic  schools  should  take  upon 
main- draftsmen,  themselves  the  work  of  following  the  industrial  career  of  the  contingent 
of  their  pupils,  who  on  leaving  school  enter  a  drawing  office,  they  would 
easily  perceive  that  those  young  people  experience  extreme  difficulty, 
when  they  are  once  engaged  there,  in  leaving  such  an  office,  and  in  the 
majority  of  cases  remain  draftsmen  all  their  lives.  In  such  offices  a 
young  man  acquires  but  very  inconsiderable  technical  information, 
neither  can  they  in  any  way  serve  him  as  practical  schools  for  his  fur¬ 
ther  self-instruction.  And  we  must  here  observe,  also,  that,  the  more 
extensive  the  works,  and  consequently  the  drawing  office  attached,  the 
fewer  are  the  advantages  offered  to  the  young  practician,  since  he  has 
to  do  with  an  institution  in  which  division  of  labor,  forming  an  essen¬ 
tial  principle,  will  not  admit  of  his  becoming  speedily  acquainted  with 
the  general  progress  of  work.  We  cannot  but  add  that  this  principle, 
having  become  latterly  extensively  applied  in  all  large  works  and  mills, 
though  on  the  one  hand  bringing  considerable  material  advantages  to 
the  proprietors,  has,  on  the  other,  greatly  influenced  the  depreciation 
of  the  level  of  technical  knowledge  among  the  workmen,  by  confining 


Narrow 

cialization 


spe- 


that  knowledge  within  the  limits  of  narrow  specialization. 


MANUAL  TRAINING  SCHOOLS:  COMMISSIONER  JEWETT.  389 


Imperial  Tech 
nical  School  of 
Moscow. 


Difficulty  of  ob¬ 
taining  general 
practical  educa¬ 
tion  in  ordi¬ 
nary  polytechnic 
schools. 


“The  technical  education  afforded  to  young  men  in  almost  all  the 
polytechnic  schools  of  Europe  leaves,  theoretically  speaking,  little  to 
desire,  but  is  exceedingly  imperfect  practically,  and  demands  the  par¬ 
ticular  attention  of  those  persons  who  are  intrusted  with  such  instruc¬ 
tion. 

“The  peculiar  circumstances,  by  which  the  young  people  who  have 
finished  the  course  of  the  polytechnicums  find  themselves  surrounded, 
do  not  admit,  before  their  entering  upon  an  active  life,  of  the  acquire¬ 
ment  of  even  a  superficial  general  practical  education,  but  place  them 
in  the  necessity  of  devoting  all  their  activity  from  the  first  day  of  their 
leaving  school,  and  often  their  whole  life,  to  a  narrow  specialty.  The 
attention  of  the  directors  of  polytechnic  schools  has  often  been  drawn 
to  this,  and  attempts  have  frequently  been  made  to  familiarize  young 
people  at  school  with  the  practical  work  of  mechanics,  but  all  these 
endeavors  have  proved  to  be  unattended  with  success,  from  the  follow¬ 
ing  reasons : 

“1.  The  school  workshops  for  the  practical  occupation  of  the  students 
were  constructed  on  a  very  miniature  and  inconsiderable  scale. 

“2.  The  consequent  want  of  room  in  these  workshops  did  not  admit 
of  all  the  students’  being  occupied  at  the  same  time,  and  therefore  their 
attendance  was  not  obligatory,  while  the  majority  of  the  professors  and 
masters  expressed  their  disapprobation  of  such  employment. 

“3.  There  existed  no  systematic  method  of  practical  instruction  in 
the  workshops  similar  to  that  which  had  been  applied  to  the  practical 
teaching  in  the  chemical  laboratories. 

“4.  The  material  resources  assigned  for  the  maintenance  of  the  school  Inadequate  re¬ 
workshops  were  very  inadequate.  sources. 

“5.  The  time  allowed  for  the  full  course  of  study  in  the  polytechnic 


Inconsiderable 
scale  of  the  shops. 

"Want  of  room. 


“Want  of  method. 


Limited  time. 


theoretical  with  practical  instruction  in  technology. 

“Though  [before  the  year  1873  there  had]  appeared  some  literary 
articles  against  the  introduction  of  practical  instruction  with  work¬ 
shops  into  the  higher  technical  schools,  yet  it  is  our  subjective  opinion 
that  those  articles  appeared  only  in  defense  of  the  existing  order  of 
things,  and  to  justify  a  certain  lukewarmness  in  introducing  advanta¬ 
geous  measures,  but  no  demonstration  of  the  results  of  trial  were 
afforded  among  the  arguments  against  such  a  mode  of  instruction,  for  the 
simple  reason  that,  excepting  feeble  attempts,  no  serious  experiments 
[had  then]  been  made.  Even  those  attempts  themselves  were  made 
without  any  particular  energy  and  due  observation. 

“  We  do  not  here  take  into  calculation  some  of  the  at  present  existing 
technical  schools  of  France,  which  possess  sufficiently  extensive  school 
workshops, *  because  those  schools  belong  rather  to  the  lower  class 
technical  institutions,  and  do  not  give  to  the  world  mechanical  engi¬ 
neers  and  coustructers,  but  only  foremen  ( coniremaitres ). 

“The  slight  acquaintance  of  learned  technologists  with  practical  work 
in  mechanical  workshops  entails  the  unfortunate  consequence  that,  in 
the  greater  number  of  even  very  extensive  works,  the  practical  part 
remains  in  the  hands  of  routined  artisans,  who  have  received  no  scien¬ 
tific  instruction,  but  who  have  attained  their  exceptional  position  by 
accustoming  themselves  during  the  course  of  many  years  to  the  most 
obsolete  methods  of  practice  in  the  mechanical  art. 


Proposed  disas 
sociation  of  prac¬ 
tical  and  theoret¬ 
ical  instruction. 


Technical 
schoolsof  France. 


Slight  acquaint¬ 
ance  of  learned 
technologists 
with  practical 
work. 


*  These  are  the  schools  of  Chalons,  Aix,  and  Angers. 


390 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

kussia.  “The  Imperial  Technical  School  of  Moscow,  the  course  of  which,  from 

the  theoretical  subjects  taught  therein,  equals  the  course  of  many  of 

Imperial  Tech-  the  polytechnic  schools  of  Western  Europe,  combines  theoretical  with 
Moscow.  practical  education,  and  consequently  is  enabled  to  present  real  proofs 

of  the  possibility  and  advantageousness  of  such  combination,  since  the 
trial  of  this  combination  has  been  made  on  an  extensive  scale,  and  dur¬ 
ing  a  considerable  length  of  time. 

******* 

Large  mechan-  “For  the  practical  education  of  young  men  in  the  two  branches — me- 
chanical  engineers  and  mechanical  constructors* — the  school  possesses 
large  mechanical  works  with  hired  workmen,  accepting  and  carrying 
out  orders  from  private  individuals  and  on  a  commercial  footing,  for 
the  construction  of  steam-engines,  working-engines,  pumps,  transmis¬ 
sion-apparatus,  agricultural  machines,  etc.t 

“The  works  consist  of  the  following  shops:  Joiners’  shop,  engineers’ 
shop,  erectors’  shop,  painters’  shop,  a  large  forge  with  steel  hammer  and 
fan  blast,  iron  foundry  with  furnace  for  3,000  kilograms  of  metal,  and 
brass  foundry ;  the  works  have  also  a  drawing-office  and  counting-house 
attached  to  them. 

“A  steam-engine  of  thirty  horse-power  is  used  for  the  working  of  the 
place,  while  the  foundry,  with  fan  blast  and  coal-pulverizing  mill,  is 
worked  by  an  engine  of  ten-horse  power. 

“The  works  are  under  the  management  of  the  head  mechanical  engi¬ 
neer  [M.  Malicheff]  and  his  assistant,  Platonoff,  mechanical  engineer. 
The  drawing-office  is  in  the  charge  of  M.  Gans,  mechanical  engi¬ 
neer.  *  *  »* 

“These  works,  being  within  the  walls  of  the  institution  itself,  and 
managed  by  well-instructed  technologists,  would  be  of  important  assist¬ 
ance  in  the  instruction  of  young  people,  even  if  the  poung  people  took 
no  active  part  in  the  practical  working  of  them. 

Additional  “But  in  order  that  the  pupils  may  derive  the  greatest  possible  advan- 
dents.  f°r  StU  tage  from  such  auxiliaries,  the  school  possesses,  apart  from  the  mechani¬ 
cal  works,  and  intended  solely  for  the  use  of  the  pupils,  school  work¬ 
shops,  a  joiners’  shop  with  turning-lathe,  pattern-shop,  metal  turning, 
fitters’  shop,  smithy,  and  molding  shop. 

“Every  one  of  these  shops  is  under  the  management  of  a  technologist, 
specialist,  or  of  a  skilled  workman,  and  their  duty  is  to  instruct  the 
pupils  in  the  rudiments  of  mechanical  labor. 

Preliminary  “Every  young  man  becomes  acquainted,  by  fulfilling  the  obligatory 
school18  1  work6  programme,  with  all  the  work  of  mechanical  art,  namely,  turning,  fit- 
shops.  ting,  carpentering,  and  forging,  in  the  school  workshops,  and  only  then 

is  admitted  to  the  mechanical  works. 

“We  shall  endeavor  to  speak  further  on  the  system  of  teaching  the  arts 
in  the  mechanical  workshops  of  the  school. 

Mode  of  teach-  “  Up  to  the  present  time,  throughout  the  world,  the  workmen  at  indus¬ 
trial  works  and  mills  are  usually  self-taught.  Any  one  who  has  himself 
been  employed  at  works,  and  is  familiar  with  the  daily  life  of  the  work¬ 
man  in  the  different  countries,  must  have  perceived  that  the  acquire¬ 
ment  of  knowledge  and  skill  in  any  trade  is  to  him  a  process  much  simi¬ 
lar  to  the  following :  a  boy  of  thirteen  or  fourteen  years  of  age  having 
entered  a  mechanical  works  to  learn  his  trade,  is  put,  during  the  first 

*  Young  men  studying  the  technological  engineering  branch  are  ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  laboratories  instead  of  the  mechanical  workshops. 

t  These  works  execute  private  orders  to  the  sum  of  from  $35,000  to 
$40,000,  annually. 


cuting  orders. 


The  shops. 


Power. 


Management. 

Malicheff. 

Gans. 


MANUAL  TRAINING  SCHOOLS:  COMMISSIONER  JEWETT.  391 


few  years,  to  work  of  an  entirely  unproductive  kind,  and  wliicli  lias  not  hussia. 
fclie  slightest  relation  to  technics.  He  is  made  to  carry  water,  sweep  the  imperial  Tech- 
workshop,  crush  emery,  grind  colors,  &c.  Only  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  ^scow5*1001  °f 
years,  and,  probably  thanks  to  accidental  circumstances,  a  chisel  or  a 
file  is  put  into  the  hands  of  the  youth  and  he  is  set  to  perform  the 
rudest  and  simplest  kind  of  work. 

“Then,  also,  if  he  happen  to  have  neither  father  nor  brother  among  the  Ordinary  train- 
workmen  around  him,  he  begins  learning  his  trade  without  a  guiding  apprenticed3  ^ 
hand,  and  thus  commences  acquiring  practical  knowledge  and  skill  in 
his  trade  by  observing  those  about  him  in  the  workshop  and  by  his  own 
thought  and  calculation,  and  impelled  by  the  sole  desire  of  attaining, 
in  as  short  a  space  of  time  as  possible,  the  position  of  a  paid  hand  in  the 
works.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  under  such  circumstances  the  ac¬ 
quirement  of  skill  by  the  new  generation  of  workmen  takes  place  in  an 
extremely  irrational  manner,  and  without  any  system  ;  the  amount  of 
knowledge  obtained  depends  upon  accident,  and  the  time  thus  employed 
is  of  disproportionate  length.  Besides  this,  there  is  yet  another  incon¬ 
venience,  namely,  that  of  specializing  labor  to  too  fractional  a  degree. 

The  young  workman,  placed  accidentally  at  a  drilling  or  planing 
machine  or  a  self-acting  lathe,  endeavors  to  remain  as  long  as  possible 
at  his  machine,  encountering,  it  will  be  understood,  no  objection  on  the 
part  of  the  heads  of  the  workslioijs,  since  such  specialization  of  labor 
redounds  to  the  advantage  of  the  proprietors,  owing  to  the  abundance 
of  hands. 

“This  order  of  things  has  the  deplorable  result  that,  notwithstanding  Result  of  the 
the  long  continued  stay  of  the  young  workmen  at  mechanical  works,  training, 

which  is  sometimes  prolonged  through  the  major  part  of  the  years  of 
their  manhood,  well  taught  and  skilled  fitters  are  almost  everywhere 
rarely  to  be  met  with.  This  will  be  confirmed  by  all  those  constructors 
who  demand  skilled  labor  for  the  erection  of  models,  and  of  the  more  or 
less  delicately  constructed  instruments,  machines,  and  apparatus. 

“Luring  the  past  few  years  endeavors  have  been  continually  made  to  Workmen’s 
open  schools  for  the  instruction  of  the  workmen  at  all  works  of  any  con-  scllools' 
siderable  extent.  The  subjects  taught  in  these  schools  are  free-hand  and 
linear  drawing,  arithmetic,  and  many  others,  in  the  supposition  that 
practical  knowledge  of  works  will  be  acquired  in  the  works  themselves. 

“From  this  it  is  impossible  to  conclude  otherwise  than  that  society,  neglect  of 

while  taking  measures  to  civilize  the  working  classes,  gives,  at  the  same  Peans  for  traip- 
°  ®  ®  ’  mg  young  work- 

time,  no  attention  whatever  to  the  manner  in  which  the  young  work-  men. 

men  acquire  practical  experience  in  their  trades  at  the  works ;  no  en¬ 
deavors  have  been  made  in  that  respect,  and,  meanwhile,  in  our  opinion, 
the  question  is  worthy  of  particular  attention. 

“  The  conclusion,  however,  forces  itself  upon  us  that  this  question  can  Heed  of  practi- 
hardly  be  entered  into  until  the  young  well-taught  technologists,  leav-  duon^dlamfd 
ing  polytechnic  schools,  shall  themselves  possess  rational  experience  technologists, 
in  practical  hand  labor.  In  order  that  their  education  as  specialists 
shall  be  full  and  ample,  such  knowledge  is  indispensable  in  the  high¬ 
est  degree,  though,  until  the  present  time,  it  has  unfortunately  pre¬ 
sented  a  prominent  deficiency  in  their  instruction.  Who  will  not  ad¬ 
mit  that  the  knowledge  of  the  manner  of  executing  given  work  is  a 
necessity  to  one  who  has  to  issue  the  project  of  such  work? 

“Acting  on  the  principle  that  mechanical  engineers  and  mechanical 
constructors,  whose  future  activity  will  be  devoted  pre-eminently  to 
mechanical  works,  should  have  practical  experience  in  the  mechanical 


392 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


bussia.  arts,  tlie  Imperial  Technical  School  has  employed  every  necessary 
measure  for  the  solution  of  this  difficulty  in  the  best  possible  manner. 

Impel  ial  Tech-  1888  the  school  council  considered  it  indispensable,  in  order  to 

Moscow011001  °f  8ecure  systematic  teaching  of  elementary  practical  work,  as  well  as 
for  the  more  convenient  supervision  of  the  pupils  while  practically 
The  school  work-  employed,  to  separate  entirely  the  school  workshops  from  the  mechan- 
shop  ^training-  ica[  works  in  which  the  orders  from  private  individuals  are  executed, 
chanical  works,  admitting  pupils  to  the  latter  only  when  they  have  perfectly  acquired 
the  principles  of  practical  labor. 

‘  ‘  By  the  mere  separation  of  the  school  workshops  from  the  mechan¬ 
ical  works,  the  principal  aim  was,  however,  far  from  being  attained; 
it  was  found  necessary  to  work  out  such  a  method  of  teaching  the  ele¬ 
mentary  principles  of  mechanical  art  as,  firstly,  should  demand  the 
Requirements  least  possible  length  of  time  for  their  acquirement ;  secondly,  should  in- 
of  the  system,  crease  the  facility  of  the  supervision  of  the  gradationary  employment 
of  the  pupils ;  thirdly,  should  impart  to  the  study  itself  of  practical 
work  the  character  of  a  sound,  systematic  acquirement  of  knowledge; 
and  fourthly,  and  lastly,  as  should  facilitate  the  demonstration  of  the 
progress  of  every  pupil  at  every  stated  time.  Everybody  is  well  aware 
that  the  successful  study  of  any  art  whatsoever,  free-hand  or  linear 
drawing,  music,  singing,  painting,  etc.,  is  only  attainable  when  the 
first  attempts  at  any  of  them  are  strictly  subject  to  the  laws  of  grada¬ 
tion  and  successiveness,  when  every  student  adheres  to  a  definite  method 
or  school,  surmounting,  little  by  little,  and  by  certain  degrees,  the  diffi¬ 
culties  to  be  encountered. 

Methods  of  ‘‘All  those  arts,  which  we  have  just  named,  possess  a  method  of  study 
established  arts  ^as  ^eeri  well  worked  out  and  defined,  because,  since  they  have 

long  constituted  a  part  of  the  education  of  the  well-instructed  classes 
of  people,  they  could  not  but  become  subject  to  scientific  analysis; 
could  not  but  become  the  objects  of  investigation,  with  a  view  of  de¬ 
fining  those  conditions  which  might  render  the  study  of  them  as  easy 
and  regular  as  possible. 

“This,  however,  cannot  relate  to  those  arts  which  have  been  hitherto 
pre-eminently  followed  by  the  common  and  imperfectly  educated  class 
of  work-people,  but  a  knowledge  of  which  appears  at  the  present  mo¬ 
ment  to  be  of  importance  to  the  educated  technologist. 

Lessons  appli-  “  These  arts  are :  Wood-turning,  carpentering,  metal-turning,  fitting, 
eabletothestiidy  anc[  forging.  From  what  we  have  already  said,  it  will  not  be  difficult 
arts.  to  arrive  at  the  reason  of  the  absence  of  a  strictly  systematic  method 

for  the  study  of  them,  nor  why  the  active  working  out  of  such  a  method, 
without  the  aid  of  enlightened  minds,  may  long  remain  deferred. 

“Meanwhile,  the  necessity  of  such  a  method,  more  particularly  for 
technical  educational  establishments,  admits  of  not  the  slightest  doubt, 
and  the  filling  up  of  this  want  promises  evident  advantages,  not  only 
in  the  matter  of  scientific  technical  education,  but  also  with  regard  to 
the  practical  instruction  of  the  work  people,  and,  consequently,  the 
perfection  of  mechanical  hand  labor  itself,  which,  from  the  introduc¬ 
tion  of  specially  adapted  machinery,  is,  year  by  year,  perceptibly  de¬ 
teriorating. 

“If  we  except  the  attempts  made  in  France,  in  the  year  1887,  by  the 
celebrated  and  learned  mechanical  engineer,  A.  Clair,  to  form  a  collec- 
for  tion  of  models  for  the  practical  study  of  the  principal  methods  of  forg¬ 
ing  and  welding  iron  and  steel,  as  well  as  the  chief  parts  of  joiners’ 
work,  and  this,  with  a  purely  demonstrative  aim,  no  one,  so  far  as  we 


Scientific  m< 
thod  necessary. 


Clair. 


Models 

studv. 


MANUAL  TRAINING  SCHOOLS:  COMMISSIONER  JEWETT.  393 

are  aware,  has  hitherto  been  actively  engaged  in  the  working  out  of  Russia. 
this  question  in  its  application  to  the  study  of  hand  labor  in  workshops.  Imperial  Tech- 
To  the  Imperial  Technical  School  belongs  the  initiative  in  the  introduc-  Moscow0*1001 
tion  of  a  systematic  method  of  teaching  the  arts  of  turning,  carpen¬ 
tering,  fitting,  and  forging. 

“To  the  knowledge  and  experience  in  these  specialties  of  the  gentle¬ 
men  intrusted  with  the  management  of  the  school  workshops,  and  to 
their  warm  sympathy  in  the  matter  of  practical  education,  we  are 
indebted  for  the  drawing  up  of  the  programme  of  systematic  instruc-  Programme  of 

t  ,  _  .  •  4-  4-1  Systematic  1U" 

tion  in  the  mechanical  arts,  for  its  introduction  in  the  year  ]  bob  into  the  struction. 
workshops,  and  also  for  the  preparation  of  the  necessary  auxiliaries  to 
study.  In  the  year  1870,  at  the  Exhibition  of  Manufactures  at  St.  Pe¬ 
tersburg,  the  school  exhibited  its  methods  of  teaching  mechanical  arts, 
and  from  that  time  they  have  been  introduced  into  all  the  technical 
schools  of  Russia. 

“  The  auxiliaries  of  education  employed  in  teaching  mechanical  arts  an^c^yg\e“gd|x! 
were  exhibited  at  the  International  Exhibition  of  Vienna  and  that  of  Mbiteil  at  Vienna 
Philadelphia,  in  order  that  specialists  in  these  matters  might  become  andI>hiladelphia. 
acquainted  with  them. 

‘  ‘  The  auxiliaries  of  education  appointed  for  the  teaching  of  any  me¬ 
chanical  work  whatever — for  example,  fitters’  work — are  classed  in  three  Classed  in  three 

7  .  categories: 

categories;  to  the  first  of  these  belong  the  collections  of  instruments  instruments  for 

employed  in  fitters’  work,  with  which  the  beginner  must  make  himself  fitters’  work- 
perfectly  familiar  before  entering  upon  work,  and  afterwards  to  use 
these  instruments  during  the  execution  of  the  work  itself. 

“  To  this  category  relate  all  those  collections  of  models  indispensable  Instruments 
to  the  teacher  of  fitters’ work,  for  the  purpose  of  demonstration:  the^^Pfg  mes  or 
collection  of  instruments  most  in  use  for  measuring,  full  size ;  the  col¬ 
lection  of  instruments,  lull  size,  for  drilling  metals;  the  collection  of 
instruments,  full  size,  for  finishing,  from  the  smithy  to  the  fitting  shop 
inclusive. 

“  Models  of  files,  increased  to  24  times  the  ordinary  size,  for  the  purpose  ^odeltst  of  fi*es 
of  demonstrating  the  surface  of  the  incision ;  the  collection  of  models  struments. 
of  instruments  employed  in  cutting  screws  and  nuts,  increased  six  times 
ordinary  size,  for  the  study  of  the  direction  of  the  angles  of  incision ; 
the  collection  of  models  of  drills,  increased  six  times,  for  the  practical 
study  of  the  cutting  angles ;  and  lastly,  the  collection  of  instruments 
and  apparatus  for  teaching  the  tracing  of  yet  unworked  metal  articles.  Tracing  instru 
We  consider  it  our  duty  to  draw  the  attention  of  specialists  to  this  lastments‘ 
collection,  for  the  organization  of  which  we  are  indebted  to  our  skillful 
instructor  of  fitters’  work,  Mr.  Savetkin,  mechanical  engineer.  Savetkin. 

“To  the  second  category  belong  the  collections  of  models  appointed  Second  cate- 
for  the  systematic  and  gradationary  study  of  hand  labor  in  the  fitters*  S°Models  for  sys- 
art.  These  collections  have  the  same  signification  with  regard  to  the atimarystul^hi 
work  of  fitting  as  is  allowed  to  scales  and  exercises  in  instruction  in  fitting, 
music.  They  are  so  ordered  that  the  beginner  may  be  enabled  to  over¬ 
come  by  certain  gradations  the  difficulties  which  present  themselves 
before  him.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  glance  at  the  adjoined  detailed  list 
of  objects  contained  in  these  collections,  and  to  examine  attentively 
every  object  exhibited,  to  be  convinced,  and  if  the  pupil,  under  the 
guidance  of  the  teacher,  carefully  fulfills  the  study  of  all  the  numbers 
embraced  in  the  collections,  or  rather  the  educational  programme  of  the 
art  of  fitting,  he  must  inevitably,  and  in  the  most  rational  manner, 


394 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


kussia.  render  himself  familiar  with  all  the  known  practical  hand  labor  of  this 
art.* 

Imperial  Tech-  “  Hence  wo  arrive  at  the  conviction,  without  any  difficulty,  that  with 
Moscow011001  °f  suc^  a  system  of  teaching  the  supervision  of  the  teacher  over  the  pupils, 
and  his  observation  of  their  progress,  become  exceedingly  easy.  He 
need  only  remark  that  every  number  of  the  programme  is  executed 
satisfactorily  by  the  pupils,  and,  putting  the  following  one  before  him, 
give  the  requisite  explanations  for  the  succeeding  work. 

Convenience  ‘‘In  such  a  case,  the  fact  of  a  great  number  of  pupils’  being  occupied 
same  time  will  present  no  great  disadvantage,  nor  will  it  increase 
the  arduousness  of  his  duty  to  any  considerable  degree.  And  further, 
it  will  be  a  matter  of  impossibility  that  a  pupil  who  has  been  working 
during  a  few  years  in  the  workshop  should  fail  to  be  able  to  use  the 
drill,  or  to  trace  a  part  to  be  worked,  though  he  handle  satisfactorily 
the  chisel  or  the  file. 

Third  category.  1 1  To  the  third  category  belougs  the  collection  of  those  articles,  or  parts 

Assembling  of  machines,  in  the  execution  of  which  all  the  practical  hand  labor 
the  parts  of  ma-  of  the  fitter’s  art  is  successively  repeated,  having  been  acquired  during 
previou^course!  studies  of  the  previous  course. 

“  What  we  have  said  in  relation  to  the  manner  of  study  of  the  work  of 
fitting  must  be  accepted  also  with  regard  to  the  other  branches  of  labor, 
namely,  wood-turning,  carpentering,  smithy,  and  foundry  work.  *  *  * 

“  In  conclusion,  we  consider  it  our  duty  to  observe  that  ten  years  [had 
in  1873]  already  elapsed  since  the  programmes  of  instruction  in  the  me¬ 
chanical  arts  were  introduced  into  the  workshops  of  the  school,  and 

Success  of  the  they  have  been  found  to  attain  in  the  most  brilliant  manner  the  aim 
system.  proposed  in  their  introduction. 

“VICTOR  DELLA-VOS.” 

In  addition  to  this  account  of  the  school  may  be  given  the 
catalogue  of  its  exhibit,  translated  from  the  Eussian  Official 
Catalogue : 

I.  — Models  used  in  the  Instruction  of  Pupils  in  the  Workshops  of  the  Imperial 

Technical  School  at  Moscow. 

Catalogue  of  1.  Models  for  systematic  teaching  of  wood-turning, 
the  school ltS  °f  Collection  of  wood-turning  tools  (natural  size). 

3.  Models  of  wood-turning  tools  (6  times  natural  size). 

4.  Tools  for  sawing  wood. 

5.  Tools  for  planing  wood. 

6.  Tools  for  boring,  piercing,  and  cutting  wood. 

7.  Measuring,  auxiliary  tools  (scales,  calipers,  etc.). 

8.  Models  of  tools  for  planing  wood  (6  times  natural  size) 

9.  Models  of  boring  tools  (G  times  natural  size) 

10.  Collection  of  joints  in  wood. 

II.  Specimens  of  joiners’  work. 

Practice  at  the  *  I11  the  apprentice  classes  each  student  is  not  obliged  to  complete 
bench.  every  number  in  the  programme ;  but  the  work  is  nevertheless  so 

divided  that  he  becomes  familiar  with  each  piece.  While  a  student  is 
making,  for  example,  No.  2,  his  right-hand  neighbor  is  working  on  No. 
L,  and  his  left-hand  neighbor  on  No.  3,  so  that  ho  sees  how  each  one  is 
made.  He  is  obliged,  moreover,- to  listen  to  the  explanations  which  the 
instructor  gives  to  his  neighbors,  and  is  himself  afterwards  examined 
on  them.  The  pupils  in  the  practical  section  are,  however,  obliged  to 
make  every  piece  on  the  list. 


MANUAL  TRAINING  SCHOOLS:  COMMISSIONER  JEWETT.  395 


12.  Models  for  systematic  teaching  of  metal-turning. 

13.  Metal-turning  tools. 

14.  Models  of  metal-turning  tools  (6  times  natural  size). 

15.  Models  for  systematic  teaching  of  filing  and  fitting. 

16.  Measuring  instruments  used  by  machinists  and  fitters. 

17.  Chipping  tools. 

18.  Boriug  tools  for  metal. 

19.  Auxiliary  instruments  used  by  machinists  and  fitters. 

20.  Illustration  of  the  manufacture  of  files. 

21.  Collection  of  files. 

22.  Examples  of  the  brazing  of  iron  with  spelter. 

23.  Examples  of  hot  riveting. 

24.  Model  of  bench  for  workshop),  with  three  kinds  of  vises  and  a  ver¬ 

tical  section  of  Hall’s  vise,  executed  by  M.  Lovetkine,  civil  en¬ 
gineer. 

25.  Same,  with  a  vertical  section  of  Simpson’s  vise,  by  M.  Lovetkine. 

26.  Lapidaries’  lathe,  by  M.  Lovetkine,  for  polishing  and  truing  up 

plane  and  curved  surfaces. 

27.  Models  of  cutting  tools,  enlarged. 

28.  Models  in  wood  for  illustrating  the  manner  of  cutting  files  (24  times 

natural  size). 

29.  Models  for  showing  various  systems  of  hot  riveting  (5  times  natural 

size). 

30.  Models  of  taps  and  dies  (6  times  natural  size). 

31.  Models  of  drills  (6  times  natural  size). 

32.  Models  of  diamond  points  and  tool-holders  (3  and  4  times  natural 

size). 

33.  Models  of  reamers  (6  times  natural  size). 

34.  Table  for  marking  out  work,  with  accessories,  invented  and  made 

by  M.  Lovetkine. 

35.  A  round  and  movable  table  for  the  same  purpose,  invented  and 

constructed  by  the  same. 

36.  Models  for  systematic  instruction  in  forge-work. 

II. — New  Apparatus. 

1.  Apparatus  for  showing  certain  acoustic  phenomena,  constructed  after 

the  designs  of  Professor  Wladimirsky. 

2.  Model  of  a  new  method  of  transmitting  power,  by  M.  Tchebyscheff. 

3.  Illustrations  used  in  the  school,  executed  by  pupils. 

4.  Work  of  pupils,  in  the  manufactory  attached  to  tho  school,  after 

passing  through  the  course  of  instruction.  Theso  consisted  of  27 
different  objects,  such  as  hand  and  slide-rest  tools,  small  parts  of 
engines,  etc. 

Besides  these,  a  Brotherhood  three-cylinder  engine,  of  13  H.  P.,  made 
enterely  by  pupils,  was  exhibited. 

A  number  of  machines  made  in  the  manufactory  above 
mentioned,  and  partly  executed  by  pupils,  were  also  shown. 
Among  these  were  a  Wagnick  &  Kepner  horizontal  engine 
of  16  H.  P.;  a  small  vertical  engine  of  2  H.  P.,  with  par¬ 
allel  motion  and  governor,  after  designs  by  M.  Tchebyscheff; 
a  spring  hammer ;  a  steam  pump ;  2  machine  lathes  ;  and  3 
punches,  a  hand  lathe,  2  power  and  2  hand  planers,  etc, 


RUSSIA. 


Imperial  Tech¬ 
nical  School  of 
Mosow. 


Catalogue  of  ex¬ 
hibit 


Xew  apparatus. 


Engines  exhib¬ 
ited. 


Machine  tools. 


396 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


RUSSIA-  The  wooden  models  of  enlarged  size,  mentioned  in  the 
catalogue,  were  painted  in  the  most  careful  manner  to 
niSiP  srchoSeCof  rePresent  the  appropriate  metals,  and  could  not  fail  to  be 
most  useful  in  teaching  the  true  principles  of  cutting-edges. 
The  models  for  teaching  forge  work  were  especially  good, 
the  different  stages  of  the  operation  being  represented  by 
different  models,  the  parts  to  be  heated  painted  red.  The 
series  of  models  for  inst  ruction  in  wood-turning  and  joinery 
were  all  executed  by  the  pupils  themselves,  and,  like  all  the 
rest  of  the  collection,  were  capitally  done.  The  careful 
finish  of  all  the  iron  work  exhibited  added  greatly  to  its 
attractive  appearance,  while  it  was  evident,  on  careful  in¬ 
spection,  that  it  was  not  made  to  hide  imperfect  workman¬ 
ship,  as  is  unfortunately  sometimes  the  case. 


Character 
the  models 
hibited. 


Technological 
Institute  of  St. 
Petersburg. 


Admission. 


Course. 


Chemical  de¬ 
partment. 


Mechanical  de¬ 
partment. 


Workshop 

practice. 


The  Technological  Institute  of  St.  Petersburg. 

The  other  school  of  this  class  which  exhibited  in  the  Rus¬ 
sian  Section  was  the  Technological  Institute  of  St.  Peters¬ 
burg.  This  school  was  founded  in  the  year  1828,  but  sub¬ 
mitted  from  time  to  time  to  important  modifications,  until 
its  present  form  was  given  it  in  1868. 

Before  entering  the  school  the  pupils  must  submit  to  an 
examination,  and  must  present  the  diploma  of  one  of  the 
middle  schools,  or  gymnasia.  The  whole  course  requires 
five  years.  After  the  first  year,  in  which  the  same  studies 
are  pursued  by  all,  the  studies  are  divided  into  two  divis¬ 
ions.  (1)  Tbe  mechanical  department;  (2)  the  chemical  de¬ 
partment. 

The  chemical  department  substitutes  laboratory  practice 
for  that  in  the  workshop,  and  its  studies  are  arranged  with 
a  view  to  the  necessities  of  the  analytical  chemist,  and  there¬ 
fore  do  not  come  within  the  scope  of  this  report. 

The  shop  work  practice  of  the  mechanical  department  is  be¬ 
gun  in  the  second  year,  and  continues  during  three  years  and 
a  part  of  the  vacations.  Thus  no  manual  labor  is  performed 
in  the  first  and  last  years  of  the  course.  The  aim  being 
rather  to  form  engineers  who  shall  possess  sufficient  me¬ 
chanical  skill  to  plan  and  direct  the  execution  of  machines, 
rather  than  to  turn  out  highly  skilled  workmen,  much  less 
time  is  given  by  the  pupils  to  workshop  practice  than  in 
the  Moscow  school,  while  it  is  claimed  that  their  theoretical 
acquirements  are  of  a  higher  grade.  The  total  time  given 
to  workshop  practice  is  648  hours  in  the  course.  I  am  in¬ 
formed  that  the  pupils  are  older  in  the  average  than  those 
of  the  Moscow  school.  The  charge  for  instruction  is  30 
roubles  (about  $22.50)  per  year  for  the  theoretical  iostruc- 


MANUAL  TRAINING  SCHOOLS:  COMMISSIONER  JEWETT.  397 


tion,  and  40  roubles  (about  $30)  per  year  for  the  workshop  RUSSIA- 
practice.  About  one  hundred  stipends  are  at  the  disposal  ^^tut^of^st! 
of  the  school  for  the  help  of  poor  students,  of  which  80  are  Petersburg, 
furnished  by  the  government ;  and  there  are  in  addition 
200  free  scholarships.  According  to  Dr.  Peters,  director 
of  the  workshops,  there  are  at  present  about  600  students.  Dr.  Peters. 
The  shops  possess  a  20  H.  P.  steam-engine,  2  cupola  fur¬ 
naces,  10  forges,  32  lathes,  and  33  other  machines  for  metal 
working. 

The  pupils  begin  their  workshop  practice  with  the  simplest  workshop prao- 
<vork  and  are  led  step  by  step  through  forms  of  greater  dif-  tlC0‘ 
ficulty ;  but  every  piece  made  by  them  is  designed  to  show 
the  manner  of  producing  some  fundamental  form,  and  no  at¬ 
tempt  is  made  to  manufacture  any  salable  article  during 
the  process  of  instruction.  The  shops  are,  to  use  the  dis¬ 
tinction  made  by  Professor  Bunkle,  of  Boston,  instruction—  .  Nature  and  ob- 

‘  7  7  ject  of  the  prao- 

not  construction — shops.  The  pupil  performs,  say,  six  exer-  tice. 
cises  in  fding  and  fitting,  as  many  in  turning,  as  many  in 
brazing,  and  perhaps  ten  in  forging,  all  designed  with  a  sin¬ 
gle  eye  to  the  amount  of  instruction  to  be  gained  from  each. 

Other  exercises  are  performed  in  wood- turning  and  pattern  - 

making,  as  well  as  in  moulding  and  casting.  The  pupil  is 

marked  according  to  the  excellence  of  his  work,  a  perfectly 

satisfactory  specimen  being  marked  5,  which  is  the  highest 

note  given.  In  order  to  be  accepted,  a  piece  of  work  must 

receive  at  least  the  mark  4.  If  it  fall  below  this,  a  new  one 

must  be  made.  These  preparatory  exercises  take  up  the  Second  ani 

time  devoted  to  shop  work  during  the  second  and  third  years third  years- 

of  the  course,  as  well  as  a  month  in  each  vacation. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  year  the  pupil  is  assigned  Fourth  year, 
the  task  of  making  some  piece  of  machinery  which  is  to  serve 
as  his  examination  and  show  what  he  has  learned.  He  may, 
perhaps,  be  required  to  make  only  a  part  of  a  more  compli¬ 
cated  machine.  Thus,  a  handsome  back  geared  and  screw¬ 
cutting  foot-lathe  shown  was  the  joint  work  of  four  pupils. 

He  is  furnished  with  the  general  sketch  an  d  dimensions,  but  Practice  in  the 
must  make  first  his  own  working  drawings  and  then  his  pat-  of™hopworfi.ie8 
terns.  He  molds  these  himself,  and  every  step  of  the  work, 
from  the  rough  casting  to  the  finished  and  adjusted  machine, 
must  be  the  work  of  his  own  hands.  Should  he  fail  to  com¬ 
plete  his  task  satisfactorily,  he  is  obliged  to  persevere  until 
he  produces  an  acceptable  piece  of  work.  He  is  expected  to 
finish  this  final  examination  in  the  workshop  hours  of  his 
fourth  year.  If  he  completes  it  sooner,  the  time  thus  gained 
is  at  his  own  disposal ;  but,  should  it  be  still  unfinished  at 


398 


UNIVEESAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PAEIS,  1878. 


IIUSS1A-  the  end  of  the  year,  he  is  obliged  to  work  during  vacation 
Technological  or  jn  his  Spare  time  during  the  fifth  year,  as  the  machine 


Institute 
Petersburg. 

Fifth  year. 


must  he  presented  in  order  to  entitle  him  to  his  certificate 
of  graduation.  During  the  fifth  year  no  manual  labor  is  re¬ 
quired  of  those  who  have  completed  this  final  task.  No  con¬ 
struction  shops  are  attached  to  this  school,  and  nothing  is 
made  for  sale. 

Collection  of  The  collection  exhibited  was  smaller  than  that  shown  by 

the  Technologi-  .  .  ^ 

cai institute.  the  Moscow  school,  but  it  exceeded  the  latter,  if  anything, 
in  the  careful  workmanship  and  beautiful  finish.  The  work 
in  iron  done  by  one  scholar,  comprising  examples  of  filing, 
chipping,  brazing,  turning,  screw-cutting,  and  forging,  was 
shown,  and,  at  the  request  of  the  writer,  was  presented  by 
Dr.  Peters,  through  him,  to  the  manual  training  school  of 
Washington  University  at  Saint  Louis,  Mo. 

Most  of  the  articles  exhibited  were  parts  of  engines,  such 
as  the  heads  of  connecting-rods,  with  boxes,  strap,  key,  and 
colter  complete,  models  of  governors  and  valves,  hangers 
for  shafting,  etc.  Those  who  were  familiar  with  the  u  Con - 
structeur  n  of  Professor  Reuleaux,  of  Berlin,  recognized  these 
as  copies  of  the  types  given  in  his  work. 

Below  will  be  found  a  translation  from  the  Official  Cat¬ 
alogue  of  the  list  of  the  articles  shown : 


Subjects  exhib 
ited. 


Catalogue 
articles  shown. 


°f  Collections  for  Instruction  in  the  Mechanic  Arts  at  the  Technological  Institute 

of  St.  Petersburg. 


1.  Collection  of  models  for  tlie  systematic  teaching  of  wood  working. 

2.  Models  for  the  systematic  teaching  of  machinists’  and  fitters’  work. 

3.  Models  for  the  systematic  teaching  of  forge  work. 

4.  Collection  of  detachable  pieces  of  machines  executed  in  the  work¬ 

shops  of  the  Institute. 

5.  Machines  built  in  the  workshops  of  the  Institute: 

A  steam  cylinder,  with  the  Zulzer  valve  motion. 

Machinists’  vise. 

Engine-lathe. 

Foot-lathe. 


The  two  schools  which  remain  to  be  noticed  in  the  Rus¬ 
sian  section  are  of  a  lower  grade  than  those  just  described. 
They  are  designed  for  those  boys  who  wish  to  become  work¬ 
men;  and  the  pupils  are  encouraged  to  choose  a  trade,  to 
which  their  practical  instruction  is  confined. 

Alexander  The  Alexander  Technical  School,  at  Tcherepovetz. 

Technical  School 
at  Tcherepovetz. 

This  school  was  founded  by  the  brothers  J.  and  B.  Milu- 
tines,  in  1868,  at  their  own  cost,  in  connection  with  the 
manufactory  also  founded  by  them  at  Tcherepovetz.  In 
1871  the  school  was  subsidized  by  the  government;  and  in 


MANUAL  TRAINING  SCHOOLS:  COMMISSIONER  JEWETT.  399 


1873  it  became  a  part  of  the  imperial  system  of  schools.  Its  RUSSIA- 


object  is  to  train  foremen,  steam-engineers,  and  draftsmen.  Techni^ai  school 
The  number  of  pupils  is  at  present  145,  of  whom  37  are at  TchereP°vetz- 
supported  by  the  crown  and  4  by  private  subscription.  Of  Number  of  stu- 

dents. 

the  pupils,  120  are  boarders  and  25  are  day  scholars  (Uex- 
ternes”)-  The  charge  is  180  roubles  ($  1 35)  yearly  for  board-  Fees, 
ers,  with  an  entrance  fee  of  20  roubles  ($15).  The  day 
scholars  pay  12  roubles  ($8)  a  year,  and  an  entrance  fee  of 
10  roubles  ($7.50).  This  charge  is  made  to  cover  the  ex¬ 
pense  of  drawing  materials  and  wear  and  tear  of  machinery 
in  the  shops.  Pupils  are  received  between  the  ages  of  Admission, 
thirteen  and  fourteen,  and  the  duration  of  the  course  is  six 
years.  The  first  four  years  are  devoted  to  theoretical  in-  course, 
struction,  accompanied  by  workshop  practice,  and  the  last 
two  years  are  passed  entirely  in  the  shops.  An  examina¬ 
tion  on  the  first  four  rules  of  arithmetic,  on  reading,  writing, 
and  writing  from  dictation,  and  on  the  religion  of  the  Greek 
Church,  must  be  passed  by  applicants  for  admission. 

In  the  first  four  years  of  their  course  the  pupils  are  in-  studies, 
structed  in  religion,  the  Russian  language,  arithmetic, 
geometry,  stereotomy,  history,  physics,  mechanics,  proper¬ 
ties  and  treatment  of  materials,  construction  and  manage¬ 
ment  of  the  steam-engine,  free  hand  and  mechanical  draw¬ 
ing,  and  penmanship.  This  is  combined  with  workshop 
practice,  the  morning  hours  from  7.30  to  12  m.  being  passed 
in  the  school-room,  and  the  afternoon  from  1.15  to  6.15  spent 
in  the  shops.  Instruction  is  given  in  carpentry,  filing,  chip¬ 
ping,  turning,  brazing,  and  forging,  and  a  systematic  course 
of  practice  is  laid  down  which  must  be  strictly  adhered  to. 

The  school  has  an  income  of  $24,000,  but  this  is  found  in-  Support, 
sufficient,  and  the  deficit  is  made  up  by  subscription. 

It  should  be  mentioned  that  at  the  commencement  of  the  ,  .  students’ 
two  years  of  workshop  practice  the  pupil  makes  choice  of  vocations, 
one  of  the  three  vocations  before  enumerated,  and  his  work 
in  the  shop  is  confined  to  that  branch.  Those  who  learn 
steam-engineering  are  furnished  with  situations  on  steam¬ 
boats  during  the  season  of  navigation,  where  they  are  paid 
wages,  which  are  turned  into  the  treasury  of  the  school. 

The  work  done  by  this  school,  as  shown  at  Paris,  was 
very  satisfactory,  although  the  display  was  much  smaller 
than  that  of  either  of  the  great  schools  first  mentioned.  It 
consisted  entirely  of  the  preliminary  exercises  designed  to 
teach  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  management  of 
tools,  and  no  finished  machines  were  shown. 


Workshop 

practice. 


400 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


School  of  Trades 
of  the  C  zare  witch 
Nicholas. 


Course 


Admission. 


Studies. 


Workshop 

practice. 


Execution  of 
outside  orders. 


Diplomas. 


Subventions. 


Trades  taught. 


The  School  of  Trades  of  the  Gzarewitch  Nicholas. 

This  school  is  situated  at  St.  Petersburg,  was  founded  in 
1875,  and  is  similar  in  aims  and  methods  of  instruction  to 
the  school  at  Tcherepovetz.  The  length  of  the  course  is 
five  years,  and  pupils  may  remain  two  years  longer  if  they 
desire  to  do  so,  the  additional  time  being  passed  entirely  in 
the  workshops  of  the  school. 

Pupils  are  admitted  at  the  age  of  eleven,  without  an  ex¬ 
amination,  but  applicants  for  advanced  classes  must  submit 
to  one  on  the  studies  previously  pursued  by  the  class.  The 
number  of  pupils  is  250,  all  boarders,  as  no  dajT  scholars  are 
admitted,  and  the  limit  fixed  is  300.  The  pupils  pay  250 
roubles  ($187.50)  per  year,  which  includes  the  clothing  fur¬ 
nished  them  by  the  school.  About  half  of  the  pupils  are 
supported  by  the  city  of  St.  Petersburg  or  by  private  be¬ 
nevolence. 

The  theoretical  instruction  comprises  the  following 
branches:  Religion,  the  Russian  language,  arithmetic, 
geometry,  history,  natural  history,  geography,  physics, 
mechanics,  technology  of  wood  and  metals,  free-hand  and 
mechanical  drawing,  peumanship,  singing,  and  gymnastics. 
The  workshop  practice  is  begun  in  the  third  year,  and  con¬ 
tinues  through  the  course.  The  pupil  is  first  taught  the 
management  of  the  tools  of  the  several  trades;  and,  after 
having  attained  a  satisfactory  proficiency,  he  chooses  his 
particular  vocation.  The  school  executes  orders  for  various 
machines,  but  this  work  is  made  simply  accessory  to  the 
instruction  of  the  pupil,  and  is  never  allowed  to  interfere 
with  the  systematic  development  of  his  skill  through  means 
of  graduated  exercises.  Each  pupil  gives  20  hours  a  week, 
for  the  last  three  years  of  his  course,  to  shop-work,  and  the 
two  weeks  x>receding  the  vacation  are  entirely  passed  in  the 
shop. 

The  pupils  who  take  the  extra  two  years7  course  of  prac¬ 
tical  work  are  given  diplomas  as  foremen  or  assistant  fore¬ 
men.  The  u Asylum  for  Poor  Children  destined  to  become 
Artisans,77  which  defrays  part  of  the  expenses  of  the  school, 
provides  those  pupils  whose  progress  has  been  especially 
satisfactory  with  the  means  to  found  workshops  or  to  per¬ 
fect  themselves  in  their  professions. 

The  trades  taught  are  those  of  cabinet-maker,  pattern¬ 
maker,  turner,  sculptor  in  wood,  locksmith,  metal-turner, 
smith,  brazier,  and  machinist. 

The  shops  possess  43  lathes,  of  which  26  are  for  metal- 


MANUAL  TRAINING  SCHOOLS:  COMMISSIONER  JEWETT.  401 


turning,  as  well  as  a  full  outfit  of  the  necessary  machines  BUSSTA- 
and  tools. 

The  school  has  been  established  so  short  a  time,  that  in  0?thec\are^tS 
1878  no  pupils  had  completed  the  course.  Its  exhibit  at Nicholas- 
Paris  consisted  chiefly  of  specimens  of  wood-carving  and 
cabinet-work,  which  were  well  done,  but  which  it  would  be 
unfair  to  take  as  an  exponent  of  what  the  school  will  do. 


FRANCE. 


FRANCE. 


In  the  French  department  twenty-three  schools  showed 
specimens  of  the  work  of  their  pupils,  but  of  these  by  far 
the  larger  part  demand  but  little  notice.  In  many  the  work 
was  of  the  rudest  description,  and  no  evidence  was  given 
of  a  progressive  course  or  information  as  to  the  manner  of 
instruction.  These  were  usually  schools  not  under  govern¬ 
mental  supervision,  but  owing  their  existence  to  private 
initiative,  and  in  which,  apparently,  the  manual  labor  occu¬ 
pied  a  very  subordinate  place,  and  received  no  skilled  super¬ 
vision.  There  were  a  few  honorable  exceptions  to  this  rule; 
but  the  main  interest  centered  in  the  exhibit  of  the  govern¬ 
mental  schools,  the  three  great  Ecoles  des  Arts  ct  Metiers , 
situated  at  Aix,  Angers,  and  Chrdons-sur-Marne. 


Ecoles  des  Arts  et  Metiers. 


H  coles  des  Arts 
et  Metiers. 


These  schools  are  precisely  similar,  the  aim,  conditions  of 
admission,  and  course  of  instruction  being  the  same,  so 
that  a  description  of  one  serves  tor  all.  They  are  placed 
under  the  charge  of  the  Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Com¬ 
merce,  and  a  permission  must  be  granted  by  him  before  the 
directors  will  admit  a  visitor  or  impart  any  information  as 
to  the  course  of  study. 

The  object  of  the  schools  is  to  educate  foremen  and  skill-  sc^act  of  the 
ful,  intelligent  workmen  for  those  trades  which  work  in 
wood  and  iron.  The  conditions  of  admission  are  (1)  that  Admission, 
the  candidate  be  French  by  birth ;  (2)  that  he  be  between 
the  ages  of  fifteen  and  seventeen;  (3)  that  he  present  a 
certificate  that  he  is  accustomed  to  manual  labor;  and  (4) 
that  he  pass  the  examination  and  hand  in  the  certificates 
mentioned  below.  The  examination  is  on  writing,  spelling, ,  Examinations 

^ 0 '  lor  admission. 

arithmetic,  including  the  first  four  operations,  fractions, 
decimals,  extraction  of  square-roots,  proportion,  elements 
of  plane  geometry,  the  first  four  operations  of  algebra,  and 
the  elements  of  mechanical  and  free-hand  drawing.  Besides 
these  requirements,  a  piece  of  work  in  wood  or  iron,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  trade  which  the  candidate  intends  to  follow,  must 
be  executed  in  the  presence  of  the  examiners.  An  oral  ex- 
26  P  R 


402 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


France.  amination  follows  the  above  on  the  same  subjects.  The 
licoics  des  Arts  certificates  to  be  submitted  are  as  follows:  The  uacte  de 

et  Metiers. 

naissance^  or  register  of  birth;  a  doctor’s  certificate  that 
for  adm?sSon°ns  ^ie  applicant  is  in  sound  physical  condition;  a  certificate  of 
vaccination;  a  certificate  of  good  moral  character,  accom¬ 
panied  by  a  declaration  that  he  is  of  French  birth ;  another 
that  he  has  partaken  of  his  first  communion,  if  a  Catholic; 
and,  lastly,  a  written  agreement  on  the  part  of  his  parents 
or  guardians  to  become  responsible  for  all  charges.  All 
students  are  obliged  to  board  in  the  institution.  The  charge 
for  board  and  tuition  is  600  francs  ($120)  yearly.  The  pupil 
pays  on  entering  a  further  sum  of  340  francs  ($68)  for  his 
outfit.  All  charges  are  payable  in  advance,  but  relief  from 
payment  of  a  portion  or  the  whole  sum  may  be  obtained  by 
persons  in  destitute  circumstances,  on  application  to  the 
Minister  of’ Agriculture  and  Commerce. 

Theoretical  The  theoretical  instruction  embraces  the  following 
branches:  Arithmetic,  elementary  geometry  and  algebra, 
plane  trigonometry,  descriptive  geometry,  mechanics,  cine¬ 
matics,  physics,  chemistry,  drawing,  accounts,  geography, 
and  grammar,  with  religious  instruction  for  all.  The  prac- 
Practicai  tical  branches  are  taught  in  four  workshops,  and  are  the 

branches.  .  ,  .  .  .  .  . 

following :  Pattern-making  and  joinery,  casting,  forging, 
and  fitting.  Prizes  are  distributed  at  the  end  of  each  year, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  course,  which  occupies  three  years, 
certificates  are  given  to  those  who  have  completed  it  in  a 
satisfactory  manner,  and  a  medal  is  awarded  for  u  excep¬ 
tional  merit.” 

The  distribution  of  time  is  as  follows : 


studies. 


Prizes. 


Certificates. 


FIRST  YEAR. 


MANUAL  TRAINING  SCHOOLS:  COMMISSIONER  JEWETT.  403 


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FRANCE. 


J Hcolos  des  Arts 
et  Metiers. 


Distribution  of 
time. 


404 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


FRANCE-  As  lias  been  stated,  the  three  schools  are  identical  in 
\mtierses  Arts  character  and  aim ;  and  the  work  done  by  them  partakes  of 
this  uniformity.  It  was  all  well  done,  skillfully  planned,  and 
neatly  executed $  but  it  lacked  the  careful  finish  and  high 
polish  of  the  Bussian  work.  Nor  were  the  machines  of 
such  graceful  design  as  those  in  the  latter  section.  The 
exhibit  was  arranged  in  too  small  a  space,  so  that  its  sepa¬ 
rate  parts  could  not  be  examined  to  advantage.  Among 
the  articles  shown  were  engines  and  machines  made  to  order 
for  various  industrial  establishments  by  students  of  the 
third  year. 

edbiy— 8  exhib  ^e  chief  objects  exhibited  were  as  follows : 

School  at  Aix.  By  the  school  at  Aix. 


A  horizontal  engine  about  G  H.  P.,  with  variable  cut-off,  by  pupils  of 
the  third  year,  which  was  sold  to  M.  Vichot,  of  Morlaix. 

A  band-saw  for  splitting  boards,  also  sold. 

A  large  upright  drill,  with  movable  table. 

Numerous  ornamental  castings  in  iron  executed  with  much  delicacy. 

School  at  An-  By  the  school  at  Angers. 

gers.  J 

A  portable  engine  of  15  H.  P. 

An  engine-lathe  of  20  inches  swing  and  15  feet  length  of  shears,  com¬ 
plete. 

A  connecting  rod  for  a  20  II.  P.  engine. 

Some  very  elaborate  core  boxes  and  neat  patterns  of  small  size. 

A  number  of  small  drop  forgings. 


School  at  CM- 
lons-sur-Mame. 


By  the  school  at  Chdlons-sur- Marne. 


A  small  reversible  vertical  engine  for  a  steam-launch.  Ordered  for 
the  French  navy. 

A  vertical  slotting-machine. 

The  head  and  tail  stocks  and  slide-rest  of  a  lathe  of  the  same  swing 
as  that  in  the  last  exhibit. 


Besides  the  articles  enumerated,  each  school  showed  a 
number  of  parts  of  engines  then  under  way,  most  of  which 
were  made  to  order,  besides  a  number  of  smaller  pieces, 
tools,  hinges,  boiler-fittings,  and  the  like.  The  work  on  all 
was  good,  though  not  remarkable. 


A  few  other  schools  made  a  creditable  exhibit  of  their 
work,  though  on  a  smaller  scale  than  the  government 
schools,  but  none  showed  specimens  illustrating  the  pupils’ 
progress.  This  was  to  be  regretted,  as  a  comparison  of  the 
systems  of  instruction  would  have  been  of  much  interest. 

Next  to  the  exhibit  of  the  E coles  des  Arts  et  Metiers ,  the 
most  satisfactory  specimens  of  students’  work  was  made  by 
sciiooiTllof  sttSe  the  Industrial  School  of  the  Yosges,  at  Epinal.  It  is  de- 
vosges,  at  £pi-  gjgnec|  as  a  preparatory  school  to  the  School  of  Arts  and 
Manufactures,  at  Paris,  and  serves  also  to  impart  a  general 


MANUAL  TRAINING  SCHOOLS:  COMMISSIONER  JEWETT.  405 

education  to  young  men  who  are  designed  for  a  business  or  France. 
manufacturing  career.  It  forms  a  branch  of  the  Classical 
School  of  Epinal,  and  occupies  a  portion  of  the  buildings  of  school  lnofStthe 
that  institution.  It  was  founded  to  supply  the  place  of  the  J^sges,  at  fipi- 
Industrial  School  at  Mulliouse,  in  Alsace,  suspended  since 
the  Franco-German  war.  The  school  at  fipinal  was  founded 
in  1S71,  and  has  a  course  of  four  years,  admitting  pupils  be-  53£fsegion 
tween  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  eighteen.  At  the  close  of  Diplomas, 
the  course  a  diploma  is  given  to  the  graduates,  which  secures 
the  same  privileges  as  that  of  bachelor  of  letters  or  of  sci¬ 
ences  in  the  military  examination  for  the  one-year  volunteer 
service.  The  charge  is  700  francs  ($140)  yearly  for  board-  Fee#, 
ers,  and  200  francs  ($40)  for  day  scholars. 

The  programme  of  studies  is  as  follows  : 


FIRST  YEAR. 


406 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


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MANUAL  TRAINING  SCHOOLS:  COMMISSIONER  JEWETT.  407 

In  the  exhibit  of  this  school  the  most  elaborate  piece  of _ FRANCE1_  __ 

work  was  a  planer  with  a  quick-return  motion,  which  was  SchoolTnof  sttiS 
well  designed  and  executed.  The  usual  lack  of  ornamental  Vosges  at^pinai. 
hnish  was  observable,  but  the  fitting  seemed  carefully  done. 

A  surface-plate,  with  a  straight  edge  fortesting  it,  was  shown 
as  the  work  of  a  student  of  the  third  year,  and  deserved  high 
commendation  for  the  excellent  workmanship  bestowed  upon 
it.  Among  the  other  objects  exhibited  were  a  screw-plate  it(!Jbject8  exhib' 
with  taps  and  dies,  a  ratchet-drill  stock,  some  vernier  cal¬ 
lipers,  a  metallic  plane  adjustable  to  various  curves,  and  va¬ 
rious  exercises  in  forging,  which  seemed  rather  beyond  the 
skill  of  those  who  had  attempted  them. 

National  School  of  Watchmaking.  0rwatchmak£ 

at  Cluses. 

In  the  same  section  was  the  exhibit  of  the  National  School 
of  Watchmaking,  at  Cluses.  This  school  was  founded  by 
King  Charles  Albert,  of  Sardinia,  in  1848,  when  Cluses 
formed  a  part  of  his  dominions,  it  passed  into  French  pos¬ 
session  in  1860,  and  the  school  was  reorganized  in  1863.  It 
is  situated  in  the  department  of  Haute-Savoie,  in  the  center 
of  a  district  devoted  to  watchmaking,  where  it  is  estimated 
that  2,400  persons  are  employed  in  this  trade,  and  the  value 
of  the  annual  production  of  watches  is  put  at  $360,000. 

The  school  is  supported  by  the  State  and  gives  instruction  Support, 
to  80  pupils.  Their  instruction  is  both  theoretical  and  prac-  course, 
tical,  and  the  course  lasts  three  years.  The  graduates  of  the 
school  are  in  great  demand,  and  find  no  difficulty  in  obtain¬ 
ing  remunerative  employment. 

The  chief  features  of  the  display  made  by  the  school  were  Models  of  es 

A  °  ’’  eapements,  ete. 

a  collection  of  19  models  of  escapements,  showing  the  devel¬ 
opment  from  the  simplest  form  to  the  most  perfect,  a  large 
clock,  striking  the  hours,  quarters,  and  five  minutes,  made 
by  a  pupil  of  the  second  year  and  remarkably  well  executed, 
and  a  marine  chronometer,  made  to  order  for  the  Ministry 
of  Marine.  It  is  designed  to  make  a  specialty  of  this  class 
of  work.  A  large  collection  of  the  various  parts  of  watches, 
executed  by  the  pupils  of  the  different  years,  was  shown, 
and  one  case  was  filled  with  models  on  a  large  scale  which 
served  for  demonstration  in  the  classes.  The  pupils  are  re¬ 
quired  to  take  these  to  pieces ;  the  detached  parts  are  then 
mixed  by  the  instructor,  and  the  student  must  then  recon¬ 
struct  the  model. 

In  the  long  u  Galeriede  Travail  f  where  numerous  industrial  a  Watchmaking 

.  7  School  of  Besan- 

processes  were  shown  in  actual  operation,  was  found  a  small  son. 
exhibit  of  the  watchmaking  school  at  Besangon,  the  head- 


408 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


FltANCE- _ quarters  of  the  industry  in  France.  This  school  was  founded 

Schoo? ofoBesaX  the  expense  of  the  town  and  has  80  pupils  who  pay  780 
90n-  francs  ($150)  yearly,  and  passthrough  a  three  years’  course. 

The  instruction  is  essentially  similar  in  plan  to  that  given  in 
the  National  School  at  Cluses,  but  the  exhibit  was  too  small 
to  judge  properly  of  its  success. 

Manual  train  Manual  Training  Schools. 

ing  schools.  ^ 

In  the  open  space  in  the  center  of  the  Exposition  was  the 
beautiful  Pavilion  of  the  City  of  Paris,  and  in  this  building 
were  the  exhibits  of  the  two  manual  training  schools  which 
La  viiiette.  she  has  established,  one  in  the  Boulevard  de  la  Villette,  and 
Rue  Toumefort,  the  other  in  the  Hue  Tournefort.  The  former,  much  more  ex¬ 
tended  in  its  operations,  is  the  well-known  apprentice  school 
of  the  city  of  Paris.  It  is  an  attempt  to  combine  the  school 
with  the  workshop  and  to  educate  the  apprentice  systemati¬ 
cally  in  his  calling  while  imparting  to  him  a  knowledge  of 
such  theoretical  branches  as  will  aid  him  in  pursuing  it. 

The  establishment  in  the  Bue  Tournefort,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  an  attempt  to  combine  the  workshop  with  the  pri¬ 
mary  school  to  such  an  extent  that  the  pupil  who  leaves  the 
school  may  intelligently  choose  a  calling  suited  to  his  taste. 
To  this  end  he  is  taught  the  rudiments  of  several  trades, 
while  by  means  of  a  judicious  alternation  of  study  and  man¬ 
ual  work,  the  symmetrical  development  of  all  his  faculties 
is  attained. 

Apprentice  The  Apprentice  School  of  the  city  of  Paris  receives  boys 

School  of  the  city 

of  Paris.  on  their  exit  from  the  primary  school,  provided  that  they 
present  a  certificate  of  proficiency  or  pass  an  equivalent 
examination. 

General  and  The  instruction  is  of  two  kinds,  general  and  technical, 
tion.  The  general  instruction  embraces,  besides  the  usual  matters 

of  primary  instruction,  which  are  obligatory,  certain  optional 
branches,  such  as  the  elements  of  physics,  mechanics,  and 
chemistry  as  applied  to  manufactures.  In  addition,  special 
instruction  is  given  relating  to  the  forms  of  tools  and  the 
nature  and  treatment  of  the  materials  employed.  During 
the  summer,  visits  are  paid  to  various  manufacturing  es¬ 
tablishments,  and  the  pupils  are  required  to  hand  in  written 
reports  of  these  excursions. 

Gr6ard.  The  principles  on  which  the  school  is  founded  are  thus 

stated  by  Mr.  Greard,  the  Inspector  General  of  Public  In¬ 
struction  : 

Principles  on  No  premature  admission,  since  the  physical  forces,  as  well  as  the 
S  founded.8011001  men^d  powers  of  the  child  are  unable,  before  a  certain  age,  to  endure 
the  serious  work  of  an  apprenticeship. 


MANUAL  TRAINING  SCHOOLS:  COMMISSIONER  JEWETT.  409 


“No  crowding  of  pupils — nothing  being  more  fatal  to  the  moral  tone  France. 
which  it  is  desired  to  establish.  Apprentice 

“No  hasty  specialization,  since  the  hand,  as  well  as  the  mind,  is  im-  ^aris***16 °lty 
proved  by  a  wide  variety  of  exercises. 

“No  tuition  fee,  the  institution  being  destined  for  the  poorest  classes. 

“No  dormitory  system,  since  the  family  should  have  the  charge  and 
the  honor  of  following  the  education  of  the  child. 

“No  exercises  sufficiently  prolonged  to  produce  fatigue  of  the  body 
or  the  mind — the  variety  of  exercises  being  an  indispensable  condition 
of  a  symmetrical  development  of  the  physical,  intellectual,  and  moral 
forces  of  the  apprentice. 

“No  instruction  in  abstract  sciences,  properly  so  called,  since  the  in¬ 
struction  in  an  apprentice  school  should,  in  order  to  bear  fruit,  be 
based  not  on  theories  but  on  facts,  and  it  should  be  supported  only  by 
those  theories  whose  materialized  applications  can  be  shown.” 

The  day’s  work,  during  the  first  two  years  consists  of  six  Division  of  ex- 

ercises 

hours  in  the  workshop  and  four  hours  of  study  and  recitation ; 
in  the  third  year,  eight  hours  in  the  shop  and  two  of  mental 
work.  In  every  day  two  hours  of  recreation  are  allowed, 
of  which  one,  three  times  a  week,  is  devoted  to  gymnastics. 

The  workshop  is  of  two  kinds,  that  of  preparatory  in-  Workshop  ex- 
struction  and  that  of  execution.  All  pupils  pass  succes¬ 
sively,  in  the  first  year,  through  the  wood-working  and 
iron- working  shops,  the  required  exercises  being  placarded 
on  a  bulletin  board  in  the  order  in  which  they  must  be  exe¬ 
cuted.  This  is  called  in  the  school  “the  rotation.”  This 
sort  of  general  gymnastics  gives  suppleness  and  firmness  to  General  work, 
the  hand,  and,  in  the  case  of  a  temporary  failure  to  obtain 
work  in  his  chosen  calling,  the  pupil  will  not  be  at  a  loss  to 
find  some  other  employment.  The  choice  of  a  specialty  is  special  work, 
made  in  the  second  year,  and  it  is  here  that  the  real  work 
of  execution  begins.  Ho  piece  of  work  is  begun  until  the 
pupil  has  made  a  working  drawing  or  a  sketch  with  dimen¬ 
sions  written  in,  so  that  he  obtains  a  complete  and  thorough 
understanding  of  what  he  is  about  to  do.  The  division  of  .  Division  of 
time  is  as  follows :  The  first  part  of  the  day,  from  7  to  3,  is 
devoted  to  those  branches  pursued  by  all  three  classes  in 
common.  From  7  to  8,  study ;  from  8  to  11,  shop-work ; 
from  11  to  12,  intermission ;  from  12  to  2.30,  shop-work ; 
from  2.30  to  3,  intermission. 

After  3  o’clock,  the  programme  is  as  follows : 


410 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Apprentice 
School  of  the  city 
of  Paris. 


Programme  of 
instruction. 


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MANUAL  TRAINING  SCHOOLS:  COMMISSIONER  JEWETT.  411 


The  trades  taught  are  those  of  machinists,  smiths,  metal-  FKANCE- 
turners,  joiners,  pattern-makers,  wood- turners.  In  the  last  SchooiShenSty 
year  that  of  mechanical  instrument-maker  has  been  added  taug]lt 

to  the  list  and  a  special  workshop  fitted  up  with  a  view  to 
the  needs  of  this  branch. 

Seventy-four  students  have  completed  the  course  since 
the  foundation  of  the  school.  The  trades  which  they  learned  occupations1'16^' 
were  as  follows :  Machinists,  42  ;  smiths,  4 ;  metal-turners,  Snts ated  sta 
6 ;  joiners,  4  ;  pattern-makers,  17  5  wood  turners,  1.  Of 
these  1  is  dead,  1  is  in  parts  unknown,  2  are  in  mercantile 
pursuits,  and  the  rest  are  employed  without  exception  in 
workshops  and  manufactories  of  the  highest  class,  and  in 
receipt  of  relatively  high  salaries.  Of  the  165  now  in  the 
school,  89  are  in  the  first  year  and  have  not  chosen  their 

Ma 


calling,  while  the  remaining  76  are  classed  as  follows 


Choice  of  occu¬ 
pations  by  pres- 


chinists,  51 $  smiths,  4;  metal-turners,  1;  joiners,  2 ;  pattern-  ent pupils 
makers,  14 ;  wood-turn ers,  4.  The  large  proportion  of  ma¬ 
chinists,  both  among  the  graduates  and  pupils,  is  explained 
by  several  causes.  Places  are  easier  to  find,  especially  in 
the  railroad  machine-shops,  and  wages  are  higher. 


The  buildings  at  present  occupied  by  the  school  are  in- 


Buildings 

shops. 


and 


sufficient  for  its  needs,  and  new  ones  are  now  (1879)  in  pro¬ 
cess  of  erection.  The  shops  have  150  vises,  and  other  tools 
in  necessary  proportion.  Many  of  the  machine  tools  are  the 
work  of  the  pupils,  and  all  the  benches  now  in  use  were 
made  in  the  school  itself.  Besides  the  trades  before  men¬ 
tioned,  each  student  passes  three  to  four  weeks  in  his  second 
and  third  years  as  fireman  and  engineer  in  attendance  on 
the  engine  which  furnishes  power  to  the  shops. 

The  discipline  of  the  school  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired,  Discipline, 
although  the  only  punishments  are  a  reprimand,  or,  in  a 
few  extreme  cases,  dismission  from  the  school.  Every  two 
weeks  a  prize  in  money,  varying  from  5  to  60  cents,  is  dis¬ 
tributed  to  each  pupil,  the  amount  varying  according  to  his 
marks  during  that  period.  He  is  marked  both  for  conduct 
and  for  the  excellence  of  his  work,  both  in  the  school-room 
and  the  shops.  The  diligence  of  the  boys,  during  two 
visits  made  by  the  writer,  was  remarkable,  nor  was  it  owing  iiavSSUent  be* 
to  the  presence  of  the  superintendent  of  the  shops,  as  that 
official  was  often  called  out.  No  accident  has  occurred  since 
the  foundation  of  the  school,  although  the  workshop  con¬ 
tains  20  lathes,  3  drills,  and  a  band-saw,  all  driven  by  steam 
and  in  almost  constant  operation.  The  attendance  is  very 
regular,  and  tardiness  is  rare. 

In  connection  with  the  instruction  in  English,  it  was 


Prizes  end  con¬ 
duct  mrrlvs. 


Good 

anco. 


attend- 


412 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


FRAKCE-  noticed  that  the  name  of  each  tool  and  machine  was  written 
Schook.fthencity  over  ifc  il1  that  language  as  well  as  in  French, 
of  Paris.  The  articles  exhibited  in  the  Pavilion  of  the  City  of  Paris 

by  this  school  were  of  good  workmanship  and  showed  the 
efficiency  of  the  course,  though  it  was  not  to  be  expected 
that  they  should  be  as  complicated  in  design  or  quite  as 
itedrticles  exhib  finked  ifl  execution  as  those  made  by  the  older  pupils  of 
the  coles  dcs  Arts  et  Metiers  or  of  the  Russian  schools. 
They  consisted  chiefly  of  smaller  articles  and  patterns  for 
casting. 


Course. 


RuehToumeforte  the  school  of  the  Rue  Toumefort  we  find  a  workshop 
attached  to  the  ordinary  primary  school,  where  the  studies 
usual  in  a  school  of  that  grade  go  hand  in  hand  with  the 
manual  labor  of  the  shops.  The  establishment  is  much 
smaller  than  the  Apprentice  School,  and  less  time  is  spent 
in  the  shops.  The  course  occupies  three  years.  During  the 
first  and  second  years  the  pupils  try  each  trade  in  turn,  as  in 
the  larger  school,  while  during  the  third  year  the  choice 
is  made  of  a  special  calling.  One  day  in  each  week,  how¬ 
ever,  each  pupil  must  practice  some  other  vocation  than  the 
one  he  has  chosen,  in  order  to  give  him  the  variety  of  work 
which  is  considered  an  indispensable  feature  of  the  system, 
of  The  shop-work  lasts  from  9.30  to  11  a.  in.,  and  from  1.30  to 
3  p.  m.,  each  day.  It  is  found  that  those  pupils  who  com¬ 
plete  the  course  in  this  school  require  from  one-half  to  one- 
third  less  time  to  complete  their  apprenticeship  in  the  shops 
which  they  afterwards  enter  than  boys  who  have  previously 
done  no  manual  work,  while  their  mental  acquirements  are 
not  inferior  to  those  of  other  pupils  completing  the  course 
of  the  primary  schools. 

The  exhibit  made  by  this  institution  in  the  Exposition  was 
not  a  fair  exponent  of  the  work  really  done  there,  and  re¬ 
quires  no  notice. 


Duration 

shop-work. 


comparison  of  To  sum  up  the  difference  between  the  schools  of  the  Bou- 
vmette'and  Rue  levai'd  de  la  Villette  and  the  Rue  Tournefort,  the  first  is  a 
Toumefort.  workshop  with  a  school  attached,  and  the  second  is  a  school 
with  a  workshop  attached. 


AUSTRIA. 


AUSTRIA. 


Austria,  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  1878,  possessed  80 
riouCshSduftri(5a"  schools  in  which  manual  or  industrial  training  was  given. 

These  were  divided  into  37  schools  for  weaving,  embroidery, 
lace-making,  etc.,  with  1,805  pupils ;  22  for  wood  and  stone 
working,  with  77G  pupils ;  7  for  glass  and  ceramic  industries; 


MANUAL  TRAINING  SCHOOLS:  COMMISSIONER  JEWETT.  413 


with  642  pupils  5  9  for  metallurgical  industries,  with  407  Austria. 
pupils ;  and  5  others  for  various  local  industries,  with  240 
pupils.  The  number  of  teachers  was  167,  and  the  total 
number  of  pupils  3,870. 

Twenty  of  these  schools  exhibited  the  work  of  their  pupils ;  .  Schools  for  va- 
of  these  16  schools  were  devoted  to  wood  and  stone  work¬ 
ing,  3  to  the  ceramic  arts,  and  1  to  embroidery.  The  articles 
exhibited  were  for  the  most  part  elegant  in  design  and  sat-  ^  Articles  exMb- 
isfactory  in  execution ;  but  while  they  gave  evidence  of  the 
excellent  work  done  in  the  schools,  nothing  was  shown 
illustrating  the  manner  of  instruction,  or  the  progressive 
stages  through  which  the  pupils  passed.  In  many  cases 
the  completed  article  was  the  product  of  several  schools, 
as,  for  instance,  a  sumptuous  bed,  accompanied  by  a  table 
and  two  chairs,  magnificent  pieces  of  workmanship,  in  which 
the  wood-AVork  came  from  the  school  in  Tachau,  the  orna¬ 
mental  iron-work  from  that  in  Hohenbruck,  and  the  uphol¬ 
stery  and  table  cover  from  the  school  of  embroidery  at 
Vienna. 

A  portion  only  of  these  schools  are  properly  manual-train¬ 
ing  schools,  i.  e .,  are  provided  with  a  workshop  in  which  the 
pupils  learn  the  manipulation  of  the  tools  of  their  trade. 

In  the  school  for  artistic  iron- work  in  Uohenbruck,  for  ex-  Schools  for  ar- 

.,  ,,  .  _  _  .  ,  _  tistic  iron-work. 

ample,  the  pupils  are  all  persons  employed  during  the  day 
in  that  class  of  work,  and  are  instructed  in  the  evenings  in 
tlia-t  branch  of  draAving  and  designing  which  especially 
bears  upon  their  work.  The  articles  which  the  pupils  ex¬ 
hibited  Avere  designed  and  executed  by  themselves,  but  only 
in  the  designing  were  they  under  the  guidance  of  a  teacher. 

Exact  statistics  as  to  the  number  of  these  schools  pro¬ 
vided  Avith  workshops  were  not  to  be  obtained,  although  a 
report  on  the  subject  is  now  (1879)  in  course  of  preparation, 
under  the  direction  of  the  Austrian  Ministry  of  Commerce, 
under  whose  jurisdiction  these  schools  are  placed. 

The  exhibit  at  Paris  was  in  no  sense  an  educational  one, 
from  the  entire  absence  of  anything  to  illustrate  the  mothods 
of  teaching  or  the  manner  in  which  the  results  exhibited 
were  attained ;  and  it  was,  properly  enough,  not  located  in 
the  Educational  Section,  but  in  that  devoted  to  furniture 
and  upholstery. 

SWITZERLAND.  Switzerland. 

In  the  Swiss  section  at  the  Exposition,  among  the  exhibits 
of  the  watchmakers,  were  exposed  the  products  of  the  7 
schools  of  watch-making  which  exist  in  that  country.  These  wftCch°makms. °f 
are  located  :  1  at  Geneva  $  4  in  the  canton  of  Neuchatel  (at 


414 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Switzerland.  Ohaux-de-Fonds,  Locle,  Fleurier,  and  the  city  of  Neuchatel)  ; 

and  2  in  the  canton  of  Berne  (at  Saint  Imier  and  at  Bienne), 
watchmaking.  °f  These  schools  are  essentially  similar  in  their  organization. 

The  length  of  the  course  varies  from  three  to  four  years, 
and  the  instruction  is  both  theoretical  and  practical.  The 
Mathematical  theoretical  includes  chiefly  those  mathematical  branches 

and  practical * 1 2 3 4 5 * * * * * * * * * * *  17 

branches.  which  enable  the  watchmaker  to  perform  the  necessary 
calculations  for  his  work,  while  the  practical  consists  in 
making,  under  skilled  superintendence,  all  the  parts  of  a 
watch,  from  the  simplest  to  the  most  difficult,  with  exer¬ 
cises  in  the  dismounting  and  assemblage  of  the  various 
kinds.  These  schools  are  considered  to  have  greatly  aided 
the  Swiss  in  their  struggle  to  retain  their  supremacy  in 
Radical  differ-  watch-making ;  but  the  radical  difference  between  the  Swiss 
Swiss  and  Amer-  and  American  methods  of  manufacture  and  industrial  con¬ 
ditions  renders  it  improbable  that  they  will  ever  be  imitated 
in  this  country. 


ican  methods. 


NETHERLANDS. 


THE  NETHERLANDS. 


The  only  school  exhibiting  specimens  of  its  pupils’  work 
Ambachtschooi.  in  this  section  was  the  Ambachtschool ,  at  Amsterdam.  The 
Purpose.  especial  aim  of  the  school  is  to  train  young  men  of  the 
working  classes  in  those  mechanical  branches  which  are 
connected  with  civil  and  naval  architecture.  Pupils  are  re- 
Admission.  ceived  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  after  passing  an  examination 
on  the  usual  primary  studies, 
studies.  The  instruction  in  the  school  comprehends : 

(1)  The  continuation  of  the  primary  instruction; 

(2)  The  elementary  jirinciples  of  algebra,  geometry,  me¬ 
chanics,  and  physics,  theoretical  and  practical ; 

(3)  Industrial  drawing  and  free-hand  drawing  after  nature ; 

(4)  Study  of  machines  and  tools  and  of  the  nature  of 
building  materials,  with  the  signification  of  the  technical 
terms  employed ; 

(5)  The  preliminary  studies  and  the  manual  skill  neces¬ 

sary  in  the  trades  of  carpenter,  mason,  blacksmith,  embosser, 

turner,  wood-carver,  and  house-painter. 

Course.  The  course  is  three  years.  Sixteen  hours  a  week  are  de¬ 

voted  to  shop-work  by  the  carpenters,  blacksmiths,  and 

wood  carvers,  while  the  turners  give  ten.  The  school  day 

begins  at  8  a.  m.  and  lasts  until  8  p.  in.,  with  an  intermis¬ 

sion  from  12  to  2,  with  the  exception  of  Saturday,  when 

Pees.  only  a  morning  session  is  held.  The  fee  for  tuition  is  15 

florins  ($6)  a  year. 

Articles  exhib-  The  articles  exhibited  were  by  no  means  up  to  the  stand- 

ited.  j 

ard  of  those  shown  by  the  French  or  Bussian  schools ;  and, 


MANUAL  TRAINING  SCHOOLS:  COMMISSIONER  JEWETT.  4 15 


if  the  skill  of  the  pupils  may  fairly  be  judged  by  the  arti-  Netherlands. 
cles  shown,  the  instruction  in  shop-work  leaves  much  to  be 
desired. 

DENMARK.  Denmark. 


In  a  small  building  of  handsome  appearance,  situated  to 
the  west  of  the  Main  Building,  near  the  Avenue  Suffren, 
was  the  exhibit  of  the  Danish  u  Society  for  Domestic  Labor.” 
This  society  was  founded  with  the  object  of  introducing 
among  the  people  of  Denmark  a  taste  for  handicraft  which, 
especially  when  implanted  in  the  minds  of  the  young,  might 
result  in  a  marked  improvement  in  the  condition  of  the  peas¬ 
antry.  The  population  of  that  country  is  chiefly  employed 
in  agricultural  pursuits,  and  the  length  and  severity  of  the 
winter  cause  much  enforced  idleness,  with  its  usual  concomi¬ 
tants  of  dissipation  and  suffering.  To  remedy  this  evil,  the 
Society  was  founded.  Daring  the  summer  vacation  a  school 
is  formed  for  the  benefit  of  the  teachers  of  the  country 
schools.  This  course  lasts  six  weeks.  The  male  teachers 
learn  the  use  of  the  simplest  tools  of  the  carpenter  and  cabi¬ 
net-maker,  brush- making,  the  plaiting  of  straw,  book-bind¬ 
ing,  basket-making,  and  similar  employments.  The  school¬ 
mistresses  are  taught  similar  branches,  but  such  as  adapt 
themselves  to  the  needs  of  women.  On  returning  to  their 
homes  the  teachers  found  winter  schools,  where  they  teach 
to  the  children  and  often  to  the  adults  of  the  neighborhood 
what  they  themselves  have  learned  in  the  summer. 

Much  aid  has  been  received  from  members  of  the  higher 
classes,  who  have  interested  themselves  deeply  in  the  move¬ 
ment.  About  150  school-teachers  have  followed  these 
courses,  and  120  schools  have  been  established  by  them  in 
various  parts  of  the  kingdom.  At  the  end  of  the  winter 
local  or  general  exhibitions  of  the  season’s  work  are  held. 
The  society  publishes  a  journal  and  sends  out  directions  to 
clubs  and  schools,  and  its  directors  visit  many  of  them  per¬ 
sonally.  The  State  has  aided  the  society  this  year  (1879)  by 
a  gift  of  14,000  francs  ($2,800). 

The  articles  exhibited  are,  of  course,  not  to  be  judged  by 
the  same  standard  as  the  work  of  skilled  artisans,  but  many 
of  them  were  exceedingly  meritorious,  and  the  work  which 
it  is  doing  may,  it  is  easy  to  see,  be  productive  of  great  good 
to  the  agricultural  population  of  Denmark. 

ELIOT  O.  JEWETT, 
Honorary  Commissioner. 


Society  for  Do¬ 
mestic  Labor. 


Purpose. 


Teachers’ 

school. 


Summer  course 
for  males ; 


for  females. 


Winter  schools. 


Exhibitions. 


Subvention. 


Articles  ex¬ 
hibited. 


WOOD-CARVING. 


JOHN  TREADWELL  NORTON. 


27  P  R 


41? 


[Extract  from  the  Official  Classification.] 

THIRD  GROUP.— FURNITURE  AND  ACCESSORIES. 


Class  17.— Cheap  and  Fancy  Furniture. 

Sideboards,  book-cases,  tables,  dressing-tables,  beds,  sofas,  couches,  billiard 
tables,  etc. 


Note. — The  following  report  treats  of  wood-carving  as  applied  to  furniture  and  articles  of  decoration. 


418 


I 


JAPANESE  FARM  GATES. 

Model  farm,  Trocadero  Grounds.  [Plate  1,  page  419,  vol.  II.  | 


REPORT 


ON 

WOOD-CARVING. 


The  Exposition  of  1878  contained,  in  some  respects,  a  very 
good  representation  of  modern  progress  in  this  art  ;  in  many 
ways,  however,  it  left  much  to  be  desired.  Of  decorative  hi^t  of  furniture 
carving  applied  to  furniture  there  was  a  large  and  very  fine  tie  V10fS,arcM tec- 
exhibit  5  of  architectural  wood -carving  very  little  ;  and  of  or  ecciesi- 
ecclesiastical  work,  with  the  exception  of  two  very  inferior 
pulpits,  almost  nothing. 

Japan,  although  showing  but  very  little,  easily  distanced  had  the 

all  competition,  both  for  design  and  for  workmanship,  and  the 
next  best  exhibition  was,  perhaps,  that  of  Italy.  Careful  tlie  next 
inquiries,  made  in  almost  every  section,  indicated  the  fact 
that  skilled  carvers  are  everywhere  paid  by  the  piece,  and 
it  is  therefore  difficult  to  make  any  estimate  in  regard  to 
their  wages.  In  Italy  very  fancy  prices  are  obtained  by 
several  workmen,  who  call  themselves,  and  indeed  are, 

“  artists,”  making  their  own  designs  as  well  as  executing  the 
work. 

Although  several  wood-carving  machines  have  been  in-  No  wood- car  v- 
vented  and  used  more  or  less  successfully  for  rough  and  shown, 
coarse  work,  none  were  shown.  Several  machines  for  mak¬ 
ing  oval,  Gothic,  and  irregular  panels  were  exhibited  in  the 
different  sections,  but  I  do  not  think  they  can  properly  come 
under  the  head  of  wood-carving. 

A  report  of  this  kind,  in  order  to  have  any  great  value, 
should  be  fully  illustrated.  Any  description  which  could  be 
written  gives,  at  the  best,  but  a  poor  idea  of  an  elaborate 
piece  of  carving.  The  funds  at  the  disposal  of  the  commis¬ 
sion  were,  however,  so  small  that  it  was  not  considered  ad¬ 
visable  to  have  any  special  drawings  made.  I  am  enabled, 
therefore,  to  give  but  a  few  illustrations,  from  photographs, 
of  the  pieces  of  wood-carving  which  I  have  considered  most 
noteworthy. 

UNITED  STATES.  united  states. 

The  United  States,  notwithstanding  the  very  general  in¬ 
terest  which  has  been  felt  of  late  years  in  this  subject,  was, 

419 


420 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  J878. 


united  states,  perhaps,  as  poorly  represented  as  any  nation  in  the  Exposi¬ 
tion.  It  was  not  because  we  have  not  produced  good  work 
in  this  direction.  Several  firms  in  New  York  and  in  other 
cities  have,  to  my  own  knowledge,  done  decorative  wood¬ 
carving  which  would  not  have  appeared  at  all  badly  beside 
much  of  that  shown ;  but  it  was,  perhaps,  a  feeling  that  to 
bring  it  here  would  be  rather  “carrying  coals  to  Newcastle” 
nMtldcquate ex  whi°h  prevented  any  being  sent.  I  say  “any,”  because  an 
in  no  way  out  of  the  ordinary  ebonized-wood  cabinet  by  L. 
Marcotte  &  Co.,  of  New  York,  was  absolutely  the  sole  ex¬ 
hibit  of  this  class. 

FRANCE.  FRANCE. 


Substitution  of 
carton-pierre  and 
zinc  for  carving. 


Over-elaborate¬ 

ness. 


Leglas-Maurice. 


Style  of  Louis 
XIV  the  favor¬ 
ite. 

Imitation  of 
Japanese  and 
Chinese  work. 


France  was  very  fully  represented  in  the  way  of  carved 
furniture,  but,  although  one  would  suppose  that  there  would 
be  here  a  good  demand  for  ecclesiastical  work,  there  were 
but  one  very  plain  oaken  pulpit,  and  an  altar  or  two  very 
badly  designed  and  executed.  Much  church  work  which 
was  formerly  made  in  wood  is  now  done  in  carton-pierre  and 
thin  zinc.  This  is,  I  think,  greatly  to  be  deplored,  for  much 
of  the  best  wood-carving  now  in  existence  was  made  for 
churches,  apd  the  zinc  and  carton-pierre  abominations  by  no 
means  adequately  fill  its  place. 

Perhaps  the  first  thing  which  strikes  one  in  examining 
almost  any  production  of  French  decorative  art  is  its  over¬ 
elaborateness.  The  great  tendency  is  to  overdo  and  over¬ 
load  with  elaborate  ornament,  often  very  pretty,  .and  usually 
cleverly  designed,  but  unpleasing  and  confusing  to  the  eye 
from  its  very  superabundance.  This  applies  particularly  to 
the  furniture,  much  of  the  carving  on  which  is  exceedingly 
nice,  but  so  lost  in  the  midst  of  a  profusion  of  gilding  and 
inlaying  that  the  effect  is  in  a  great  measure  lost,  and  it  is 
only  by  a  careful  examination  that  its  beauty  can  be  realized. 

Very  little  architectural  wood-carving  was  shown.  M. 
Leglas-Maurice,  of  Nantes,  exhibited  a  small  Renaissance 
room,  upon  the  door  panels  and  chimney-piece  of  which  ap¬ 
peared  some  very  graceful  carving  in  low  relief  upon  a  light 
wood,  maple,  I  think. 

The  style  used  for  nearly  all  the  furniture  shown  was  called 
“ Renaissance ” — which  name  would  seem  to  cover  almost  any¬ 
thing  ;  but  the  favorite  period,  that  from  which  most  of  the 
details  in  use  were  taken,  seems  to  be  that  of  Louis  XIV, 
at  about  the  beginning  of  the  last  century. 

A  few  imitations  of  Japanese  and  Chinese  work  were 
shown,  and  one  firm  had  a  number  of  pieces  in  exceeding!}' 
close  imitation  of  the  well-known  Chinese  teak-wood  furni- 


I 


MIRROR  FRAME. 

Cha  Buquef,  Paris. 


[  Plate  2.  page  421,  voL  II. ! 


WOOD  CARVING:  COMMISSIONER  NORTON. 


421 


tu re.  Perhaps  these  should  he  called  close  copies  rather  francs. 
than  imitations,  for  the  same  wood  was  actually  used,  and, 
except  that  the  price  was  very  much  higher,  they  could 
hardly  be  distinguished  from  the  originals. 

Among  the  great  number  of  beautifully  finished  pieces  of 
carved  furniture  in  this  department,  it  is  impossible  to  name 
more  than  a  very  few.  Gueret  Freres,  of  Paris,  had  a  most  Gueret  Fibres, 
beautifully  carved  secretarj^  in  satinwood,  with  double  doors, 
the  inner  of  a  darker  wood,  also  elaborately  carved  and  in¬ 
laid.  In  this  case  the  designs  for  the  carving,  which  was  in 
very  low  relief,  were  all  taken  from  natural  leaves  and 
foliage.  A  great  number  of  ebony  and  ebonized-wood  cabi¬ 
nets  and  other  large  articles  were  exhibited,  but  on  the 
whole  it  would  seem  as  if  the  rage  for  black  furniture  had 
somewhat  abated,  and  more  light  and  colored  woods  appear 
to  be  used. 

Several  firms  showed  carved  and  gilded  or  u ormolu ” 
work,  notably  one  stupendous  canopy  for  a  throne  or  state 
bed.  A.  Gallois  and  J.  Simon,  of  Paris,  had  some  most  j.'HSon.8 
charming  carved  and  painted  furniture,  particularly  a  bed 
of  a  light  tint,  with  wreaths  of  flowers  carved  in  high  relief, 
and  painted  in  natural  colors.  The  effect  was  very  like  some 
of  the  old  Dresden  china,  and  the  carving  most  exquisitely 
fine. 

There  was  a  large  exhibition  of  carved  frames  for  mirrors  Mirror  frame, 
and  pictures,  both  gilded  and  in  the  natural  wood.  The  one 
of  which  a  cut  is  given  (Plate  2)  was  exhibited  by  Ch.  Buquet,  ch.  Buque£. 
of  Paris,  and  is  of  pear  wood,  carved  in  but  four  pieces.  Its 
dimensions  were  about  0  feet  by  3.  I  should  have  been  glad 
to  have  given  illustrations  of  numerous  other  examples  of 
French  wood-carving,  and  do  not  desire  to  put  this  forward 
as  the  best  of  its  class.  It  is,  however,  not  at  all  badly  done, 
and  affords  a  good  example  of  the  prevailing  style  of  carved 
work  in  France  at  the  present  time. 

An  interesting  exhibition  was  made  bv  the  u  Societe  pour  Society  for  jn- 
V Assistance  Paternelle  aux  Enfants  employes  dans  V Industrie  de  net-making  and 
VAmeublement  en  general,”  This  institution — which,  in  spite 
of  its  long  name,  seems  to  be  a  good  thing — is  intended  to 
furnish  free  instruction  to  young  apprentices  in  cabinet- 
making,  wood  carving,  and  turning.  Every  year  the  whole 
class  compete  for  prizes,  each  division  taking  some  partic-priz™fetitionfor 
ular  part  of  an  article  of  furniture.  Then  the  best  of  each 
of  these  parts  is  carefully  selected,  and  the  whole  put  to¬ 
gether  by  those  of  the  pupils  who  have  been  adjudged  to 
be  the  best  cabinetmakers,  and  the  completed  article  is 
exhibited  as  the  result  of  the  year.  Supported  entirely  by  Exhibitions. 


422 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878 


FRANCE-  voluntary  subscription,  this  institution  had,  in  1878,  no  less 
than  352  pupils,  and  the  quite  elaborate  cabinet,  or  secre¬ 
tary,  which  was  shown  as  the  result  of  the  prize  competi¬ 
tion  had  upon  its  panels  some  really  very  pretty  carved 
practicaictiwork-  wor^*  ^ie  instructors  in  this  school  are  practical  workmen, 
men-  selected  on  account  of  their  skill  in  the  different  branches 

which  they  teach,  and  the  plan  seems  a  very  good  one. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


In  the  English  department  there  was  but  little  carving  in 
comparison  with  the  large  quantity  of  furniture  and  orna- 
oueen  Anne  and  mental  wood-work  shown.  The  so-called  “Queen  Anne” 

Jacobean  styles. 

and  “Jacobean”  styles,  which  are  now  the  rage,  produce 
their  effect,  in  great  measure,  by  means  of  elaborate  panel¬ 
ing  and  molded  work,  and,  being  in  their  nature  rather 
flat,  lend  themselves  more  readily  perhaps  to  inlaid  work 
than  to  carving.  When  used,  the  designs  are  usually  in 
quite  low  relief,  and  consist,  for  the  most  part,  of  conven¬ 
tional  foliage  and  scroll  work. 

Almost  every  kind  of  wood  appears  to  be  used,  and  in  the 
more  fashionable  and  elaborate  furniture  I  observed  a  ten- 
piSed°f  wood  dency  to  return  to  mahogany  and  rosewood,  which,  more 
especially  the  former,  although  such  universal  favorites 
fifty  years  ago,  seemed  until  very  lately  to  have  gone  almost 
completely  out  of  use.  Red  cedar  is  another  wood  which  is 
beginning  to  be  much  used ;  the  odor  is  exceedingly  pleas¬ 
ant,  and  the  color  under  a  dull  finish  most  excellent. 

In  England,  as  everywhere  else,  wood-carving  of  any  im¬ 
portance  is  almost  invariably  done  by  the  piece,  and  a  good 
Wages.  workman  makes  from  $35  to  $50  per  week.  Joiners  and 
ordinary  carvers  are  paid  from  15  to  20  cents  per  hour. 

The  most  important  piece  of  architectural  wood-carving 
Boudoh  in  red  in  the  English  section  was  a  boudoir  in  red  cedar  wood,  ex- 

cedar.  °  7 

G-.  Trollope  &  hibited  by  G.  Trollope  &  Sons,  of  London.  It  was  Benais 
same  in  style,  and  the  whole  of  the  walls  were,  with  the  ex¬ 
ception  of  a  few  small  panels,  entirely  covered  by  wood  work, 
very  beautifully  and  carefully  finished.  The  small  mold¬ 
ings  were  uncommonly  well  done,  even  for  England,  where, 
as  I  have  said,  they  are  just  now  rather  the  rage,  but  the 
principal  decoration  consisted  of  garlands  carved  in  very 
bold  relief  over  the  doorways  and  mantel.  Perhaps  even 
a  better  piece  of  carving  was  a  mirror-frame  in  lime-tree 
wood,  exhibited  by  the  same  firm.  The  style  of  this  was,  I 
should  say,  Louis  XIY,  and  the  design  Cupids  and  flowers. 
ha5?kson  &  Gra  Messrs.  Jackson  &  Graham,  Collinson  &  Lock,  and  all  the 
Lock0lhnS011  and  other  great  London  firms,  had  very  fine  collections  of  fur- 


CARVED  PANEL  IN  WALNUT. 

Prof.  Luigi  Frullini ,  Florence. 

[Plate  3,  p.  423,  vol.  II. I 


WOOD  CARVING:  COMMISSIONER  NORTON.  423 


nitiire  upon  exhibition,  but  very  little  of  it  was  carved  to  any  GREAT  ERITAiy- 
extent.  Skoolbred,  James,  &  Go.  had  a  most  elaborate  set  Jamess&”-,(1)brc<1’ 
of  drawing- room  furniture  of  satin  wood,  in  a  style  which  Set  of  sat-in- 
might  be  called  Jacobean-Japanese — an  odd  mingling  of 
Japanese  and  Renaissance  designs,  very  fussy  and  over¬ 
done,  but  with  nevertheless  a  good  deal  of  very  clever  carved 
work  about  it.  This  was  a  kind  of  wood  cameo,  produced 
by  gluing  together  two  layers  of  wood — a  lighter  upon  a 
darker,  and  then  carving  the  design  in  the  upper  so  that 
the  lower  and  darker  forms  a  background.  Several  panels 
of  this  work  were  very  nicely  done,  and  the  design  of  flow¬ 
ers  and  butterflies  exceedingly  graceful  and  pretty.  The 
price  of  this  set  was  $28,500. 

Several  makers  showed  clever  reproductions  of  the  de¬ 
signs  of  Chippendale  and  Sheraton,  but  these,  in  conform-  ciiippendaie. 
ity  with  their  originals,  had  but  little  carving,  although 
much  pretty  molded  work.  H.  Hems,  of  Exeter,  had  a  h.  Hems, 
coffer  of  old  oak,  which  obtained  a  prize  at  Philadelphia  in 
1876.  It  was  in  the  perpendicular  Gothic  style,  rather 
coarsely  executed,  and  principally  noticeable  as  one  of  the 
very  few  pieces  of  work  in  this  style  in  the  Exposition. 

Peter  Cairns,  of  Edinburgh,  a  self-taught  carver,  had  Peter  Cairns, 
under  a  large  glass  case  a  piece  of  work  which  was  cer¬ 
tainly  one  of  the  curiosities  of  the  Exposition.  It  was  a 
pyramidal-shaped  structure,  of  box- wood,  and  represented 
upon  successive  stages  nearly  all  the  principal  figures  in, 
and  events  of,  the  Grecian  mythology.  The  artist,  who  was, 

I  believe,  a  porter  in  a  store  in  his  native  town,  spent  rather 
over  seven  years  upon  its  construction,  working  all  his  spare 
time.  He  called  it  the  Helicon  Fountain,  and  it  looked 
from  a  little  distance  very  much  like  a  piece  of  Hindoo 
work. 

BRITISH  COLONIES.  British  colo¬ 

nies. 

In  the  British  colonies,  with  the  exception  of  India,  there 
was  no  carving  exhibited.  In  the  Indian  section  were  sev¬ 
eral  large,  carved,  open-work  screens  and  panels  in  light  andnpanneis.creeDS 
wood.  They  were  somewhat  roughly  finished,  but  rather 
effective,  and  I  was  entirely  unable  to  obtain  any  informa¬ 
tion  in  regard  to  them. 


NORWAY  AND  SWEDEN. 

These  countries  showed  but  little  carved  work.  One  case, 
however,  containing  specimens  of  the  work  of  Norwegian 
peasants  during  their  long  winters,  was  interesting.  The 
collection  comprised  boxes  of  various  forms,  napkin  rings, 


424 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1876. 


N°6wedenNI)  ^or^s  an4  spoons,  and  other  small  articles  in  light  wood, 
- carved  in  very  low  relief,  with  arabesque  designs  quite  un¬ 
like  anything  else  in  the  Exposition,  except  a  few  pieces  of 
furniture  in  the  Russian  department. 

In  the  Swedish  section  were  several  pieces  of  carved  fur¬ 
niture;  but  with  the  exception  of  a  rather  pretty  walnut 
book-case,  in  style  Louis  XI Y,  they  deserve  no  special  men¬ 
tion. 

ITALY.  ITALY. 


tore 


Woods 

ferred. 


Prof. 

Frullini 


After  Japan,  Italy  had,  perhaps,  the  best  decorative  wood¬ 
carving  in  the  Exposition.  Usually  in  low  relief,  the  de- 
copies  from na- signs  seemed  generally  quite  closely  copied  from  natural 
plants  and  flowers,  and  the  beauty  of  the  workmanship  left 
little  to  be  desired. 

pro-  Walnut  wood  seemed  most  used,  but  there  was  also  a 
good  deal  of  jujube,  a  rather  hard  and  very  fine-grained 
wood  of  a  light  red,  not  unlike  new  mahogany,  but  with 
very  little  variation  of  color. 

Luigi  The  panels  carved  by  Prof.  Luigi  Frullini,  of  Florence, 
were  particularly  pretty ;  illustrations  of  several  of  them 
accompany  this  report.  Those  shown  in  Plate  3  were  pur¬ 
chased  by  the  South  Kensington  Museum ;  they  were  carved 
in  walnut  wood.  Those  in  Plate  4,  also  walnut,  went,  I  be¬ 
lieve,  to  the  museum  of  Buda-Pesth.  The  panels  with 
Cupids,  Plates  5  and  6,  were  in  jujube  wood,  and  exceedingly 
graceful  and  pretty. 

There  was  much  very  good  carved  work  throughout  the 
whole  of  the  Italian  furniture  department,  but  the  designs 
which  I  have  mentioned  were  perhaps  the  best. 

The  greater  part  of  the  carving  exhibited  seemed  to  be 
produced  in  Florence,  and  a  number  of  walnut  panels  were 
shown  as  the  work  of  students  in  an  institution  there  called 
u  Preparatory  School  of  Intaglio,”  but  I  was  unfortu¬ 
nately  unable  to  obtain  any  information  in  regard  to  it. 


Graceful  carv¬ 
ings. 


c  i.  ^^Paratory  the 
School  of  Inta: 
lio. 


JAPAN.  JAPAN. 

The  Japanese  showed  but  very  little  wood-carving,  but 
that  little  so  very  excellent  that  one  could  not  but  wish  that 
a  full  exhibition  of  their  wonderful  skill  could  have  been 
made.  The  two  most  important,  and,  in  fact,  almost  the 
only,  examples  shown  were  the  swinging  sign  at  the  en- 
Gate  of  the  trance  to  the  section  and  the  gates  of  the  model  farm  upon 

iodel  farm. 

the  Trocadero.  These  were,  I  think,  altogether  the  best 
pieces  of  decorative  wood-carving  in  the  whole  Exposition. 
By  the  courtesy  of  the  Japanese  Commissioner-General, 


CARVED  PANELS  IN  WALNUT. 

Prof.  Luigi  Frullini ,  Florence. 


[Plate  4,  page  424,,  vol.  II.  1 


WOOD  CARVING  IN  JUJUBE. 

Prof.  Luigi  Frullini,  Florence.  [Plate  5,  page  425,  vol.  II.] 


WOOD  CARVING:  COMMISSIONER  NORTON. 


425 


I  am  enabled  to  give  an  engraving,  from  a  photograph,  of  the  japan. 
gates,  but  the  sign  hung  in  so  bad  a  light,  or  rather  in  so 
deep  a  shadow,  that  it  could  not  be  photographed  success¬ 
fully.  Simply  an  immense  plank  of  light-colored  wood,  with 
the  word  u  Japan”  iu  large  white  letters  upon  its  center,  it 
was  surrounded  by  a  border  of  dragons,  chasing  one  another, 
carved  in  very  bold  relief  and  in  the  most  spirited  manner, 
and  as  a  piece  of  decoration  could  hardly  be  excelled. 

The  farm  gates  (Plate  1)  seemed  almost  too  delicate  and  th0 

pretty  to  be  exposed  to  the  weather,  and  were  very  elabo¬ 
rately  carved  with  a  design  of  natural  foliage  and  flowers. 

Upon  the  top  were  a  cock  and  hen  of  the  peculiar  Japanese 
short-legged  breed,  some  living  specimens  of  which  were  to 
be  seen  inside  the  inclosure.  With  the  exception  of  a  few 
not  particularly  interesting  cabinets,  in  very  low  relief,  there 
was  not  a  great  deal  of  other  carved  work  about  the  Japan¬ 
ese  section,  which  was  accounted  for,  perhaps,  by  a  remark 
made  to  me  by  one  of  the  attendants,  “that  bronze  and 
China  goods  sold  much  better. On  several  screens  a 
curious  effect  had  been  produced  by  scraping  away  a  por¬ 
tion  of  the  wood  and  leaving  it  in  layers,  as  if  it  had  been 
worn  away  by  time  or  the  action  of  the  weather,  much  as  theTcuoTof  the 
may  often  be  seen  upon  old  and  unpainted  wood  work  which  weatlier- 
has  been  exposed  for  a  great  length  of  time. 

CHINA.  CHINA. 


This  country,  unlike  its  neighbor,  Japan,  made  an  exhibi-  Distinction  be- 
tion  of  wood-carving  much  more  remarkable  for  quantity  anlen  Chinese 
than  quality $  although  in  some  ways  very  clever,  yet  there  mc  °ts 
is  so  much  scroll-sawing,  and  they  are  so  skillful  about  join¬ 
ing  various  parts  together  and  almost  entirely  concealing 
the  place,  that  one  is  never  certain  how  much  is  honest  work 
and  how  much  a  mere  sham.  The  woods  most  used  are  iron- Ch0ice  of  woods- 
wood — often  with  us  called  teak, — rosewood,  and  box.  As  a 
rule,  most  of  the  carving  in  light  wood  comes  from  Ningpo, 
the  dark  from  Canton.  Yery  much  of  the  carved  work 
shown  was  also  gilded  and  painted  in  bright  colors.  The 
designs  are  always  conventional,  and  seem  quite  devoid  of  desigJ“ventl0nal 
the  grace  and  beauty  so  characteristic  of  Japanese  work. 

SPAIN.  SPAIN. 


In  the  Spanish  department  there  was  but  very  little,  and 
that  very  ugly,  carved  work.  The  best  piece  was  a  walnut 
billiard  table  from  Madrid,  rather  rudely,  but  still  quite 
effectively,  designed  and  executed. 


426 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


AUSTRIA  -  HUN¬ 
GARY. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 


Good  exhibit.  In  this  department  there  was  quite  a  large  show  of  carving, 

in  striking  contrast  to  most  in  the  Exposition,  being  in  very 
high  relief,  with  chubby  German  cherubs  and  conventional 
foliage,  more  or  less  suggestive  of  cabbages.  The  wood 
used  is  principally  walnut,  and  much  of  the  furniture  quite 
effective  and  pretty.  Several  bas  reliefs  in  light  wood  from 
Innspruck,  in  the  Tyrol,  were  curious  as  careful,  painstak¬ 
ing  work,  being  full  of  very  minute  figures  most  elaborately 
executed. 

Russia.  RUSSIA. 


Generally  the  carving  in  this  section  was  not  particularly 
worthy  of  notice,  but  a  large  chest  or  coffer,  and  several 
chairs  in  very  light  oak,  were  interesting  as  showing  symp¬ 
toms  of  a  style  peculiar  to  the  country.  Very  flat,  the  de¬ 
signs  arabesques  and  geometrical  figures,  one  was  reminded 
very  strongly  of  the  work  of  the  Norwegian  peasants  before 
mentioned ;  in  fact,  the  designs,  allowing  for  the  difference 
of  size,  were  almost  identical. 


SWITZERLAND. 


Cheap  carvings. 


BELGIUM. 


SWITZERLAND. 

This  section  was  filled  with  the  well-known  cheap  carving 
peculiar  to  the  country,  of  which  most  travelers  bring  home  a 
sufficiently  good  representation — cuckoo  clocks  without  end, 
the  eternal  chamois  on  all  kinds  of  impossible  rocks,  the 
bears  of  Berne,  etc.,  etc.  Every  one  has  seen  plenty  of  it. 
One  ebonized  cabinet,  from  Lausanne,  style  late  Renais¬ 
sance,  was,  however,  very  pretty,  and  a  refreshing  contrast 
to  the  rest. 

BELGIUM. 


Architectural  the  Belgian  section  was  most  of  the  architectural  wood- 
wood-carving.  *  carving  of  the  Exposition,  and  much  of  it  was  both  inter¬ 
esting  and  pretty  5  it  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  that  more 
could  not  have  been  shown  by  other  nations.  One  of  the 
Sections  of  largest  exhibits  was  a  section  of  a  dining-room,  in  carved  and 
gilded  oak,  from  Brussels.  The  carving  was  very  good,  con- 
giSirSrelief  and  ventional  designs  in  high  relief,  and  the  gilding  in  three 
shades,  copper,  silver,  and  the  ordinary  yellow  gold,  pro¬ 
ducing  in  contrast  with  the  natural  color  of  the  oak  an  ex¬ 
tremely  pretty  effect.  Several  other  sections  of  rooms  were 
shown,  notably  an  elaborate  salon ;  but  these  were  entirely 
painted  and  gilded,  an  arrangement  which  is  apt  to  suggest 
carton-pierre  and  other  abominations,  which,  when  once  the 
grain  of  the  wood  is  hidden,  can  be  applied  with  little  dan- 


WOOD  CARVING  IN  JUJUBE. 

Prof.  Luigi  Frullini,  Florence.  [Plate  6,  page  426.  vol.  II. J 


WOOD  CARVING:  COMM4SSIONER  NORTON. 


427 


ger  of  detection.  These,  however,  were,  I  believe,  entirely  Belgium. 
genuine  carved  work.  A  section  of  stairway,  with  high  stairway, 
carved  and  paneled  wainscoting,  in  oak,  was  very  effect¬ 
ive,  but  as  much  cannot  be  said  of  an  elaborate  and  hid¬ 
eous  pulpit,  in  the  same  wood.  A  few  carved  and  painted 
images  for  churches  hardly  seemed  to  be  above  the  ordinary 
cigar-sign  average,  and  when  regarded  as  the  sole  repre¬ 
sentations  of  this  style  of  work  in  the  Exposition  were 
anything  but  satisfactory. 

An  elaborate  wainscoting,  door-frame,  and  chimney-piece,  wainscoting, 
of  oak  and  rosewood,  in  this  section,  attracted  much  atten 
tion  on  account  of  the  unusual  combination  of  color.  The 
carving  was  Flemish  renaissance ,  and  the  design  and  execu¬ 
tion  both  seemed  excellent.  Much  of  the  furniture  in  this 
section  was  also  pretty,  notably  an  elaborate  cabinet  in 
ebony,  of  which  I  had  hoped  to  be  able  to  give  an  engraving. 

DENMARK.  Denmark. 

In  the  Danish  section  were  some  doors  rather  prettily 
carved  in  low  relief,  and  a  small  equestrian  statue  very 
neatly  executed.  The  quoin  molding,  carved  in  pine,  around  Quoin  molding, 
the  gateway  of  the  department  was  extremely  pretty.  This 
country,  together  with  Norway  and  Sweden,  had  the  same 
general  arrangement  of  light- pine  show-cases  and  gateways  cageg  ^igia-pme 
as  ac  Philadelphia,  and  here,  as  there,  the  effect,  especially  ways, 
after  the  overelaboration  of  the  other  sections,  was  particu¬ 
larly  good. 

THE  NETHERLANDS.  Netherlands. 

The  Dutch  had  almost  nothing  in  the  way  of  modern 
carved  work,  although  in  the  wax  tableaux  representing 
scenes  from  peasant  life  there  were  several  very  nice  old 
carved  chests,  clock -cases,  and  the  like. 


None  of  the  other  countries  represented  at  the  Exposition 
had  any  carving  worth  mentioning.  In  the  loan  collections, 
which  composed  the  museum  of  u  retrospective”  art,  in  the  Trocadsro  mu 
two  wings  of  the  Trocadero  building,  there  was  much  very  spective  art. 
splendid  old  carving,  but  it,  I  think,  hardly  comes  within 
the  scope  of  this  report. 

JOHN  TREADWELL  NORTON, 

Honorary  Commissioner ,  State  of  Hew  York. 


I 


TEXTILE  FABRICS. 


HON.  HENRY  HOWARD. 


[Extract  from  the  Official  Classification.! 

FOURTH  GROUP.— TEXTILE  FABRICS,  CLOTHING,  AND  ACCESSORIES. 


Class  30. — Cotton  Thread  and  Fabrics. 

Cotton,  dressed  and  spun. 

Pure  cotton  fabrics,  plain  and  figured. 

Mixed  cotton  fabrics. 

Cotton  velvet. 

Cotton  ribbons  and  tapes. 

Class  31. — Thread  and  Fabrics  of  Flax,  Hemp,  etc. 

Flax,  hemp,  and  other  vegetable  fibers  spun. 

Linen  and  drills.  Cambric.  Linen  fabrics  mixed  with  cotton  or  silk. 

Fabrics  made  from  vegetable  fibers  as  substitutes  for  flax  and  hemp. 

Class  32. — Worsted  Yarn  and  Fabrics. 

Combed  wool,  worsted  yarn. 

Muslins  de  laine,  Scotch  cashmere,  merinos,  serges,  etc. 

Ribbons  and  laces  of  wool,  mixed  with  cotton  or  thread,  silk,  or  floss  silk.  Hair 
tissues,  pure  or  mixed. 

Class  33. — Woolen  Yarn  and  Fabrics. 

Carded  wool  and  woolen  yarn. 

Cloth  and  other  woolen  fabrics.  » 

Blankets.  Felt  of  wool  or  hair  for  carpets,  hats. 

Shoes. 

Woolen  fabrics  uumilled  or  slightly  milled;  flannel,  tartans,  swans-down 

Class  34. — Silk  and  Silk  Fabrics. 

Raw  and  thrown  silk.  Floss-silk  yarn. 

Silk  fabrics,  pure,  plain,  figured,  brocaded.  Silk  fabrics  mixed  with  gold,  silver, 
cotton,  wool,  thread. 

Manufactures  of  floss  silk,  pure  or  mixed. 

Velvet  and  plush. 

Silk  ribbons,  pure  or  mixed. 


430 


REPORT 


OX 

TEXTILE  FABRICS. 


The  history  of  the  manufacture  of  textiles  having  been 
treated  at  length  in  the  reports  of  the  commissioners  to 
the  former  Industrial  Exposition  at  Paris,  I  was  instructed 
to  apply  myself  mainly  to  a  survey  and  description  of  the 
present  exhibit  of  cotton ,  woolen,  linen,  and  silk  fabrics, 
and  a  presentation  of  such  pertinent  and  practical  informa¬ 
tion  as  might  be  obtainable  in  connection  therewith.  Ad¬ 
monished  of  the  necessity  of  condensation  and  brevity, 
without  extended  preface  I  proceed  to  a  consideration  of 
the  textile  displays  of  the  various  nations  seriatim. 

GREAT  BRITAIN.  great  Britain. 

Great  Britain,  as  the  pioneer  of  manufacturing  by  power,  The  pi0Ilcer 
and  the  possessor  of  a  record  and  a  prestige  in  these  pur-  i^apower.ur 
suits  marvelous  beyond  precedent  or  comparison,  first  in¬ 
vites  our  attention. 

To  those  who  looked  for  a  show  of  goods  in  Class  30,  Cotton  fabrics. 
Cotton  Thread  and  Fabrics,  which  would  be  an  adequate 
representation  of  England’s  skill  and  enterprise  in  this  line, 
the  display  was  a  disappointment.  It  is  true  that  the  grand 
prize  of  this  class  was  awarded,  and  justly  too,  to  an  En¬ 
glish  exhibitor ;  but  the  number  of  contributions  from  Great  Superior  exliib- 
Britain  which  were  really  worthy  of  notice  was  provokingly  number.  *ew  m 
small. 

The  exhibit  of  Tootal-Broadhurst,  Lee,  &  Co.,  of  Man-  Grand  prize 
Chester  and  Bradford,  which  secured  the  grand  prize,  was  in  hurst,  Lee,  &Co. 
every  respect  admirable  and  meritorious.  Brilliants,  piques,  * 
cambrics,  and  many  forms  of  fancy  weaving  in  white  were  white  and 
shown,  in  conjunction  with  an  infinite  variety  of  printed  aMcomhinaUons 
fabrics,  and  many  wonderful  combinations  of  cotton  and Wlth  cotton' 
wool,  cotton  and  silk,  silk  and  wool,  etc.  There  were  nearly 
3,000  patterns  in  their  show-case,  and  I  was  told  that  their  3,000  patterns 
warehouse  contains  nearly  20,000  specimens  of  goods  which  exhlblted- 
have  been  made  by  them.  It  is  obvious  that  skill  and  appli¬ 
cation  must  be  augmented  by  the  experience  and  training  of 
years  to  produce  such  results  as  their  exhibition  disclosed. 

431 


432 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 

Tootal  -  Broad 
hurst,  Lee,  &  Co 


Unrivaled  ex 
cellence. 


Dacca  Twist  Co 


Horrockses, 
Miller,  &  Co. 


John  Hawkins 
&  Sons. 


Johnson, 
Jabez,  &  Tildes. 


Patent  Velvet 
Company. 


I  should  say  that  competition  with  this  concern,  in  some  of 
•  its  specialties,  would  be  utterly  futile.  Many  of  its  designs 
could  he  produced  in  England,  France,  and  Switzerland,  and 
some  of  them  in  the  United  States :  hut  he  would  he  a  san¬ 
guine  operator  who  could  hope  to  rival  in  excellence,  within 
the  compass  of  one  generation,  so  immense  and  varied  a 
production. 

The  exhibit  of  the  Dacca  Twist  Company,  of  Manchester, 
was  also  conspicuous  for  its  great  variety  and  its  uncommon 
excellence,  both  of  manufacture  and  finish.  It  included 
gray,  bleached,  and  dyed  sheetings  and  shirtings,  cambrics, 
quiltings,  satteens,  damasks,  brocades,  dimities,  ticks,  sile- 
sias,  serges,  etc.,  and  also  a  large  assortment  of  braids, 
tapes,  and  other  small  wares.  I  infer  that  this  exhibition 
was  a  collective  one,  and  the  product  of  many  mills  con¬ 
signed  to  the  parties  whose  names  appear  as  the  exhibitors. 

Horrockses,  Miller,  &  Co.,  of  Manchester  and  Preston, 
showed  fine  specimens  of  their  substantial  long  cloths,  cam¬ 
brics,  and  twilled  shirtings.  It  is  known  to  the  trade  the 
world  over  that  this  firm  have  always  steadfastly  refused 
to  stuff  or  fill  their  goods,  as  is  the  prevalent  and  pernicious 
custom  in  England.  They  are  now  deriving  a  great  advan¬ 
tage  from  the  reputation  they  have  acquired  for  honest 
finish,  in  the  enhanced  price  which  they  realize  for  their  pro¬ 
duct.  A  gold  medal  was  awarded. 

The  old-established  house  of  John  Hawkins  &  Sons,  of 
Manchester,  made  a  display  very  similar  to  the  preceding. 
It  seems  to  be  the  aim  of  this  firm  to  give  a  pure  finish  and 
to  rely  on  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  cloth  rather  than  on 
deceptive  appearances. 

The  most  noticeable  display  of  Marseilles  and  Bolton 
quilts,  counterpanes,  and  furniture  dimities  was  that  of 
Johnson,  Jabez,  &  Fildes,  of  Manchester,  who  also  showed  a 
great  variety  of  table-covers,  napkins,  towels,  etc.,  in  cotton. 

The  Patent  Yelvet  Company,  of  Manchester,  by  a  new  and 
patented  process,  produce  really  beautiful  articles  in  velvet, 
velveteen,  and  moleskins. 


Fabrics  from  The  British  exhibits  in  Class  31,  Fabrics  from  Flax,  Hemp, 
fax,  hemp,  etc.  e^c<?  were  jn  the  aggregate  very  unsatisfactory  and  disap¬ 
pointing. 

Joseph  Mur-  Joseph  Murphy  &  Son,  of  Belfast,  Ireland,  exhibited  linen 
damasks  in  two  shades,  which  attracted  general  attention  by 
their  elegant  designs.  The  table-cloth  of  the  Pavilion  of  the 
Prince  of  Wales  was  furnished  by  this  house. 

Preston,  Smith  Preston,  Smith,  &  Co.  showed  fine  lawns,  both  plain  and 

&  Co.  7  7  7 


TEXTILE  FABRICS:  COMMISSIONER  HOWARD. 


433 


printed.  In  this  case  I  noticed  some  unbleached  linen  great  Britain. 
goods  for  ladies’  dresses  which  were  decidedly  effective. 

Fine  linen  lawns  woven  with  fast  colors,  handkerchiefs 
with  colored  borders  and  gold-thread  patterns,  were  promi¬ 
nent  and  attractive  in  the  display  of  L.  H.  Guynet  &  Co.,  of  Guynct. 

Belfast. 

William  Barbour  &  Sons,  of  Lisburn,  Ireland,  had  on  ex-  w.  Barbour  & 
hibition  an  endless  assortment  of  threads  of  exquisite  finish.  ‘  on8‘ 

This  house  has  been  in  existence  about  one  hundred  years. 

It  employs  between  two  and  three  thousand  people  in  Ire¬ 
land,  and  from  seven  to  eight  hundred  in  Paterson,  1ST.  J. 

Mention  should  be  made  of  the  great  care  and  taste  dis- .  Car(?  ta8(* 
played  in  arranging  linen  goods  for  market.  In  no  other  pacing  linen 
department  is  there  such  pains  taken  to  meet  the  peculiar 
tastes  of  purchasers  in  matters  of  adornment.  Each  pur¬ 
chasing  nation  has  its  own  preferences,  and  the  variety  of 
methods  used  by  linen  manufacturers  in  finishing,  putting 
up,  and  packing  is  quite  surprising.  The  cotton  manufac- 
turers  of  the  United  States  have  made  a  great  advance  in  tmers. 
this  respect  within  a  few  years,  but  they  have  yet  much  to 
learn  from  the  Irish  linen  manufacturers. 

Included  in  Class  31  was  the  noteworthy  exhibition  of  the  farrow  Flax 
new  fabric  made  by  the  Barrow  Flax  and  Jute  Company,  p<™y. 
of  Barrow-in-Furness,  England,  and  called  by  them  “Kala- 
ineit.”  This  product  is  the  result  of  a  new  method  of  treat¬ 
ing  jute,  and  the  process  is  kept  secret.  It  is  the  invention 
of  Mr.  Julius  Sacks,  an  Australian.  The  fiber  of  the  plant 
is  subdivided  more  minutely  than  ever  was  effected  before ; 
the  result  being  the  production  of  a  fine  silky  material  which 
takes  and  holds  dyes  in  a  remarkable  manner.  The  articles  “Kaiameit.” 
exhibited  consist  of  curtains,  hangings,  table-cloths,  and  attractiveness, 
dress  goods ;  some  of  which  were  of  such  brilliant  colors  and 
of  such  glossy  finish  as  to  give  the  casual-  observer  the 
impression  that  the  goods  were  made  of  silk,  or  that  silk 
entered  largely  into  their  structure.  It  was  said  that  car¬ 
pets  have  been  made  of  the  new  material  very  successfully 
and  that  it  had  proved  serviceable  for  hosiery  purposes. 

The  conspicuous  exhibits  in  Class  32,  Worsted  Fabrics,  Worsted  fabrics. 
were  those  of  John  Foster  &  Son,  of  Queensbury,  who  had  John  Foster  & 
a  large  stock  of  alpaca  and  mohair  brilliantines  and  mantle 
cloths  ; 

John  Priestman  &  Co.,  of  Bradford,  who  showed  a  long  John  Priest 
line  of  silk  warp  paramattas  and  Persian  cords,  Italian man  °‘ 
cloth,  etc.;  and 

Scarborough  Bros.,  of  Halifax,  who  displayed  Berlin  wool,  Scarborough 

Bros. 

28  P  K 


434 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


great  Britain,  fringe,  yarns,  dress  fabrics,  damasks,  and  a  great  variety  of 
.  reps  for  furniture. 

It  was  generally  admitted  that  these  exhibits  stood  at  the 
head  of  this  class.  The  nearest  approach  to  them  came 
bianceo? liSSi  ^rom  Russia.  In  fact  the  resemblance  of  the  Russian  goods 
fishds  to  the  Ens  th®  English  was  so  close  that  some  of  the  Bradford  manu¬ 
facturers  insisted  upon  it  that  the  so-called  Russian  fabrics 
were  primarily  imported  from  England.  The  weight  of 
authority,  however,  seemed  to  be  to  the  effect  that  the  goods 
were  Russian  imitations  of  English  styles.  Even  then  it 
must  be  recognized  that  great  progress  in  manufacturing 
has  been  made  by  this  nation,  and  that  she  is  fast  becoming 
a  formidable  competitor  of  England. 


Woolen  yarn  and 
fabrics. 


England 
tria,  and 


If  the  display  in  the  British  section  of  Classes  30,  31,  and 
■J2  was  disappointing,  the  exhibits  of  Class  33  (Woolen 
Yarn  and  Fabrics)  were  a  great  surprise  in  the  opposite 
direction.  There  were  69  entries  from  Great  Britain  in  this 
class.  The  entries  in  Class  30,  notwithstanding  the  extent 
and  diversity  of  the  cotton  manufacture  in  England,  were  33 
only  ;  the  number  of  entries  in  Class  31  were  19  only  ;  and 
beiwetT^ranc^ Class  32  but  12.  It  is  difficult  to  say  to  which  nation  be- 
longs  the  place  of  honor  in  this  class.  France,  England, 
Austria,  and  Belgium  contended  for  the  palm  with  nearly 
equal  success.  France  naturally  led  in  the  number  of  en 
tries  in  this  as  in  all  the  other  classes,  having  192  exhibitors. 
Austria  was  represented  by  86  and  Belgium  by  53  exhibitors. 
The  British  manufacturers  in  this  line  who  seemed  best  to 
deserve  notice  were  the  following  : 

Hudson,  Sykes,  &  Bousfield,  of  Leeds,  who  had  a  fine  stock 
of  union  cloths,  cotton  warp  coatings,  and  cloakings : 

William  Bliss  &  Son,  of  Chipping  Horton,  who  showed  an 
immense  variety  of  tweeds,  saddler’s  woolens,  serges  for 
civil,  naval,  and  military  purposes,  coatings,  rugs,  cloakings, 
shawls,  and  mauds  ; 

o.  & j.  stubiey.  George  &  James  Stubley,  of  Batley,  who  were  repre¬ 
sented  by  a  magnificent  assortment  of  beavers,  presidents, 
pilots,  friezes  for  coatings,  cheviots,  velvets,  etc  ; 

Alexanders  &  Co.,  of  Hawick,  Scotland,  who  displayed 
a  fine  inventive  taste  in  tweeds,  and  traveling  plaids,  and 
mauds; 

James  Brooke  James  Brooke  &  Son,  of  Huddersfield,  whose  black  and 
blue  diagonal  and  Venetians  and  Bedford  cords  were  of  rec¬ 
ognized  excellence; 

John  Brown,  of  Huddersfield,  who  made  a  striking  ex¬ 
hibition  of  woolen  cords,  woven  with  races  or  floating  spools, 


Hudson,  Sykes 
&  Bousfield. 


Wm.  Bliss  &  Son. 


Alexanders  &  Co. 


John  Brown. 


TEXTILE  FABRICS:  COMMISSIONER  HOWARD 


435 


into  which  knives  are  introduced  for  cutting  the  floating  cheat biutain. 
threads ; 

Brown,  Linstead,  &  Co.,  of  Manchester,  who  have  a  pat-  Brown,  Lin 
ented  process  for  weaving  seal  skin  traveling  rugs  ; 

Marling  &  Co.,  of  Stroud,  who  had  the  best  assortment  of  Marling  &  Co. 
superfine  cloths,  beavers,  and  meltons ; 

H.  G-.  Porter  &  Co.,  St.  Kilda,  Shetland  Islands,  who  h.  g.  Porter  <t 
made  a  unique  exhibition  of  Highland  homespun  and  hand- 
laom  woven  tweed  and  costume  fabrics  from  undyed  wool ; 
and 

ThomasJB.  Willans  &  Co.,  of  Rochdale,  who  displayed  a  t.  b.  Williams 
long  line  of  fancy  woven  and  printed  flannels  for  shirtings 
and  morning  costumes,  white  and  dyed  Saxony  electorals  for 
under  clothing,  and  a  fine  assortment  of  army  and  navy 
flannels. 

It  must  be  conceded  that,  while  France  is  the  great  ere-  while  France 
ator  of  fashions  in  female  attire,  Great  Britain  directs  the  ittSe,  England  Is 
way  in  fabrics  for  men’s  wear.  Nearly  every  civilized  rjSrei?or  1  men’s 
community  in  the  world  was  represented  in  the  department wear- 
of  woolens,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  there  was  a  class  or  even  a  classes  and  pat- 
pattern  which  did  not  make  its  first  appearance  either  in  origLau  mgB??t8 
England  or  Scotland.  The  most  obvious  demonstration  of am' 
this  supremacy  is  seen  in  the  infinite  extent  of  the  imitation 
of  Scotch  goods,  as  they  are  termed.  This  comparatively 
young  industry  has  spread  all  over  the  world.  Tweeds  con-  Tweeds, 
stituted  the  piece  de  resistance  of  all  the  nations  just  strug¬ 
gling  into  respectability  in  the  woolen  manufacture,  and  the 
more  recent  and  finer  forms  of  Scotch  suitings  graced  the  Scotch  suitings, 
show-cases  of  the  most  renowned  and  popular  fabricants  of 
the  Continent.  In  fact  no  other  goods  have  so  firm  a  hold 
on  the  general  favor  as  this  outgrowth  of  the  Cheviot  Hills, 
with  its  soft,  yielding,  pliable  texture,  and  its  vague,  in¬ 
definite  blended  harmony  of  neutral  colors.  For  daily  use  Scotch  goods 

.  .  ,  J  _  .  have  superseded 

and  business  wear  they  are  the  universal  staple,  and  thrust  fabrics  of  surface 
aside  as  ruthlessly  as  ever  the  large  family  of  cassimeres,  ry  wear, 
doeskins,  broadcloths,  and  other  goods  of  luster  and  surface 
finish.  It  will  not  be  strange,  however,  if  some  new  material 
should  make  its  appearance  and  challenge  these  successful 
favorites.  The  woolen  men  of  Yorkshire  are  astir,  and  do 
not  mean  to  let  all  the  laurels  go  over  the  border  much 
longer. 

There  were  39  English  exhibitors  in  Class  34,  Silk  Fabrics,  suic  fabrics. 
and  the  exhibition  must  be  regarded  as  very  creditable. 

Clabburn,  Sons,  &  Crisp,  of  Norwich,  showed  silk- warp  ciabbum,  Sons, 
paramattas  and  other  morning  fabrics;  all  silk  and  mixed &Cribp 


436  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

great  Britain,  fabrics  for  dresses;  together  with  tapestries,  table-covers, 
rugs,  and  fabrics  for  furniture. 

«ntcii&  J' B  HQ  ^  B.  Hilditch,  of  London,  a  house  of  one  hundred 

and  thirty  years’  standing,  displayed  elegant  duplex  corded 
silk,  satin  twills,  and  silks  for  flags. 

&  Co*  Brothers  Pim  Brothers  &  Co.,  of  Dublin,  made  a  magnificent  dis¬ 
play  of  Irish  poplins  and  of  silk  terries  for  furniture. 

Umbrella  and  parasol  silks  seemed  to  be  a  specialty  with 
Sous. Yanner  &  J.  Yanner  &  Sons,  of  Haverhill;  cravat  silks  with  Slater, 
ingtem  & cck°^" Buckingham,  &  Co.,  of  London:  and  elastic  webs  of  silk, 
George  Holme,  cotton,  and  wool  with  George  Holme,  of  Bradford. 


HEITISH  COLO¬ 
NIES. 


BRITISH  COLONIES. 


Exhibits 

Victoria. 


The  textile  contributions  from  the  British  colonies,  though 
not  sufficient  in  extent  or  variety  to  justify  classification, 
were  generally  meritorious,  and  in  some  instances  strikingly 
so. 

of  From  the  enterprising  colony  of  Victoria  came  blankets, 
manufactured  by  the  Castlemaine  Woolen  Company,  of  Cas- 
tlemaine ;  tweeds,  shawls,  and  blankets,  made  by  the  Vic- 
wooiencompa-torian  Woolen  Cloth  Manufacturing  Company,  of  Geelong; 
maine.  Geelong,  and  flannels  from  the  Ballarat  Woolen  Company,  of  Ballarat, 
and  Ballarat.  when  jfc  js  considered  that  the  first  woolen  mill  in  Victoria 
was  erected  but  sixteen  years  ago,  the  progress  of  the  colony 
in  manufacturing  ought  to  be  considered  satisfactory. 
Difference  in  It  is  somewhat  singular  that  Victoria  and  £few  South 
views  onbP™^  yyaies  should  differ  so  widely  on  the  question  of  protection, 
s.  wales.1  '  South  Wales  still  adheres  to  the  free-trade  ideas  dominant 
in  England,  while  the  governing  spirit  in  Victoria  aims  to 
establish,  by  protective  legislation,  manufacturing  as  a  per¬ 
manent  industry.  There  are  now  eight  woolen  mills  in  op¬ 
eration,  and  I  was  told  that  the  goods  manufactured  by 
them  had  driven  out  imported  goods  of  a  similar  character. 
Canadian  ex-  Canada  also  made  a  very  creditable  exhibit  of  woolens. 
Gaui't  Brothers.  Gault  Bros.,  of  Montreal,  had  on  view  a  large  assortment  of 
flannels  of  various  colors  and  designs,  checks,  shirtings,  suit¬ 
ings,  trouserings — a  fine  article,  in  every  respect  equal  to 
those  brought  from  England—  men’s  heavy  all-wool  under¬ 
vests,  and  many  knit  goods,  both  fine  and  heavy.  The 
prices  named  for  these  goods  were  very  low.  The  Canada 
Manufactv^Co!  Cotton  Manufacturing  Company,  of  Cornwall,  Ont.,  con¬ 
tributed  cottonades,  twills,  checks,  and  fancy  shirtings. 
Paton  Manu-rp]ie  paton  Manufacturing  Company,  of  Sherbrooke,  Que- 


facturing  Co. 


bee,  showed  flannels,  fine  and  coarse  tweeds,  linings,  suit¬ 
ings,  etc. 


TEXTILE  FABRICS:  COMMISSIONER  HOWARD.  437 


Nova  Scotia  was  well  represented  by  a  contribution  of  BEITI^IIESCOLO‘ 
tweeds,  medium  suitings,  and  flannels  from  the  Oxford  Man-  Nova  Scotia 
ufacturing  Company,  Oxford.  In  general,  I  learned  that  the  ^anu 

manufacturing  of  textiles  in  Canada  had  doubled  since  1860 ;  increase  in  Can - 
that  there  is  a  good  export  trade  to  England,  and  to  some  ^EJ1araciter)rov' 
extent  a  trade  to  France  through  England ;  and  that  much 
attention  is  now  given  to  the  production  of  novel  and  artis¬ 
tic  designs.  The  tolerance  of  the  home  government  towards 
the  colonies  in  the  matter  of  protective  legislation  is  cred-  is^™0nCtivo  leg‘ 
itable  to  its  liberality  no  doubt,  but  is  hardly  consistent 
with  the  prevalent  indignation  towards  the  United  States 
as  a  nation  of  protectionists. 


AUSTRIA-HUNG- ARY.  Austria  -  Hun¬ 

gary. 

Austria  was  represented  by  30  contributors  in  Class  30.  Cotton  goods. 
The  following  were  the  most  notable: 

Leopold  Abeles,  of  Vienna,  made  a  general  display  of  cot-  Leopold  Abeies. 
ton  goods,  white  and  colored,  and  including  a  good  variety 
of  fancy  designs.  This  seems  to  be  one  of  the  most  import¬ 
ant  cotton  manufactories  in  Austria.  It  has  been  in  exist¬ 
ence  thirty-six  years,  employs  about  3,000  hands,  and  runs 
1,000  power-looms  and  1,000  liand-looms.  A  commendable ,  Employers’  aids 

.  '  for  working-peo- 

feature  is  the  attention  given  by  the  proprietors  to  sanitary  pie. 
measures  and  to  the  accumulation  of  mutual-benefit  funds 
among  the  operatives.  The  goods  are  largely  exported  to 
Russia  and  the  Danubian  principalities. 

F.  Graumann  &  Co.,  of  Vienna,  exhibited  piques,  percales,  &  c^- Graumann 
shirtings,  towelings,  handkerchiefs,  etc.,  in  a  great  variety. 

Their  product  is  intended  for  home  consumption  and  for 
export  to  Germany  and  the  East. 

Michael  Hainisch,  of  Vienna,  displayed  a  general  and  large  M-  Hainisch. 
assortment  of  plain  and  fancy  goods  of  medium  quality.  He 
has  some  50,000  spindles,  and  provides  a  church,  school,  and 
hospital  for  his  work-people. 

Franz  Krenek  &  Sons,  of  Frankstadt,  showed  plain  cot-  Son^-  & 
tons,  damasks,  foulards,  etc. 

Cotton-spinning  in  Austria  was  seriously  crippled  by  the 
American  civil  war.  Since  1870,  however,  it  has  been  grad¬ 
ually  improving.  There  are  now  about  1,500,000  spindles 
in  operation.  The  number  of  spindles  is  not  sufficient  for  chinery. 
weaving  requirements,  and  much  yarn,  principally  of  five 
numbers,  is  imported.  Power-looms  are  gradually  displac-  ya^Portati<m  of 
ing  those  worked  by  hand.  The  manufacture  of  fabrics  of 
a  mixed  character  is  on  the  increase.  As  Austrian  special¬ 
ties  may  be  named  cotton  velvets  for  trousers  and  other  cottonpecj?ivets: 
garments,  colored  table  cloths  with  local  and  specific  designs, etc- 


438  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

austria-hun-  and  cotton  ribbons.  The  Austrian  printing  resembles  in 
_ _  general  the  cheaper  English  styles.  The  chief  seat  of  dye¬ 
ing,  bleaching,  and  printing  is  in  Lower  Austria. 


Exhibits  in  In  Class  31  there  were  21  exhibits  from  Austria.  Con- 

Class  31:  cottons. 

spicuous  among  these  were  the  articles  contributed  by  Leo¬ 
pold  Abeles  and  the  Graumanns,  named  as  exhibitors  in 
Class  30,  the  heirs  of  Johann  Faltis,  of  Trautenau;  Begen- 
hart  &  Baymann,  of  Freiwaldau;  and  W.  Jerie,  of  Hohen- 
elbe. 

Flax  industry.  Although  the  flax  industry  is  one  of  the  oldest  industries 
of  the  empire,  it  hardly  keeps  pace  with  some  other  branches 
of  manufacturing.  I  think  this  is  largely  due  to  the  fact 
that,  while  flax-spinning  by  power  has  been  largely  developed , 
power- weaving  has  not  been  so  freely  adopted  as  it  has  been 
in  other  countries.  It  would  seem  that  the  spinning  of  flax 
has  been  somewThat  inordinately  increased,  as  the  require¬ 
ments  of  the  spindles  are  beyond  the  home  production  of 
the  raw  material,  and  their  products  beyond  the  receiving 
capacity  of  the  looms.  A  considerable  quantity  of  flax  is 
importation  of  imported  from  Bussia,  and  there  is  a  large  exportation  of 
Exportation  of  yarns  to  Germany.  While  there  are  upwards  of  400,000  flax 
spindles  operated  by  power,  there  are  only  some  500  power- 
Prevaienco  of  looms  known  to  be  in  operation.  There  are  many  thousand 

band-looms.  .  , 

hand-looms,  however. 

Jute  manufacture  has  not  as  yet  attained  to  any  great  de¬ 
velopment  in  Austria,  though  there  are  two  important  es¬ 
tablishments  in  Vienna,  and  the  business  is  carried  on  to 
some  extent  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia. 


worsted.  In  Class  32  there  were  but  9  entries  from  Austria.  The 
most  interesting  of  these  was  the  exhibition  of  the  Voslauer 
Company,  which  had  an  assortment  of  yarns  of  nineteen 
hundred  varieties  of  colors  and  shades. 

The  spinning  of  combed  wool  in  Austria  is  less  than  would 
be  expected  when  it  is  considered  that  the  Austrian,  and  es¬ 
pecially  the  Hungarian,  wools  are  supposed  to  be  well  adapt¬ 
ed  to  this  purpose.  As  a  consequence,  large  quantities  of 
importation  of  tilling  are  imported  from  England,  France,  and  Germany. 

The  manufacture  of  goods  of  combed  wool  has  been  largely 
Seats  of  manu-  developed  in  ^Northern  Bohemia,  but  Vienna  is  the  principal 
seat  of  business.  Hand-looms  are  largely  used,  but  thibets, 
mohair,  cashmere,  and  Orleans  cloth,  as  also  lastings  and 
coatings,  are  frequently  made  on  power-looms. 

Hand-iooms.  Hand-looms  are  mainly  used  for  the  manufacture  of  fancy 
stuffs  for  dresses.  Manufacturers  generally  do  their  own 
dyeing  and  finishing,  and  sometimes  the  printing  and  em- 


TEXTILE  FABRICS:  COMMISSIONER  HOWARD. 


439 


Stuffs  for  men’s  wear  are  extensively  made  in  aus™£yHUN 


broi  dering. 

Upper  Austria  and  Silesia,  and  table-clotlis  at  Freud enthal. 

Austria,  like  England,  made  up  by  a  wonderful  exhibit 
in  Class  33  for  all  shortcomings  in  Classes  30,  31,  and  32. 
There  were  82  entries  of  woolen  fabrics,  many  of  them  being 
very  extensive.  After  a  prolonged  examination  and  much 
taking  of  notes,  I  came  to  the  conclusion  that  it  was  im¬ 
possible  by  any  enumeration  of  exhibitors  to  furnish  any 
just  concejition  of  this  immense  display.  The  goods  were 
naturally  very  similar  in  character,  though  of  varying  de¬ 
grees  of  fineness.  Broadcloths,  cassimeres,  and  beavers,  in 
decorous  black  for  civil  life,  and  in  many  colors  for  military 
and  navy  purposes,  constituted  the  bulk  of  this  class.  It 
seemed  to  be  generally  conceded  that  it  was  difficult  to  de¬ 
termine  whether  the  palm  for  excellence  in  superfine  broad¬ 
cloths  belonged  to  the  west  of  England  or  to  Austria.  It 
is  certain  that  the  Austrian  fabricants  do  not  mean  to  be 
outrivaled  in  the  production  of  the  finest  forms  of  all-wool 
cloth  for  men’s  wear.  The  woolen  manufacture  is  one  of 
the  most  important  as  well  as  one  of  the  oldest  industries 
of  the  empire.  It  has  in  its  service  some  560,000  spindles. 
The  native  wools  are  excellent,  but  it  is  necessary  to  import 
large  quantities  from  the  British  colonies,  Russia,  and  Tur¬ 
key.  Formerly  the  exports  laigely  exceeded  the  imports, 
but  latterly  the  imports  have  quite  equaled  the  exports. 


Woolen  fabrics. 


Fine  display. 


Superfine 

broadcloth. 


Competition 
between  England 
and  Austria. 


Importance  of 
woolen  manufac¬ 
ture. 


Importation  of 
wool. 


In  Class  34  the  Austrian  exhibits  numbered  19.  The  sat. 
prominent  ones  were  the  following : 

William  de  Ritter  &  Co.,  of  Gorice,  who  made  a  fine  display  w.  do  Ritter  & 
of  floss  silk  and  threads  of  many  degrees  of  fineness.  This 
establishment  seems  to  have  met  with  a  good  degree  of  suc¬ 
cess.  It  was  started  in  1853  and  now  runs  about  15,000 
spindles.  It  employs  about  800  hands. 

S.  Trebitsch  &  Son,  of  Vienna,  had  a  beautiful  line  of  black  s-  Trebitsch  & 
silks. 

Albert  Wolff  &  Son,  of  Vienna,  showed  mixed  fabrics  for  A- Wolff  &  Son- 
furniture. 

C.  M.  Schreiber,  of  Vienna,  a  large  assortment  of  velvet  C.  M.  Schreiber. 
ribbons. 

Within  twenty  years  the  silk  manufacture  has  greatly  increase  of  silk 
extended.  There  are  now  some  thirty-three  establishments  manufacture- 
in  the  South  Tyrol,  which  is  the  principal  center  of  silk- 
spinning.  These  establishments  contain  about  90,000  spin¬ 
dles.  Formerly  the  manufacture  centered  at  Vienna,  but, 
though  the  commerce  still  remains  there,  the  manufacture 
has  been  mostly  transferred  to  the  provinces.  The  dyeing 


440 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Austria  -  jjtjjm-  and  finishing  is  generally  done  at  Vienna.  The  exports 

- - - were  formerly  much  larger  than  the  imports,  hut  within  the 

last  ten  years  the  duties  have  been  reduced  and  now  the 
imports  of  fine  imports  are  in  excess.  The  imports  are  mainly  of  fine  goods, 
Exports  of  while  coarse  and  check  goods  contribute  the  bulk  of  the  ex- 

coarse  goods.  ,  , . 

portation. 

RUSSIA.  RUSSIA. 


Surprising  ex¬ 
cellence  of  exhib¬ 
its. 


Cotton  goods. 


Huebner  Com¬ 
pany. 


Karetnikoff  & 
Son. 


J.  X.  Koncbino. 


V.  Moiozoff. 


C.  Scbeibler. 


Forssa  Com¬ 
pany. 


Cotton  mills  of 
Russia 


The  Eussian  exhibit  of  textiles  surprised  all  and  alarmed 
some.  English  experts  freely  declared  that  Eussian  com¬ 
petition  was  a  greater  menace  to  Great  Britain  than  that  of 
any  other  nation. 

There  were  21  entries  in  Class  30,  the  following  being  the 
most  noticeable : 

The  Huebner  Company,  of  Moscow,  exhibited  prints, 
serges,  brilliants,  and  cotton  handkerchiefs.  This  company, 
established  in  1846,  makes  use  of  steam-power  to  the  extent 
of  460  horse-power.  It  operates  14  printing  machines  and 
employs  1,200  workmen. 

Karetnikoff  &  Son  displayed  plain  cottons  and  prints. 
They  run  34,000  spindles,  about  1,000  looms,  and  use  7  print¬ 
ing  machines.  * 

J.  K.  Konchine,  of  Moscow,  had  on  exhibition  an  assort¬ 
ment  of  cotton  shawls  and  handkerchiefs,  brilliants,  and 
prints.  He  has  45,000  spindles,  1,300  looms,  and  gives  em¬ 
ployment  to  3,800  work-people. 

V.  Morozoff,  of  Wladimir,  a  well-known  house,  exhibited 
reps,  percales,  nankins,  etc.  He  operates  500  looms,  pro¬ 
duces  400,000  pieces  of  goods,  and  employs  3,000  persons. 
The  disproportion  between  the  number  of  persons  employed 
and  the  production  is  owing  mainly  to  the  general  use  of 
hand-looms.  It  is  admitted,  however,  that  there  is  a  great 
waste  of  labor  in  the  Eussian  factories. 

C.  Scheibler,  of  Lodz,  who  made  a  show  of  white  and 
colored  cottons,  is  one  of  the  largest  manufacturers  in  Eussia. 
He  has  5,500  work-people,  runs  27  steam-engines,  of  3,500 
horse-power,  and  operates  192,000  spindles  and  about  3,000 
looms. 

The  Forssa  Company,  of  Tammela,  Finland,  had  a  show  of 
colored  shirtings.  This  company  has  5  turbines,  of 290  horse¬ 
power,  and  5  steam-engines,  of  400  horse  power.  The  value 
of  its  annual  production  is  about  $600,000. 

I  give  these  details  in  order  that  the  reader  may  form 
some  idea  of  the  extent  and  character  of  manufacturing 
in  this  country,  sometimes  disdained  as  semi-barbarous. 
The  number  of  mills  engaged  in  spinning  and  weaving  cot¬ 
ton  in  Eussia  is  about  1,800.  Of  course  many  of  these,  es- 


TEXTILE  FABRICS:  COMMISSIONER  HOWARD. 


441 


pecially  of  those  engaged  in  weaving,  are  very  small.  The  Russia. 
number  of  people  employed  is  probably  about  200,000.  The 
printing  establishments  number  about  160.  They  employ 
25,000  hands,  and  the  yearly  value  of  their  production  is  statistics  of 
about  $20,000,000.  The  quality  of  the  cloth  is  excellent.  ture°n  manufac 
Print  cloths  usually  weigh  about  five  yards  to  the  pound. 

In  the  production  of  the  turkey  red  dye  the  madder  from 
the  Caucasus  is  largely  used. 

Although  Russia  had  8  entries  only  in  Class  31,  it  made  Linen  manujac- 
in  the  aggregate  a  most  creditable  show. 

The  display  of  Hill6  &  Dietrich,  of  Girardowo,  surpassed  ^  nuie  &  Diet- 
all  other  exhibits  of  linen.  The  goods  were  shown  in  the 
form  of  a  pyramid,  which  stood  in  the  center  of  one  of  the 
main  isles.  It  would  be  useless  to  enumerate  the  various 
kinds  assembled,  as  about  everything  known  to  the  linen  m^Xexhii5trof 
trade  was  represented.  The  goods  were  superb  in  mauu-  every  variety  of 

o  a.  linen  goods. 

facture  and  finish,  and  great  care  and  taste  were  manifested 
in  the  putting  up.  Philippe  de  Girard,  the  founder  of  this  Girar Jllilippe  do 
manufactory,  was  the  inventor  and  constructor  of  the  first 
machine  for  weaving  of  linen  by  power.  Prom  him  the 
village  takes  its  name  of  Girardowo.  The  establishment 
contains  1,200  power-looms  and  300  hand-looms.  Alto¬ 
gether  it  employs  5,000  hands,  most  of  whom  live  in  houses  workmen, 
of  the  company.  Great  attention  is  given  to  the  sanitary 
condition  of  the  people.  A  physician  and  surgeon  are  under  Jt™P1eoyers’  f0sr 
regular  pay  from  the  company,  and  schools  and  hospitals  are  working  people, 
maintained.  Rooms  are  provided  for  the  use  of  children 
whose  mothers  are  in  the  mill,  and  young  girls  are  trained 
to  take  care  of  the  children  while  the  mothers  are  at  work. 

The  commissioner  from  Russia,  under  whose  intelligent 
guidance  I  made  the  examination  of  Russian  textiles,  was 
loud  in  his  praise  of  M.  Girard,  and  the  superior  work  and 
general  management  of  this  establishment. 

In  Class  31  there  was  also  a  good  exhibition  of  sail-cloth  Sail  cloth, 
from  Baron  Stieglitz,  of  St.  Petersburg,  who  employs  about  Baron  stieglitz. 
1,000  persons. 

There  was  also  a  fine  assortment  of  white  and  colored  Table  linen,  etc. 
linens  for  table  use  and  for  pocket-handkerchiefs  from 
Gribanoff  &  Sons,  of  Vologda,  who  give  employment  to  up-  Gribanoff  &  sons, 
wards  of  1,000  persons.  The  flax  and  linen  industry  is  a 
natural  occupation  for  Russia.  The  climate  and  the  soil  are 
well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  flax.  Linen  was  first  manufact¬ 
ured  there  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
but  received  a  great  impetus  during  our  civil  war,  owing  to 


442 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


RUSSIA-  the  high  price  of  American  cotton.  It  is  estimated  that 
there  are  about  120  linen  mills  in  the  empire. 


Worsteds. 


In  Class  32  there  were  from  Eussia  18  entries.  It  is 
difficult  to  particularize  in  goods  where  so  much  depends 
upon  patterns  as  in  worsteds,  but  it  must  be  said  in  general 
that  the  goods  in  this  class  attracted  a  great  deal  of  attention 


Eussiancompe- and  some  comment. 

tition  with  Eng- 


The  intelligent  manufacturers  from 


land, 


and  Lyons. 


Statistics. 


Woolens. 


Bradford,  England,  examined  them  very  closely,  surprised 
to  find  their  own  styles  reproduced  with  such  accuracy  and 
excellent  results.  The  conclusion  reached  was  to  the  effect 
that  not  only  were  the  products  of  England  seriously  threat¬ 
ened,  but  that  the  finer  results  of  Lyons  were  in  danger. 
The  reporter  for  the  u  Textile  Manufacturer,”  speaking  of 
this  section,  said :  “Perhaps  in  no  other  section  is  the  com¬ 
petition  with  England  in  her  particular  class  of  goods  so 
evident  as  in  the  Eussian  section.  A  little  of  almost  every¬ 
thing  is  shown,  executed  in  a  practical  and  clever  manner, 
and  no  one  instance  can  be  found  indicating  useless  attempt 
or  clumsy  failure.”  Especial  mention  should  be  made  of  the 
exceeding  skill  and  taste  with  which  the  Eussian s  introduce 
geometrical  and  angular  designs  into  dress  goods  of  this 
class.  The  number  of  worsted  mills  in  Eussia  is  about 
150,  and  the  value  of  their  production  is  probably  about 
$15,000,000. 

In  Class  33  there  were  25  exhibits  from  Eussia.  These 
woolens  were,  as  a  general  thing,  more  remarkable  for 
weight  and  substance  than  for  fineness  and  finish.  Beaver 
and  pilot  cloths  predominated,  though  there  were  not  want¬ 
ing  good  specimens  of  broadcloths,  cassimeres,  tricots, 
tweeds,  etc. 

x.  Seiiverstoff.  A  noticeable  exhibition  was  that  of  N.  Seliverstoff*,  of  Kor- 
soun,  who  displayed  a  variety  of  fabrics  made  of  Eussian 
Camei’s-hair  wool,  of  camel’s  hair,  and  of  mohair.  This  concern  employs 
about  1,500  hands.  The  value  of  its  annual  production  is 
about  $525,000. 

The  best  exhibition  of  cloth  of  a  fine  quality  was  that  of 
Thornton,  of  St.  Petersburg.  It  consisted  of  castors,  satins, 
and  tricots,  both  for  men’s  and  women’s  wear.  The  estab¬ 
lishment  is  one  of  the  largest  of  its  class  in  Eussia.  It  gives 
employment  to  2,500  persons  and  produces  annually  goods 
of  the  value  of  $3,500,000. 

statistics.  The  number  of  cloth  manufacturers  in  Eussia  is  supposed 
to  be  about  500.  Most  of  the  mills,  however,  are  very 
small ;  few  of  them  give  employment  to  more  than  50  per- 


goods. 


Thornton. 


TEXTILE  FABRICS:  COMMISSIONER  HOWARD. 


443 


Silk. 


A.  &  V.  Sapoj- 
nikoff. 


sons.  There  are  only  8  in  all  Russia  which  employ  more 
than  1,000  hands  each.  The  total  value  of  this  production 
is  supposed  to  be  about  $25,000,000. 

Sixteen  Russian  exhibitors  contributed  to  Glass  34.  The 
dress  silks  were  regarded  as  stronger  and  better  than  the 
German  and  Austrian  silks.  The  geometrical  designs 
noticed  in  worsted  were  also  conspicuous  in  this  class. 

Yelvets,  ribbons,  bareges,  poplins,  and  umbrella  specialties  Specialties, 
attested  the  varied  capacity  of  the  Russian  looms. 

The  exhibit  of  A.  &  Y.  Sapojnikoff,  of  Moscow,  must  be 
designated  as  magnificent.  It  consisted  of  brocades  of  gold  Brocades 
and  silver,  brocadettes,  chasubles,  velvets,  damasks,  and 
other  mixtures  of  silk  for  church  vestments  and  for  furniture 
hangings.  The  variety  was  not  large,  but  I  saw  no  finer 
specimens  of  decorative  weaving  than  these.  My  Russian 
friend  claimed  that  the  Russian  gold  and  silver  tissues  are  .Gold and  silver 

tissues. 

the  finest  m  the  world. 

There  are  about  100  silk  factories  in  Russia.  The  esti-  statistics, 
mated  value  of  the  yearly  production  is  $3,000,000.  The 
price  of  labor  not  only  varies  in  different  parts  of  the  empire, 
but  also  in  some  sections  varies  with  the  season.  The 
average  wages  of  men  in  mills  appears  to  be  not  far  from 
60  cents  per  day.  Women  rarely  receive  more  than  40 
cents.  The  amount  of  work  produced,  however,  is  far  short 
of  that  produced  by  the  workmen  of  England  or  the  United 
States  in  the  same  time.  The  manufacturers,  as  a  rule,  are 
obliged  to  incur  a  large  outlay  in  the  way  of  schools,  hos¬ 
pitals,  etc. 

FINLAND.  FINLAND. 


Soci6t&  par  Ac 
tions  de  Forssa. 


The  Grand  Duchy  of  Eiuland,  instead  of  uniting  with 
the  rest  of  Russia,  made  a  separate  and  a  very  admirable 
exhibit.  Two  of  the  textile  contributions  deserve  special 
mention. 

A  company  called  the  Societe  par  Actions  de  Forssa,  of  Tam- 
mela,  presented  beautifully  finished  plain  cottons.  Plaid 
moleskins  with  a  brown  or  drab  shade  on  the  reverse  pro¬ 
duced  a  very  pretty  effect,  and  some  ribbed  goods  were  the 
handsomest  of  the  sort  in  the  Exposition.  The  concern 
employs  nearly  2,000  work-people.  It  has  20,000  spindles 
and  500  looms.  The  value  of  its  annual  production  is  about 
$700,000. 

The  other  noticeable  exhibit  was  of  linen.  It  was  made 
by  the  Linen  Factory  of  Tammerfors.  This  establishment  Binen  Factory 
employs  about  1,000  persons,  and  its  product  is  about 


444 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

$600,000  in  value.  The  fabrics  are  sold  principally  in  Fin¬ 
land,  other  parts  of  Eussia,  and  Sweden. 

Cotton  mills.  There  are  five  cotton  mills  in  Finland  of  considerable 

size.  In  woolens  there  are  six  weaving  and  five  spinning 
mills.  The  linen  manufacture  is  mainly  a  domestic  industry. 


SWITZERLAND. 


SWITZERLAND. 


The  crowning  merit  of  the  Swiss  exhibit  of  textiles  was 
cottons.  in  the  fine  displays  of  cottons  and  silks,  to  which  I  shall 
limit  my  remarks. 

There  were  22  entries  in  each  of  these  classes.  In  Class 
30  the  most  notable  were  the  following : 

Henry  Kuntz.  A  very  large  and  fine  exhibit  from  Henry  Kunz,  of  Zurich, 
who  employs  2,500  wTork-people ; 

A  varied  assortment  of  cottons  in  colors  from  a  company 
a. g. Muiier.  at  Wallen stadt,  under  the  direction  of  A.  G.  Muller; 

A  tastefully  arranged  and  extensive  show  by  the  well- 
j.  &  j.  meter,  known  house  of  John  &  Jacob  Eieter,  of  Winterthur;  and 
unhoof,  Biu-  The  admirable  exhibits  of  Imhoof,  Blumer,  &  Co.,  of  Win- 
g.  Honegger,  terthur;  and  of  Gaspard  Honegger,  of  Kiiti. 

All  of  these  goods  were  indications  of  the  most  careful 
and  painstaking  manipulation  in  every  respect. 


Enterprise. 


Increaso  of  rel¬ 
ative  value  of  ex¬ 
ports. 


Advance  in  the 
grade  of  manu¬ 
factures. 


Abundance  of 
water-power. 


Stability 

labor. 


of 


Habits  of  econ¬ 
omy. 


Wages. 


It  is  evident  that  the  Swiss  manufactures  of  cotton  goods 
do  not  mean  to  be  in  the  rear ;  and  it  is  by  no  means  cer¬ 
tain  that  they  are  not  making  a  determined  effort  for 
supremacy.  It  is  a  very  significant  fact  that  the  exports  of 
cotton  textiles  from  Switzerland  increases  in  a  much  greater 
ratio  than  the  import  of  raw  material  in  respect  to  value. 
There  can  be  no  doubt,  I  think,  that  the  Swiss  are  turning 
their  attention  largely  to  a  gradual  advance  in  the  fineness 
and  grade  of  their  cottons,  and  that  they  are  rapidly  becom¬ 
ing,  if  they  are  not  already,  the  most  formidable  competitor  of 
England  in  white  goods.  The  manufacturer  has  some  un¬ 
deniable  advantage  in  Switzerland.  Water-power  is  abun¬ 
dant,  and  labor,  as  a  general  thing,  is  less  unstable  than  in 
most  other  countries.  The  Swiss  operatives  are  often  not 
only  the  owners  of  the  houses  they  live  in,  but  are  also 
land-owners.  They  are  therefore  less  given  to  change,  and 
much  less  easily  moved  by  declamatory  and  excitable  ap¬ 
peals.  There  is  not  much  opportunity  for  dissipation  and 
not  much  to  interest  the  laborer  away  from  his  work.  The 
consequence  is  that,  while  he  does  not  produce  with  celerity, 
he  continues  at  his  work  a  great  number  of  hours.  Wages 
are  extremely  low,  few  men  obtaining  more  than  75  cents  a 
day  and  the  women  rarely  earning  more  than  50  cents.  The 


TEXTILE  FABRICS:  COMMISSIONER  HOWARD 


445 


hours  of  labor  have  until  recently  been  twelve  to  the  day,  bwitzehland. 
but  in  some  of  the  cantons  they  have  been  reduced  by  spe¬ 
cific  legislation.  In  Geneva  ten  hours  has  been  prescribed  of  day 

as  the  limit  of  a  day’s  labor.  It  is  asserted  by  competent 
judges  that  English  operatives  as  a  rule  perform  more  work 
in  ten  hours  than  the  more  stolid  Swiss  in  twelve.  The 
number  of  cotton  spindles  in  Switzerland  is  between 
2,500,000  and  3,000,000.  About  one-half  of  the  yarn  spun  Cotton  statistics, 
is  No.  40.  The  aggregate  number  of  hand  and  power  looms 
weaving  cotton  is  probably  about  75,000. 

In  Class  34  perhaps  the  most  attractive  display  was  that  silk- 
of  Baumann  &  Streuli,  of  Horgen,  in  the  canton  of  Zurich, 
who  had  not  only  black  silk  of  superlative  excellence,  but  a 
most  brilliant  array  of  colored  fabrics.  The  exhibit  of 
Bleuler  &  Keller,  of  Kiissnacht,  was  also  an  admirable  evi¬ 
dence  of  originality  of  conception  and  great  artistic  execu¬ 
tion  in  the  presentation  of  colors. 

ITALY.  ITALY. 

Although  I  do  not  deem  it  advisable  to  dwell  upon  the 
special  textile  exhibits  of  Italy,  I  subjoin  some  items  of  in¬ 
terest  in  regard  to  her  manufactures. 

There  are  in  Italy  between  700,000  and  800,000  cotton  spin-  Cotton  statistics. 
dies.  The  greater  part  of  the  production  is  in  coarse  num¬ 
bers,  The  home  mills  not  being  able  to  supply  the  demand, 
there  are  about  13,000  tons  of  yarn  imported  from  other 
countries.  The  number  of  hands  employed  in  the  spin¬ 
ning  industry  is  about  54,000.  Weaving  gives  employment 
to  about  80,000  hands.  Hand-looms  are  generally  used, 
there  being  only  about  15,000  power-looms  in  use  in  the 
country.  The  value  of  the  annual  production  is  about 
$42,000,000.  The  three  most  important  printeries  are  the 
one  at  Milan,  the  one  at  Torre  Pellice,  and  the  one  at  Sa¬ 
lerno. 

The  flax  and  hemp  industry  employs  about  47,000  spin-  Flax  and  hemp. 
dies,  and  there  are  about  2,000  spindles  on  jute.  As  the 
flax  spindles  do  not  keep  the  looms  supplied,  there  are 
4,000  tons  of  yarn  imported  yearly.  Home  production  sup¬ 
plies  the  demand  for  coarse  goods,  but  there  are  700  tons  of 
fine  goods  brought  in  annually $  2,200  tons  of  jute  goods 
are  imported. 

The  combing  of  wool  has  been  practiced  but  a  few  years,  worsted. 
and  there  are  now  only  30,000  spindles  in  this  industry. 

The  weaving  of  worsteds  is  of  little  account  j  nearly  all  the 
fabrics  of  this  class  which  are  worn  are  of  foreign  origin. 


446 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  187*. 


ITALY. 


Woolens. 


Silk. 


FRANCE. 


Admirable  ex¬ 
hibit. 


Cottons. 

400  exhibitors 

All  known  forms 
of  cotton  manu¬ 
factures. 


Superior  artis¬ 
tic  merit. 


Stimulus  oi 
local  competi¬ 
tion. 


In  carded  wools  tlie  spinning  and  weaving  is  generally 
done  by  the  same  concern.  There  are  about  270,000  spin¬ 
dles  and  8,000  looms  engaged  in  woolens.  The  value  of 
this  product  is  estimated  at  $325,000,000  yearly.  Besides 
this,  the  annual  importation  of  woolens  and  worsteds  equals 
about  $125,000,000.  The  number  of  hands  employed  in  the 
woolen  industry  is  about  50,000.  There  is  a  steady  increase 
in  this  department. 

The  silk  industry  is  the  leading  one  of  all.  The  average 
product  of  raw  silk  is  estimated  at  6,000,000  pounds.  Or¬ 
dinarily  the  silk  business  gives  employment  to  150,000  peo¬ 
ple.  The  centers  of  this  industry  are  Como,  Turin,  Genoa, 
Milan,  Florence,  and  Borne.  Most  of  the  weaving  is  on 
hand-looms,  there  being  only  300  power  silk  looms  in  Italy. 
The  weaving  of  mixtures  of  silk  and  cotton  is  not  much  de¬ 
veloped. 

FRANCE. 

The  French  collection  of  textiles  was  a  veritable  embar - 
ras  de  richesses.  It  is  quite  impossible  to  give  an  adequate 
description  of  it  within  the  limits  of  this  report.  An  enu¬ 
meration  of  the  exhibits  which  deserved  attention  by  con 
spicuous  merit  would  of  itself  occupy  more  space  than  is 
allotted  for  my  entire  communication.  I  am  obliged  to  con¬ 
tent  myself,  therefore,  with  a  general  treatment  of  the  sub¬ 
ject. 

The  liste  des  exposants  in  Class  30  included  the  names  of 
about  400  persons )  and  the  articles  exhibited  embraced,  ap¬ 
parently,  all  known  forms  of  cotton  manufacture,  from  plain 
cottons,  from  coarse  numbers,  to  the  most  delicate  combina¬ 
tions  of  cotton-and-wool  and  cotton -and-silk  in  threads  of 
gossamer  fineness.  The  only  feature  in  goods  of  ordinary 
or  staple  character  deserving  particular  mention  was  the 
great  taste  shown  in  labeling  and  putting  up.  In  struct¬ 
ure  and  finish  there  was  no  marked  difference  between  this 
exhibit  and  those  from  other  manufacturing  countries  of 
note.  When  we  ascend  to  the  realm  of  the  fanciful  and 
the  higher  and  more  artistic  creations,  the  superior  genius 
of  the  French  fabricants  is  manifest.  Here  inborn  taste 
and  trained  ingenuity  unite  in  the  production  and  combina¬ 
tion  of  marvelous  forms  of  spinning  and  weaving,  and  the 
adaptation  and  application  of  all  the  possibilities  of  color¬ 
ing.  I  judge  that  the  stimulus  of  local  competition  is  quite 
as  potential  as  international  rivalry,  Bheims,  Amiens,  Bou- 
baix,  Lille,  Bouen,  Lyons,  etc.,  acting  each  as  a  spur  on 
the  others.  There  seems  to  be  a  gradation  in  the  character 
of  the  mixed  dress  goods,  which  appears  to  culminate  in 


TEXTILE  FABRICS:  COMMISSIONER  HOWARD. 


447 


the  bounds  of  Picardy;  or,  as  the  Picardy  designs  originate  France. _ 

in  Paris,  perhaps  we  should  say  Paris  rather  than  Picardy. 

It  is  conceded  that  for  designs  in  goods  of  this  character  p 
Paris  stands  at  the  head.  So  brilliant  and  beautiful  were  mg. 
the  collections  of  this  class  of  goods,  that  the  rooms  devoted 
to  them  were  scarcely  less  attractive  than  the  famous  gal¬ 
leries  of  painting  and  sculpture. 

Among  the  printed  fabrics  I  noticed  several  ticketed  Printed  fabrics 

°  x  labeled  “ Amen - 

Americaine — an  indication  of  the  good  standing  ot  our  caine." 

goods  in  popular  estimation  abroad.  It  is  also  worthy  of 

note  that  about  all  of  the  prints  were  u yard  wide”  goods.  “Yard-wide” 

*•  p  goods  general  m 

In  the  whole  Exposition  there  could  be  found  scarcely  any  Europe, 
narrow  prints  except  those  coming  from  the  United  States. 

The  fatuity  of  American  customers  in  adhering  to  narrow 
goods,  when  the  wider  are  in  every  respect  more  economi¬ 
cal,  is  inexplicable. 

The  first  establishments  for  spinning  and  weaving  cotton  Cotton  manu- 
yarn  in  Prance  were  founded  about  the  beginning  of  the 
century;  they  developed  and  improved  rapidly  until  1870; 
since  that  time  there  have  been  but  few  new  establishments 
and  few  improvements.  Factories  for  spinning  and  weaving  Distribution  of 
cotton  are  distributed  over  a  large  number  of  the  depart-  ac  °ne3‘ 
ments  of  the  north,  west,  east,  and  the  interior.  The  quan- 
titv  of  raw  cotton  consumed  annually  is  about  350,000  bales.  „  Consumption 
The  transformation  into  yarns  is  effected  by  a  little  less  than 
5,000,000  spindles,  representing  a  value  of  about  $40,000,000. 

Weaving  is  represented  by  about  G8,000  power-looms  and  a  Machinery, 
large  number  of  hand-looms.  The  whole  number  of  cotton 
mills  is  a  little  above  1,000,  and  there  are  about  114,000  peo¬ 
ple  employed  in  this  industry.  The  motive  force  is  estimated  Motors, 
at  35,000  horse  power.  The  mills  and  machinery  are  gener¬ 
ally  in  good  order.  Since  the  Exposition  of  1867  neither 
spinning  nor  weaving  of  cotton  has  made  any  great  me 
chanical  progress. 

Combing  machines,  which  formerly  were  used  only  in  ex  combing  ina- 
ceptional  cases,  and  for  fine  numbers  only,  are  now  in  com- CUDLS' 
mon  use,  and  are  used  even  on  coarse  goods.  The  working  Lengthofwork- 

7  °  ing  days. 

days  are  longer  than  they  are  in  England,  but  it  was  asserted 
by  French  manufacturers  that  their  operatives  produced  no 
more  per  diem  than  the  English  operatives,  who  worked  a 
less  number  of  hours. 

There  is  great  uneasiness  among  the  cotton  manufacturers  Effects  of  the 

treaty  of  com- 

of  France  in  consequence  of  the  ill  effects,  as  they  deemmerce. 
them,  of  the  u  treaty  of  commerce.”  The  producers  of  wines  wine  vs.  cotton, 
and  some  other  classes  desire  a  reduction  of  the  duties  on 
cottons,  while  the  manufacturers  declare  that  an  augmenta- 


448 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


_ FRANC_G* _ ^  tion  of  the  tariff  is  absolutely  necessary  to  prevent  their  de- 

ta§ffestionoftliestmetion  by  foreign  competitors.  They  claim  that  their 
importations  are  increasing,  while  their  exports  are  falling 
off,  and  that  they  are  losing  money  at  the  present  market 
rate  for  their  productions.  They  assert  that  the  Euglish 
manufacturer  has  a  great  advantage  over  them  in  the  fact 
England’s  ad- that,  owing  to  the  abundance  of  capital  in  England,  he  is 

vantage  in  abun-  °  7 

dance  of  capital,  enabled  to  borrow  halt  his  investment  at  low  rates,  while 
the  French  fabricant  must  earn  a  living  dividend  on  the 
entire  amount  of  his  plant.  Many  seances  upon  this  subject 
have  been  held,  and  much  interesting  testimony  has  been 
obtained  from  Jules  Favre,  Delesalle,  Poron,  Petit,  Claude, 
and  others. 

English  fearing  On  the  other  hand,  the  spinning  and  weaving  masters  of 

rrench  competi-  7  0  ° 

tion.  Lancashire,  justly  alarmed  by  the  unprecedented  and  long- 

continued  depression,  and  seeking  in  diverse  directions  for 
a  cause  which  as  yet  eludes  discovery,  have  beeu  debating 
the  dangers  of  French  competition.  They  are  afraid  that 
Longer  work-  the  long  days  which  are  given  to  work  on  the  other  side  of 
France.  the  channel  are  militating  seriously  against  their  shorter 

days,  and  are  endeavoring  to  lengthen  the  time  in  their 
mills.  Naturally,  the  British  workman  resists  this,  and  a 
impending  bitter  struggle  seems  to  be  impending.  1  observed  that  in 
struggle.  the  French  debates  it  was  regarded  as  an  unfortunate  con¬ 
comitant  of  textile  manufacturing  that  the  universal  method 
of  cheapening  production  was  by  enlarging  it,  and  thus 
Aggravation  of  aggra  vating  the  evils  of  hard  times  and  retarding  the  proc- 
evUs‘  ess  of  recovery.  It  must  be  conceded,  I  think,  that  while 

we  are  suffering  from  overproduction,  manufacturers  the 
world  over,  acting  each  for  himself,  have  been  putting  forth 
their  best  efforts  to  accomplish  results  which  inevitably  tend 
to  a  prolongation  of  their  calamity. 

Flax,  hemp,  etc.  Of  the  Products  of  Flax,  Hemp,  etc.,  Class  31,  there  were 
121  entries  from  France.  The  marked  characteristic  of  these 
goods  was  the  predominance  of  artistic  and  poetic  conceits 
Damasks,  b.  and  designs.  Some  of  the  damasks  of  B.  Casse,  of  Fives- 

Casse,  C.  Lemai-  ,  . 

tie.  Lilie,  and  of  C.  Lemaitre,  of  Lille,  were  worthy  of  a  place  on 

the  walls  of  an  art  gallery.  A  reproduction  of  the  u Aurora” 
of  Guido,  manufactured  by  order  of  the  lately  deceased 
Queen  Mercedes  of  Spain,  deservedly  attracted  a  great  deal 
of  attention.  Clearly  the  neplus  ultra  has  been  attained  in 
the  manufacture  of  linens  when  the  shuttle  can  so  deftly 
copy  the  highest  creations  of  the  world’s  greatest  painters, 
jacquard.  To  Jacquard  should  be  awarded  the  honors  due  a  great 
discoverer,  for  he  certainly  opened  to  the  manufacturers  of 


TEXTILE  FABRICS:  COMMISSIONER  HOWARD. 


449 


textiles  a  new  world,  the  world  of  art.  Judging  from  the  frakck. 
evidences  afforded  by  this  Exposition,  the  linen  manufact¬ 
ures  lead  the  other  textile  industries  in  the  adoption  and  Adoption  of 

embodiment  of  art  creations.  Their  example  should  be  fol-  linen  manufact¬ 
ures. 

lowed  to  some  extent  by  the  workers  of  cotton  and  other 
materials.  The  taste  for  art  subjects  has  greatly  increased 
during  the  last  decade  under  the  stimulus  of  travel  and  the 
diffusion  of  pictorial  illustration,  and  this,  with  the  natural 
propensity  for  novelty,  will  force  manufacturers  to  produce 
a  wider  range  of  fabrics  and  a  more  elevated  order  of  de¬ 
signs.  The  fruits  of  the  French  art  schools  are  nowhere 
more  conspicuous  than  they  are  in  the  linen  exhibits  of 
Lille  and  Armentieres. 

Up  to  the  beginning  of  the  century  all  the  spinning  of  Flax  machinery, 
flax  was  by  hand.  But  in  1810  Philippe  de  Girard,  re-  ^  Philippe  de 
ferred  to  as  the  founder  of  one  of  the  Bussian  establish¬ 
ments,  invented  a  process  of  spinning  it  by  power.  I  can¬ 
not  learn  that  M.  Girard  met  with  any  considerable  success 
till  about  the  year  1833,  when  he  was  called  to  Russia. 

Whether  his  first  success  was  achieved  in  that  country  or 
in  France  is  a  matter  of  controversy.  It  is  certain,  how¬ 
ever,  that  about  that  time  a  great  impetus  was  given  to  the  Development  of 
linen  manufacture.  There  are  now  699  establishments  in  future, 
operation,  employing  about  62,000  hands.  The  horse  power 
employed  is  about  20,000.  The  number  of  spindles  is  about 
730,000,  the  number  of  power-looms  a  little  over  23,000,  and 
the  number  of  hand-looms  54,000.  In  value  the  exports  of 
flax,  hemp,  and  jute  fabrics  are  double  the  amount  of  the  im¬ 
ports — a  favorable  showing. 

The  French  entries  in  Classes  32  and  33  being  too  nu-  worsteds  and 
merous  to  permit  a  special  reference  to  industrial  contribu- woolens- 
tors,  and  the  raw  material  being  substantially  the  same  in 
both  cases,  1  deem  it  expedient  to  consider  the  two  classes 
together. 

Of  the  class  designated  as  Worsteds  there  were  180  ex¬ 
hibits,  and  of  Woolens  192;  there  being,  as  will  be  perceived, 
about  an  equal  number  of  each  class  of  exhibitors. 

Here,  as  in  other  departments,  the  wonderful  fecundity  Reiativo merits 
of  the  French  intellect  in  the  invention  of  new  and  grace-  Yorkshire  goods, 
ful  combinations  manifests  itself.  It  was  conceded  that  in 
the  way  of  novelties  in  mixed  fabrics  they  were  supreme, 
though  the  Bradford  people  claimed  superior  excellence  for 
themselves  in  articles  of  a  staple  character,  such  as  alpacas, 
mohairs,  serges,  Italian  cloths,  etc.  It  would  far  exceed  the 
limits  of  my  report  to  describe  the  infinite  and  complex 
29  P  K 


450 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Effects  ob¬ 
tained  by  varie¬ 
ties  of  material. 


Gradin'; 

wools. 


of 


Silk. 

The 


dustry. 


combinations  of  cords  and  loops  and  tufts  and  floss  and 
broken  stripes  which  French  ingenuity  availed  itself  of  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  capricious  fashion.  The  Sabran 
thread  seemed  to  be  a  favorite  instrumentality,  its  varied 
convolutions  affording  manifold  opportunities.  Some  idea 
of  the  pains  taken  to  secure  the  right  grade  of  wool  for  each 
particular  effect  may  be  obtained  by  noticing  the  following 
varieties  exhibited  in  one  case.  The  specimens  were  desig¬ 
nated  as  follows:  Montevideo,  New  Zealand,  America, 
Russia,  Australia,  Port  Philip,  Van  Pieman’s  Land,  Cham¬ 
pagne,  Adelaide,  Cape,  Sydney,  Buenos  Ayres,  Saxony, 
Silesia.  But  French  ingenuity  is  not  limited  to  nice  dis¬ 
crimination  in  the  selection  of  material,  or  marvelous  forms 
of  threads,  or  original  and  scientific  weaving.  It  is  mani- 
ifested  as  well  in  the  composition  and  association  of  colors. 
Other  nations  may  exhibit  as  much  excellence  in  the  orig¬ 
inal  and  bold  colors,  but  few  if  any  can  equal  the  French 
artisan  in  the  more  delicate  effects.  In  plain  woolens  they 
appeared  to  the  best  advantage  in  very  fine  and  soft  cloths. 
In  the  Rheirns  section  a  display  of  flannels  for  dress  pur¬ 
pose  demonstrated  the  x>ower  of  a  subtle  taste  united  with 
deft  manipulation,  and  afforded  some  useful  hints  to  the 
American  manufacturer. 

It  is  generally  considered  that  there  has  been  during  the 
last  ten  years  greater  progress  made  in  the  worsted  than  in 
the  woolen  manufacture.  The  number  of  miffs  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  woolen  and  worsted  goods  in  France  is 
2,270;  the  number  of  hands  employed,  about  100,000;  the 
power  employed  is  estimated  at  31,000  horsepower;  the 
number  of  spindles  is  about  3,000,000 ;  and  the  number  of 
looms  of  all  kinds  not  far  from  80,000.  For  the  year  1876, 
the  statistics  of  which  are  recently  published  in  form,  the 
exportation  of  tissues  of  wool  amounted  in  value  to 
316,500,000  francs;  the  importation  was  79,000,000  francs. 
The  wool  industry  is  by  some  thought  to  have  doubled  since 
1867.  The  total  value  of  the  products  of  wool  is  estimated 
at  700,000,000  francs. 

The  Silk  Manufacture  of  France,  Class  34,  was  represented 
of  textile^:  by  258  entries.  In  this  section  we  witness  the  culmination 
of  textile  industry.  In  long  lines,  the  most  costly  of  the 
great  staples,  spun  into  threads  of  the  finest  attenuation, 
dyed  with  the  richest  hues  of  the  laboratory,  woven  in  the 
most  graceful  patterns  which  the  highest  skill  can  execute, 
attract  and  delight  the  most  indifferent  observer.  It  was 
an  odd  coincidence  which  placed,  in  proximity  to  this  great- 


Colors:  compo¬ 
sition  and  asso¬ 
ciation  of. 


Dress  flannels. 


Relative  prog¬ 
ress  of  worsted 
and  woolen  man¬ 
ufactures. 


•'Statistics. 


TEXTILE  FABRICS:  COMMISSIONER  HOWARD. 


451 


est  and  most  exuberant  display  of  the  world’s  costumes  FRANCE- 
ever  witnessed,  a  collection  of  ecclesiastical  ornaments,  con¬ 
spicuous  in  which  was  a  somewhat  quaint  painting  on  glass  A Uand°Ew 
representing  our  first  parents  taking  their  departure  from  and  the  array  of 
Eden.  The  artist  had  given  the  worthy  couple  a  more  mea¬ 
ger  allowance  of  wardrobe  than  is  usually  allowed  them, 
and  the  contrast  between  the  primeval  garb  and  the  array 
in  the  neighboring  court  provided  for  the  demands  of 
modern  humanity  was  suggestive. 

It  was  evident  that  Lyons  retains  its  ascendancy  in  the  “en(lancy  of 
silk  industry,  though  St.  Etienne  and  Paris  made  good  col¬ 
lective  exhibitions.  Apparently,  the  silk  manufacture,  so 
far  as  dress  goods  are  concerned,  had  reached  its  zenith  at 
the  time  of  the  former  Exposition  at  Paris.  No  material  Xo  material  ad 
change  or  progress  has  been  made  since  that  time  in  the  ap¬ 
pearance  of  the  fabrics.  Notable  advance  has  been  made  in 
the  introduction  of  power-machinery  in  some  jfiaces,  but  the 
influence  of  this  has  been  in  the  direction  of  economy  rather 
than  in  the  improvement  of  the  fabric.  Possibly  there  may 
be  an  increased  elaboration  of  design,  and  there  certainly 
have  been  new  dyes  discovered  and  applied. 

The  range  of  colors  at  the  command  of  the  dyer  at  the  Bango  of  colors, 
present  time  was  finely  shown  by  J.  B.  IVJartin,  of  Tarare,  J.  b.  Martin, 
who  arranged  in  fan-shape  pieces  of  silk  embracing  sixty 
shades. 

Velvets  are  produced  in  enlarged  variety,  and  there  are  Velvets, 
some  modern  and  ingenious  contrivances  for  producing  the 
pile  exhibited. 

A  black  silk,  four  meters  in  width,  from  the  well-known 
house  of  Bonnet,  of  Lyons,  was  a  conspicuous  object.  M  Bormet‘ 

In  furniture  and  hangings  there  has  been  decided  prog¬ 
ress  within  a  few  years.  It  would  seem  that  artistic  skill  of 
the  highest  order  must  be  employed  in  the  preparation  of 
the  designs  for  brocades  and  other  stuffs  for  furniture.  An  Brocades  and 
enumeration  of  silk -weaving  establishments  would  be  of  no 
value,  as  a  large  proportion  of  them  are  little  more  than  pri¬ 
vate  dwellings.  The  total  product  of  tlje  country  is  of  some 
importance.  It  reaches  in  value  to  about  550,000,000  francs.  value  of  prod- 

7  7  ucts. 

BELGIUM.  BELGIUM. 

Cotton. 

The  Belgians  displayed  a  great  deal  of  spirit  in  their  ex¬ 
hibit  throughout.  Their  representative  buildin  g  in  the  Street 
of  Nations  was,  by  far,  the  finest  edifice  in  that  famous  Rue. 

Every  department  gave  evidence  of  thorough  and  elaborate 
preparation.  The  collective  exhibit  from  Verviers  should  Exhibit  of  Ver- 
be  specially  commended  for  its  extent,  variety,  excellent  ar-  viers‘ 


452 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Belgium.  rangement,  and  intelligent  management.  There  were  13 
entries  of  cotton  goods.  None  of  them  call  for  any  special 
^Ferd.Lousbergs  notice  except  that  of  the  Ferdinand  Lousbergs  Company,  of 
Ghent.  This  was  a  really  elegant  presentation  of  fine  cot¬ 
tons,  and  was  particularly  noticeable  for  its  variety  of  per¬ 
cales.  Although  the  cotton  manufacture  of  Belgium  does 
not  take  rank  with  the  linen  and  wool  industries,  the  exhibi- 
statistics  of  tion  of  cottons  was  hardly  what  was  to  have  been  expected, 
cotton  manufaef  rp]iere  are  a^ou^  800,000  cotton  spindles  in  the  kingdom, 

and  in  Ghent  alone  29  mills.  One  mill,  of  65,000  spindles, 
exports  its  fabrics  to  the  extent  of  a  quarter  of  a  million 
dollars.  It  is  said  that  Belgian  goods  are,  to  some  extent, 
exported  through  England:  It  is  evident,  from  the  increased 
importation  of  cotton,  that  this  branch  of  business  is  increas¬ 
ing  rapidly. 


L.  De  Witte 
Losbergs. 


H.  Hubers. 


L.  &  H.  Tant. 


Linens.  There  were  36  entries  in  Class  31,  and,  both  in  variety  and 

in  quality,  they  attested  the  fact  that  Belgium  is  among  the 
foremost  of  nations  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  linens. 

L.  De  Witte-Losbergs,  of  Mechlin,  weavers  both  by  power 
and  hand,  had  a  large  assortment  of  table  damasks,  finished 
with  great  care  and  skill. 

Henry  Hubers,  of  Ghent,  displayed,  perhaps,  the  best  line 
of  linen  for  bed  purposes. 

The  renowned  house  of  L.  &  H.  Tant,  of  Brussels,  which 
claims  to  have  been  the  first  to  use  steam-power  in  the  weav¬ 
ing  of  linen  in  Belgium,  had  a  great  variety  of  white  and 
colored  linens. 

&  Son  Tbienpont  B.  Thienpont  &  Son,  of  Ghent,  exhibited  a  line  comprising 
linens  for  the  table  and  for  the  toilet,  and  fine  damasks  for 
furniture. 

Wjciihuyse  a  rather  singular  specialty  was  that  of  Wyckhuyse  Freres 
&  Seurs,  of  Boulers,  who  had  on  exhibition  a  class  of  linens 
particularly  adapted  to  the  use  of  hospitals,  lazarettos,  and 
ambulances. 

of  There  are  three  or  four  large  steam-power  linen-weaving 
mills  in  Belgium,  but  most  of  the  work  is  done  on  hand- 
looms  at  home.  Steam-spinning  is,  however,  quite  common. 
In  the  two  Flanders  there  are  about  20  steam-spinning  works, 
which  contain  222,000  spindles  and  employ  10,000  operatives. 
At  Ghent  there  are  two  mills  of  51 ,000  and  41,000  spindles, 
respectively.  The  consumption  of  jute  is  largely  on  the  in¬ 
crease,  and  in  many  fabrics  it  is  displacing  flax.  In  East 
and  West  Flanders  there  are  from  70  to  80  ateliers  (Vap- 
prentissage ,  where  weaving  is  taught  under  the  patronage 
of  the  government,  and  which  afford  to  the  lmen  manufac¬ 
turers  a  constant  supply  of  good  weavers. 


Bros. 


Prevalence 

hand-looms. 


Statistics. 


Jute. 


TEXTILE  FABRICS:  COMMISSIONER  HOWARD. 


453 


Woolens. 


Serviceable 
rather  than  su- 


The  woolen  manufacturers  shared  with  the  linen  producers 
the  honors  of  the  Belgian  textile  exhibit.  There  were  9 
entries  in  Class  32,  and  53  in  Class  33.  As  a  rule,  the  wool¬ 
ens,  though  shown  in  great  variety,  were  of  the  more  ordi¬ 
nary  and  serviceable  character  rather  than  of  superfine 
quality.  English,  French,  and  Austrian  goods  would  bePerfine- 
ranked  higher.  The  exhibits  of  fancy  yarns,  which  are  „  Fancy  yams 
largely  produced  in  Belgium  for  exportation,  were  very  beau- 
tiful,  and  indicative  of  great  ingenuity  and  successful  tech¬ 
nical  culture.  It  is  probable  that  the  export  of  woolen  yarns 
from  Belgium  has  quite  quadnrpled  in  ten  years.  The  value 
of  this  export  is  annually  about  $10,000,000.  The  seat  of 
the  woolen  industry  is  at  Yerviers,  where  there  are  about 
half  a  million  spindles. 

Belgium  menaces  the  textile  industry  of  Great  Britain  try 1 threatening 
more  seriously  than  Englishmen  like  to  admit.  The  govern- Great  Britain- 
ment,  under  the  influences  which  are  brought  to  bear  upon 
it  by  influential  manufacturers,  is  lending  its  aid  to  indus¬ 
trial  development;  the  employers  have  apparently  more  Government 
absolute  power  than  is  anywhere  else  seen ;  wages  are  at  the  erl°rmg  cmplo>y* 
minimum,  and  the  working  day  mercilessly  long.  Although  inordinate 

7  °  17  *  °  °  length  of  work- 

there  is  considerable  discontent,  and  occasional  outbreaks  ing  days, 
of  a  violent  nature,  there  has  been  little  change  in  the  way 
of  amelioration  of  the  condition  of  the  laborer.  The  press-  Condition  of 
ure  of  public  opinion  has  sometimes  led  to  the  appointment 
of  commissions  of  inquiry;  but  the  various  chambers  of 
commerce  have  generally  managed  to  prevent  their  recom¬ 
mendations  from  receiving  legislative  sanction.  The  liberal  sitiontSf  offer 
disposition  of  the  governments  of  England,  Prussia,  France,  wSs^iaborers 
the  United  States,  and  some  other  countries  towards  labor  £?B<Jgram°thold 
gains  no  foothold  in  Belgium.  Governmental  interference 
with  private  enterprise  is  steadily  and  successfully  resisted, 
and  the  relations  of  employer  and  employed  remain  about 
as  they  were  a  half  century  ago.  The  necessity  of  a  low 
rate  of  wages  to  enable  Belgium  to  compete  with  the  rest  Belgium’s  com- 

_  ,  it.  .  i  .  petition  with  the 

ot  the  world  is  a  prominent  and  constant  announcement  to  rest  of  the  world 
the  working  population ;  and,  judging  from  the  meager  sal-  er. 
aries  paid,  it  would  seem  to  be  received  with  submissive 
credence.  The  following  items  of  earnings  will  give  some 
idea  of  the  character  of  the  competition  which  English  and 
American  manufactures  have  to  encounter.  In  one  of  the 
largest  factories  of  Yerviers  the  wages  are  as  follows : 


Francs. 


Weavers,  per  day .  3.00  Wages 

Wool-carders,  per  day .  2. 50 l30rers- 

Spinners,  per  day .  3. 50 

Dyers,  per  day . .  2. 50 

Fullers,  per  day .  2. 50 


of  la- 


454 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Belgium.  Foremen  receive  from  4  to  5  francs  a  day.  The  hours  of 
Hours  of  labor  iaUor  are  from  7  a.  m.  to  7  p.  m.,  with  an  interval  of  rest  of 
one  hour  and  a  half.  The  average  wages  in  Ghent  do  not 
exceed  3  francs  for  men,  2  francs  for  women,  and  1  franc 
for  children.  Working  hours  are  from  7  a.  m.  to  6  p.  m., 
with  one  hour  and  a  half  intermission.  In  the  linen  mills 
of  Alost  the  men  receive  for  12  hours’  work  2  francs  50 
centimes,  and  the  women  not  to  exceed  2  francs.  At 
Mnove,  where  there  are  five  mills  for  spinning  thread,  the 
foremen  receive  3  francs  50  centimes,  and  others  not  to 
exceed  2  francs.  All  hands  work  12  hours  a  day.  At  the 
Termonde  blanket  factories  the  operatives  are  not  unfre- 
quently  worked  for  15  hours.  Throughout  Belgium  children 
are  put  to  work  at  the  age  of  six,  and  usually  work  the 
Result  of  the  same  number  of  hours  as  adults.  Ignorance,  intemperance, 

heartless  system.  °  7  7 

and  improvidence  are  said  to  prevail,  and  strikes  are  fre¬ 
quent.  Is  it  any  wonder  ? 


spalx.  SPAIN. 

This  exhibit  was  a  surprise.  The  land  of  sportive  bull¬ 
fights  and  chronic  revolution  is  after  all  an  industrial  com¬ 
munity.  It  was  represented  by  17  entries  of  cottons,  25 
entries  of  linens,  104  entries  of  woolens,  and  18  entries  of 
silks.  There  was  not  much  which  was  very  remarkable.  The 
ciaiiy°good  espe"  m&in  excellence  of  the  exhibit  was  in  the  cottons.  There 
were  exhibited  in  this  class  some  of  the  best  specimens  of 
imitations  of  pleaching  and  finishing  I  have  ever  seen.  The  imitations 

English  designs. 

of  English  fancy  designs  were  so  accurate  that  they  would 
readily  pass  for  Manchester  goods  in  any  market.  An  En¬ 
glish  manufacturer  told  me  that  he  found  his  own  designs 
reproduced  and  shown  by  Spanish  fabrieants,  designs  which 
he  had  not  supposed  any  one  else  could  weave.  There  were 
some  good  prints,  but  the  most  of  this  class  of  goods  were 
Miks.  ordinary  and  inferior.  Some  of  the  silks  were  attractive. 

A  figured  white  silk  was  the  crowning  excellence  in  this 
class.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  about  1,200,000  cotton 
spindles  in  Spain,  and  the  number  of  persons  employed  in 
this  manufacture  about  100,000. 

indifference  of  [  found  it  very  difficult  to  obtain  any  substantial  amount 
officials.  of  information  in  the  Spanish  department.  None  of  the 

exhibitors  of  textiles  were  present  in  person,  so  far  as  I 
could  discover,  and  the  attaches  of  the  Commissioner  were 
invariably  absent  or  inaccessible  whenever  I  sought  them. 
The  Catalogue  was  not  distributed  until  after  I  had  com¬ 
pleted  my  examination  and  had  left  Paris  and,  as  I  find  by 


TEXTILE  FABRICS:  COMMISSIONER  HOWARD. 


455 


a  copy  sent  to  me,  contains  little  information  beyond  a  mea¬ 
ger  enumeration  of  exhibitors. 

PORTUGAL.  PORTUGAL. 

The  textile  fabrics  from  Portugal,  on  the  whole,  received 
and  merited  higher  praise  than  those  from  Spain.  There 
were  22  exhibits  of  cottons,  23  of  linens,  53  of  woolens,  and 
17  of  silks.  The  cottons  and  linens  resembled  those  of,,  cottons  and 

linens. 

Spain,  and  do  not  call  for  any  special  notice.  The  woolens  woolens. 
were  most  favorably  represented  by  some  heavy  beavers 
and  by  the  flannels.  Among  the  silk  goods  were  some  re-  suks. 
markably  fine  pique  goods  in  nine  colors.  The  show  of 
Pimental  &  Queiros  was  very  fine  in  respect  to  richly-colored 
dress  silks  and  shawls. 

Wages  are  at  a  low  point  in  Portugal ;  the  average  earn-  wages, 
ings  of  men  being  between  2  and  3  francs,  of  women  between 
1  franc  50  centimes  and  2  francs,  and  of  children  some¬ 
thing  less  than  1  franc.  Manufacturing  of  woolens  is  an 
ancient  institution  in  Portugal.  The  business  seems  to  have 
been  in  a  declining  state  until  within  a  few  years.  Of  late 
there  has  been  a  general  revival,  not  only  in  textile  industry, 
but  in  many  other  branches  of  business. 

THE  NETHERLANDS.  Netherlands. 

There  were  16  entries  of  cotton  goods  from  Holland. 

The  Steam  Spinning  and  Weaving  Mill  of  Hilversum,  at  Htiversum  Mills. 
Amsterdam,  made  a  good  display  of  cotton  threads  and  also  Cottons. 
of  woven  cottons.  This  appears  to  be  a  well-conducted  and 
prosperous  establishment.  It  has  24,000  spindles,  484  looms, 
and  employs  450  work  people.  It  maintains  a  savings  bank, 
a  hospital,  a  nursery,  and  a  co-operative  store  for  the  supply 
of  necessaries  to  the  families. 

Van  Heek  &  Co.,  of  Enschede,  had  a  varied  stock  of  cam-  van  Heek  &  Co. 
brics,  shirtings,  pillow-case  cottons,  etc.  This  firm,  estab¬ 
lished  in  1859,  now  employs  a  working  force  of  737  persons. 

Its  annual  production  is  2,000,000  pounds  of  cotton  thread 
and  about  300,000  pieces  of  cloth. 

Of  the  5  exhibits  of  linen  goods,  that  of  the  Veenendaal  Veenendaai  mui. 
Spinning  and  Weaving  Mill,  at  Amsterdam,  was  facile  prin -  Linens, 
ceps.  This  concern  employs  950  people.  It  uses  a  horse¬ 
power  of  280. 

Of  woolens  there  were  36  exhibits.  The  show  of  blankets  woolens. 
in  the  collective  exhibit  of  A.  Goyarts  &  Son,  of  Tilbourg, 
and  in  the  display  of  Zaalberg  &  Son,  of  Leyden,  were  both 
most  admirable.  The  latter  seemed  to  be  the  finest  assort- 


456  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 

Netherlands,  ment  of  blankets  in  the  Exposition,  though  one  from  Austria 
was  of  about  equal  merit. 

There  has  been  of  late  a  great  improvement  in  the  man¬ 
ufacture  of  textiles,  and  the  number  of  factories  is  on  the 
Wages.  increase.  The  maximum  wages  of  males  in  factories  does 
not  exceed  $5  per  week.  That  of  females  is  about  $3. 


SWEDEN. 


A  rimirable  pre¬ 
sentation  of  tlie 
resources  and 
products  of  the 
country. 


Exhibits. 


Cottons. 


Statistics. 


Flax  and  hemp. 
Hand  products 
predominate. 


Woolens. 


Either  Sweden  was  particularly  fortunate  in  the  selection 
of  its  officials  for  the  Exposition  or  else  as  a  nation  it  was 
possessed  of  an  uncommon  determination  to  impress  upon 
the  world  a  proper  appreciation  of  its  resources  and  enter¬ 
prise.  '  Not  only  was  its  exhibition  far  more  extensive  than 
was  to  have  been  expected,  but  a  very  favorable  impression 
was  produced  by  a  judicious  and  intelligent  compilation  of 
the  most  interesting  and  important  industrial  facts  of  the 
country. 

There  were  13  exhibits  of  cotton  goods,  6  of  linens,  11  of 
woolens,  and  2  of  silks.  Perceiving  that  my  report  will  ex¬ 
ceed  the  limit  I  prescribed  for  myself,  I  suppress  my  refer¬ 
ences  to  special  contributions,  and  confine  myself  to  a  few 
observations  upon  the  general  character  and  state  of  Swe¬ 
den’s  textile  industry. 

The  great  development  of  cotton-spinning  in  England 
about  the  beginning  of  the  century  caused  its  introduction 
in  Sweden.  The  first  spinning  by  machinery  was  in  1813  or 
1814.  There  are  now  24  cotton-spinning  establishments,  con¬ 
taining  about  245,000  spindles,  and  employing  rather  more 
than  5,000  hands.  They  produce  yearly  about  20,000,000 
pounds  of  yarn  in  numbers  from  2  to  40.  There  are  26  mills 
for  weaving  in  cotton,  which  give  employment  to  about 
3,000  persons.  The  cloth  is  generally  of  a  plain  character, 
but  of  late  Jacquard  looms  have  been  introduced,  and  fancy 
weaving  is  on  the  increase.  The  annual  product  is  about 
12,000,000  yards ;  but  it  does  not  suffice  as  yet  to  supply 
home  wants,  and  both  cloth  and  yarns  are  freely  imported, 
mainly  from  England. 

Domestic  manufacture  predominates  as  yet  in  the  flax 
and  hemp  industries.  The  hand  products  are  supposed  to 
exceed  several  fold  the  results  of  machinery.  In  this  de¬ 
partment  also  the  production  fails  to  satisfy  the  require¬ 
ments  of  consumption. 

The  woolen  industry  has  had  many  vicissitudes.  Just 
now  it  is  thriving  and  extending.  There  are  no  large  woolen 
mills,  but  there  are  63  small  spinning  factories.  Sweden 
does  not  raise  wool  sufficient  for  its  wants,  but  imports 


TEXTILE  FABRICS:  COMMISSIONER  HOWARD. 


457 


largely.  The  principal  varieties  used  are  German,  Cape,  Sweden. 
Buenos  Ayres,  and  Australian.  The  product  of  the  woolen 
looms  is  used  mainly  in  the  country,  but  there  is  some  ex¬ 
port  trade  with  Norway  and  Denmark.  There  is  still  a 
large  importation  of  fine  goods. 

Silk-weaving  is  a  very  old  industry  in  Sweden,  but  never  silks. 
a  very  important  one.  There  are  two  mills  in  Stockholm, 
employing  about  200  hands  each,  but  all  the  rest,  some  18 
in  all,  perhaps,  are  very  small.  The  manufacturers  have 
always  had  a  high  standard  of  quality,  and  by  persistent 
fidelity  to  it  have  succeeded  in  keeping  alive,  almost  within 
the  polar  circle,  one  industry  whose  natural  home  is  in  the 
genial  and  temperate  climes. 

The  wages  of  men  in  mills  is  from  60  to  75  cents  a  day.  wages. 
The  wages  of  women  about  two-thirds  those  of  men.  The 
usual  hours  of  labor  are  65  per  week. 

OTHER  COUNTRIES. 

There  were  exhibits  of  textiles  from  Norway,  Denmark, 

Greece,  and  China,  but  they  were  not  sufficient  in  extent  to 
be  treated  under  separate  heads  or  of  a  character  to  call 
for  special  description. 

The  goods  from  Norway  and  Denmark  were  mostly  of  a  Norway. 
heavy  and  coarse  character,  though  there  were  some  rather 
pretty  cotton  plaids  from  Pettersen,  of  Christiania,  Nor-  Petterscn, 
way,  and  some  good  tweeds  from  Banaboldal,  Denmark. 

The  textile  exhibit  from  Greece  consisted  of  fine  cottons  GREECK- 
of  light  weight,  intended  apparently  for  garments  of  a  loose, 
flowing  character.  It  was  interesting  to  note  among  the 
names  of  the  exhibitors,  and  of  the  localities  from  which 
the  fabrics  came,  some  of  the  names  endeared  to  the  world 
by  reason  of  classical  associations. 

The  silks  of  China  indicated  an  industrial  advance  quite  CHINA- 
beyond  the  general  expectation.  Evidently  the  Celestials 
have  made  up  their  minds  that  it  is  time  to  begin  to  learn 
from  outside  barbarians.  There  were  several  pieces  of 
dress  silks  which  bore  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  pro¬ 
duction  of  the  looms  of  Lyons. 

It  is  matter  of  regret  that  the  animosities  engendered  GEKMANY- 
between  France  and  Germany  by  the  late  war  should  have 
operated  to  the  exclusion  of  the  industries  of  the  latter. 

The  impression  made  by  the  German  art  exhibition,  which 
was  resolved  upon  at  a  late  hour,  is  Significant  of  the  influ¬ 
ence  which  a  general  display  of  the  handicraft  of  the  pow¬ 
erful  and  intellectual  empire  would  have  had. 


458 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


UNITED  STATES.  UNITED  STATES. 

Witli  a  singular  unanimity  of  sentiment,  the  textile  man¬ 
ufacturers  of  our  country  seemed  to  have  arrived  at  the 
conclusion  that  it  was  not  expedient  to  take  part  in  this 
Exhibits  Exposition.  Two  leading  commission  houses,  Messrs.  Lewis 
houses.  Bros.  &  Co.,  of  Provi dence,  R.  I.,  and  Messrs.  Coffin,  Alte- 

mus,  &  Co.,  of  Philadelphia,  had  cases  containing  specimens 
of  the  handiwork  of  their  consignors,  and  these  comprised 
the  hulk  of  the  United  States  exhibit  of  textiles. 

The  case  of  the  Lewis  Bros.  &  Co.  contained  the  attrac- 
Miiis  repre- tive  Dunnell  prints;  the  Wamsutta,  Wauregan,  Forest- 
Prints,  shirt- dale,  and  Slater  shirtings;  the  well-known  heavy  ticking  of 

ings,  ticking,  and 

cambrics.  John  F.  Slater,  of  Jewett  City,  Conn.;  the  cambrics  of  the 
Manville  Company,  Providence ;  and  the  fine  fabrics  of  the 
Ponemah  Mills.  Ponemoh  Mills,  of  Providence.  The  last-named  company 
deserve  especial  praise,  not  only  for  the  superior  workman¬ 
ship  of  their  fabrics,  but  because  of  the  enterprise  and  skill 
shown  in  the  production  of  goods  of  a  more  varied  character 
and  of  a  higher  order  than  is  generally  made  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  learn  that  we  have  some  con¬ 
cerns  which  have  the  talent  and  courage  to  make  something 
besides  64x64  print  cloths  and  bleached  shirtings. 

In  the  case  of  Coffin,  Altemus,  &  Co.  the  most  notewor- 
PrintWOTksSt°n  contribution  was  that  of  the  Washington  Printworks. 

This  establishment  also  seemed  to  have  taken  a  new  depart¬ 
ure.  Instead  of  contenting  themselves  with  the  low-priced 
fancier  with  which  our  jobbing  and  retail  houses  are 
flooded,  they  have  entered  largely  into  the  printing  of  tur¬ 
nkey  reds,  key  reds,  which  vie  with  the  best  European  work,  and  a 
class  of  handkerchief  printings  which  has  hitherto  been 
monopolized  by  European  houses.  In  each  of  these  special¬ 
ties  they  have  evidently  met  with  the  success  which  origin¬ 
ality  merits.  This  case  also  included  the  fine  shirtings  of 
Masonviiie  Co.  the  Mason ville  Company,  and  the  substantial  medium  shirt¬ 
ings  known  as  White  Rock  and  Pocahontas. 

Besides  these  collective  exhibits  there  were  shown  silks 
^johnN.  Steams  |^y  j0kn  Stearns  &  Co.,  of  New  York,  andC.  Chaffanjon, 
c.  chaffanjon.  0f  Hudson  City,  N.  J.,  the  heavy  Atlantic  and  Indian  Head 
sheetings,  and  a  creditable  assortment  of  jeans,  tweeds, 
doeskins,  cotton  prints,  checks,  sheetings,  shirtings,  etc., 
Mississippi  from  the  Mississippi  Mills,  of  Wesson,  Miss. 

Mills.  x  L  ' 

As  this  paper  is  not  intended  to  be  a  history  of  manufact¬ 
ures  or  a  treatise  upon  manufacturing,  but  simply  a  report 
of  the  prominent  facts  presented  at  the  Exposition  or  sug¬ 
gested  thereby,  I  do  not  feel  justified  in  entering  upon  a 


TEXTILE  FABRICS:  COMMISSIONER  ITOYVARD. 


459 


general  discussion  of  our  own  textile  industries.  Any  sat¬ 
isfactory  treatment  of  that  subject  would  require  greater 
space  than  is  allowed  for  this  entire  communication. 


A  conspicuous  and  in  some  aspects  a  startling  lesson  of  Lessons  of  the 
the  Exposition  is  the  evidence  given  of  the  migratory  ten- Exp0Hltl0n- 
dencies  of  industry.  That  this  projjensity  has  been  fos¬ 
tered  by  the  successive  international  exhibitions  cannot  be 
doubted.  To  the  great  Crystal  Palace  in  1851  there  came  by  Effects  of  the 
invitation  the  people  of  the  world.  Doubtless  they  were  tion  of  1851. 
invited  because  of  the  money  it  was  supposed  they  would 
bring,  and  which,  filtered  through  the  tills  of  the  British 
shopkeepers,  would  ultimately  reach  and  enrich  the  whole 
British  nation.  But  the  strangers  brought  their  eyes  and 
ears  as  well  as  their  cash.  They  took  in  with  ready  assim¬ 
ilation  the  disclosures  which  the  English  manufacturers  Proffered  in- 
volunteered  in  the  plenitude  of  their  benignity  and  com-  dnced^uiexpect- 
plaisance,  and,  while  many  were  content  to  look  on,  admire,  edie8ullS' 
and  compliment,  there  were  those  who  made  it  their  aim  to 
acquire,  learn,  and  imitate.  Each. successive  industrial  ex¬ 
hibition  of  industry  in  a  large  scale  has  been  an  added  rev¬ 
elation,  and  a  new  opportunity  for  acquiring  specific  and 
technical  information.  And  now,  the  lessons  having  been  The  Exhibition 
learned,  and  the  neophytes  transformed  to  skilled  artisans,  Stators  08 and 
Britain  finds  herself  confronted  by  successful  imitators  of compeators- 
her  own  wares  from  Russia,  Austria,  Spain,  and  even  from 
Jar- a  way,  uncivilized  Japan.  The  able  organ  of  the  textile 
manufacture  in  England,  speaking  of  the  English  Exhibi¬ 
tion  of  1851,  discourses  as  follows : 

“The  conception  was  in  advance  of  the  time;  it  was  cosmopolitan,  Opinion  of  the 
and  by  its  benevolence  more  fitted  for  the  era  of  the  millenium  than  tfffamanufacture 
that  of  the  nineteenth  century.  All  the  world  came  to  the  show,  and  of  Great  Britain, 
we,  like  good  natured  fools,  displayed  the  secrets  of  our  manufacture 
to  the  different  peoples,  carefully  explained  the  different  processes,  and 
ended  the  story  by  offering  to  sell  them  our  best  machinery.  The  peo¬ 
ples  of  the  world  were  wise,  and  accepted  our  offer.  They  saw  we  had 
grown  rich,  and  were  daily  growing  richer,  by  our  spinning  and  weav¬ 
ing,  and  felt  desirous  to  emulate  our  example.  Therefore  they  bought 
our  mules  and  our  looms,  and  sent  their  sons  over  here  to  ‘learn  the  The  fierceness 

business.’  The  fierceness  of  foreign  competition,  of  which  our  manu-  lho  Prese“t 

°  1  ’  foreign  competi- 

facturers  complain  so  much  to-day,  had  its  foundations  laid  in  Hyde  tion  the  result  of 
Park  in  the  summer  of  1851.”  the^Exhibition  of 

Even  from  her  own  colonies  Britain  sees  emerging  a  British  colonies 
company  of  enterprising  competitors,  who  thrive  under  the  aa  competltors- 
protection  of  colonial  legislation,  indifferent  to  the  long- 
cherished  and  persistently  inculcated  doctrines  of  freedom 
of  trade. 


460 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Exposition  ^  the  ^  is  n°t  province  to  enter  upon  a  discussion  of  the 
general  question  of  the  system  of  international  exhibitions. 
I  merely  assert  the  obvious  and  important  fact  that  the  dis- 
Dissemination  semination  of  leading  industries  among  the  great  fraternity 

of  industries.  J 

ot  nations,  induced  and  promoted  by  successive  industrial 
displays,  is  one  of  the  most  marked  features  and  one  of  the 
most  significant  lessons  of  the  department  which  I  have  been 
directed  to  consider.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  the  lesson, 
disagreeable  as  it  is,  is  not  lost  sight  of  by  the  manufact¬ 
urers  of  England.  From  association  with  them  at  Paris  and 
in  Manchester,  and  from  intelligence  which  reaches  me  since, 
I  am  enabled  to  perceive  that  they  contemplate  their  im¬ 
periled  future  with  characteristic  British  pluck  and  determi¬ 
nation,  and  I  can  also  discern  manifold  tokens  that  out  of 
the  nettle  danger  they  will  pluck  the  flower  safety. 

Position  of  the  In  1851  the  British  found  themselves  in  the  front  rank,  so 

British  in  1851.  .  . 

Superiority  in  far  as  extent  of  production  and  economy  ot  production  were 
omy  of  produc-  concerned.  In  artistic  designs  and  graceful  embodiments 
1  inferiority  in  they  were  far  behind  their  Continental  neighbors.  They  im- 
artistic  merit.  me(jiateiy  set;  to  work  to  improve  their  position  in  this  re¬ 
spect  with  earnestness  and  determination.  Capital,  with 

Art  and  trade  prudent  forecast,  lent  its  aid,  and  a  system  of  art  and  trade 
education  was  organized  and  encouraged  which  has  enabled 
England  to  pass  to  the  front  as  a  producer  of  the  finest  graces 
improvement  of  adornment.  The  Philadelphia  and  Paris  Exhibitions  both 
hiflons^  "of  E?876  attest  this  fact.  In  pottery  and  in  some  other  forms  of  in¬ 
dustry  the  highest  honor  was  achieved  by  England.  It  may 
be  safely  predicted  that  now  the  manufacturers  of  textiles 
in  England,  stimulated,  rather  than  dismayed,  by  the  for¬ 
midable  competition  with  which  they  are  threatened,  will 
turn  their  attention  to  the  encouragement  of  a  more  system¬ 
atic  training  and  a  greater  intellectual  development  by  means 
Artistic  and  of  technical  schools  or  similar  instrumentalities,  and  will,  in 

technical  schools.  •  ,  , 

a  few  years,  assert  and  deserve  a  pre-eminence,  not  so  much 
lor  extent  or  for  economy  of  production  as  for  the  best  ex¬ 
emplification  of  artistic  and  refined  technic  culture. 

Is  it  not  the  manifest  duty  of  the  United  States  to  keep 
up  with  England  and  the  Continental  nations  in  this  work? 
In  the  great  representative  industries  there  is  no  such  thing 
as  rest.  Either  there  is  advance  or  there  is  retrogression— 
that  is,  relatively.  Textile  and  mechanical  industry  having 
become,  as  I  have  said,  practically  cosmopolitan,  the  area 
of  competition  has  become  so  vast,  that  the  field  may  be  con¬ 
sidered  illimitable.  We  must  be  prepared  to  contend  suc¬ 
cessfully  in  the  industrial  combat  with  the  ablest  of  the  con¬ 
testants,  or  we  must  go  down  in  the  fray.  Nature  is  on  our 


Duty  of  the 
United  States. 


TEXTILE  FABRICS:  COMMISSIONER  HOWARD. 


461 


Our  advan¬ 
tages  in  staples. 


side,  as  we  believe,  and  has  dowered  us  with  many  ad  van-  Les^os^{onthe 
tages.  Our  climate  possesses,  to  an  eminent  degree,  the  in¬ 
vigorating  qualities  which  stimulate  and  sustain  the  vital 
and  nervous  energies,  and  hold  them  up  to  the  imperious  de¬ 
mands  of  intense  and  continuous  mental  and  physical  exer¬ 
tion.  Our  rich  and  easily-tilled  soils  respond  with  alacrity 
and  abundance  to  our  food  requirements.  The  most  impor¬ 
tant  staple  in  textile  manufacture  springs  up  at  our  very 
doors,  and  the  metals  which  constitute  the  world’s  measure 
of  value  are  ours  in  a  plentitude  beyond  all  previous  known 
experience.  On  the  other  hand,  the  European  manufact¬ 
urers  have  some  incontestable  advantages  over  us.  In  En-  British  advan 
gland  the  paramount  advantage  is  that  of  long  experience,  ence. 

On  the  Continent  there  are  several  minor  elements  which 
unite  to  give  the  manufacturing  class  an  advantage  over  both 
the  English  and  ourselves.  The  principal  of  these  is  the  ^^ontmentaiad- 
intimaev  of  the  relations  between  employer  and  the  em-tion  of  employers 
ployed.  As  a  rule,  this  is  much  closer  than  it  is  in  England 
or  America.  The  master  is  generally  either  the  founder  of 
the  establishment  or  some  member  of  the  family.  If  he 
originated  the  concern,  he  was  probably  a  workman  himself 
at  one  time,  and  retains  the  habits  of  economy  and  watch¬ 
fulness  upon  which  his  success  and  promotion  depended, 
united  to  a  thorough  comprehension  of  all  parts  of  the  busi-  kuowlejteCof  de- 
ness  and  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  qualifications,  mo- tails  by  masters, 
tives,  and  tendencies  of  his  working  force.  He  resides  near 
his  works.  He  may  beautify  and  enlarge  his  mansion,  as 
his  means  accumulate,  or  may  build  anew ;  but  in  either 
case  his  home  remains  among  his  employes.  ^Naturally,  he ^se^Sioy^anl 
is  enabled  to  distinguish  between  the  capable  and  the  worth  personal  ac- 
less,  between  the  faithful  and  the  unreliable,  between  the them- 
honestly  industrious  and  the  indolent,  who  shirk  when  op¬ 
portunity  offers.  He  knows  when  to  reward,  when  to  ad¬ 
monish,  and  when  to  discharge.  Observing,  day  by  day,  the 
handicraft  of  each  man,  joining  with  him  in  conversation, 
and  hearing  each  one  discussed  by  his  fellows,  he  is  in  a  po¬ 
sition  to  assign  each  hand  to  the  department  for  which  he 
is  best  fitted,  and  in  which  he  works  out  the  best  results  both 
for  himself  and  his  employer.  The  workman,  owner,  and 
founder  is  usually  succeeded  by  his  widow,  son,  or  nephew. 

In  each  case  the  same  habits  preyail,  and,  in  consequence,  e8f ^aSS11  over" 
the  same  results  are  obtained.  The  inheritance  has  con-818111, 
sisted,  not  in  manufacturing  shares,  but  in  mills  and  their 
appliances,  and  out  of  them  the  family  support  must  be  de¬ 
rived.  The  temptations  to  extravagance  do  not  exist  among 
the  middle  and  working  classes  of  Continental  Em  ope  as 


462 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Le\ Exposition the  tlie^  do  in  England  and  America.  Comparatively  few  of 
Economical  artificial  wants  of  society  exist  there.  Such  as  do  gain 
nentai  workmen’ a  foothold  are  moderate  in  their  requirements  and  cheaply 
satisfied.  The  inclination  seems  to  he  in  favor  of  perma 
nency  of  residence  rather  than  toward  migration.  Even 
journeys  of  pleasure  rarely  occupy,  going  and  returning, 
more  than  a  day’s  time.  Under  these  circumstances,  all  the 
tendencies  of  the  family  are  towards  economy  in  expendi¬ 
ture  and  a  concentration  of  attention  upon  the  business  of 
the  house.  This  may  not  be  the  most  elevated  plane  of  ex¬ 
istence.  NTo  doubt,  aesthetically  considered,  it  is  a  failure. 
But  it  is  no  less  an  important  factor  in  industrial  economy, 
and  a  competing  element  not  to  be  despised  or  ignored.  It 
ed?catSi Ldum  sa^  sure?  tha»t  the  labor  of  the  uneducated  and  un¬ 
intelligent  labor,  intelligent  masses  of  Russia  and  Switzerland  is  less  produc¬ 
tive  than  that  of  the  more  intellectual  artisans  of  England 
and  America.  I  judge  this  to  be  true  as  a  generalization, 
but  its  significance  is  so  much  an  indeterminate  question  of 
degree  that  it  avails  little  for  our  guidance.  Probably, 
whatever  shortcoming  there  may  be  on  this  account  is  about 
made  up  by  the  increased  length  of  the  working  day  on  the 
Continent. 

Our  prospective  The  most  formidable  danger  which  now  threatens  from 

danger  irom  the  0 

extension  of  spe-  abroad  is  the  great  and  commendable  energy  with  which 
abroad.  our  rivals  are  urging  and  extending  their  system  of  special 

education.  Throughout  Germany,  Austria,  Switzerland, 
weaving  schools  Russia,  and  France  weaving  schools  have  long  been  exert¬ 
ing  a  powerful  influence  on  the  manufacturing  industry; 
several  have  been  established  in  England,  and  there  is  a 
general  demand  for  them  throughout  Lancashire,  Yorkshire, 
and  Lincolnshire.  •  It  would  be  interesting  to  consider  at 
length  the  magnitude  and  scope  and  the  results  of  the.  won¬ 
derful  schools  of  Stuttgart,  Zurich,  Moscow,  Lille,  Rouen, 
Leeds,  and  Huddersfield;  but  it  is  for  others  to  enlarge 
upon  these  instrumentalities.  I  desire,  however,  to  place 
special  trade  upon  record  my  unhesitating  conviction  that  special  trade 
paramount  ne-  and  art  schools  have  become  one  of  the  paramount  necessi¬ 
ties  in  nations  whose  prosperity  is  largely  dependent  upon 
handicraft.  It  has  been  said  that  the  Yankee  character  is 
aettemfss8 of  the so  aPt?  acute,  and  inventive  that  the  adjuncts,  drill  and 
substitute8  n0f0r  Gaining,  which  are  requisite  in  some  of  the  Old  World  com- 
systematic  train-  m unities,  are  not  needed  here.  To  adopt  this  view  as  a  rule 
of  action  would  be  a  sad  mistake.  The  American  may  not 
need  the  incentive  of  school  discipline,  but  he  does  require, 
and  the  near  future  will  demonstrate  that  he  must  have,  the 
thorough  knowledge  and  methods  of  systematic  trainings. 


TEXTILE  FABRICS:  COMMISSIONER  HOWARD. 


463 


Even  now  our  textile  industries  are  suffering  by  reason  of  Lessons  of  the 
our  lack  in  this  respect.  In  mechanical  expedients  to  Expo^tlon- 
cheapen  production  no  nation  is  so  fertile  as  ours,  but  in  the 
higher  and  more  intellectual  elements  we  are  sadly  want¬ 
ing.  In  the  invention  of  contrivances  of  a  merely  median-  we  are  fertile 
ical  character  we  distance  the  world,  both  in  quantity  and  pneSents.mcal  ex 
quality ;  but  when  it  comes  to  the  loftier  and  more  aesthetic 
designs,  where  beauty  and  gracefulness  unite  in  the  forma¬ 
tion  of  attractive  and  alluring  wares,  it  is  our  highest  am¬ 
bition  to  steal.  An  intelligent  French  manufacturer  re-  de^gUSsteal  0UT 
marked  to  me : 


“We  claim  to  furnish  the  brains  for  the  world  in  the  matter  of  manu-  prance  claims 
facturing.  We  mean  to  lead  in  the  invention  and  composition  of  de-  to  find  brains  for 
signs  and  styles.  We  expect  you  (Americans)  and  the  English  to  use  matter  of  design- 
them  after  we  have  thrown  them  aside.  You  are  welcome  to  them111?- 
then,  as  we  shall  have  made  our  profit  out  of  them  before  you  can  in¬ 
troduce  them.  Our  profits  will  be  greater,  because  novelties  pay  better 
than  second-hand  patterns.  While  you  are  weaving  and  priuting  one- 
year-old  figures,  we  ar  bringing  into  market  new  combinations  to  suc¬ 
ceed  those  we  have  abandoned  to  you.” 

This  is  no  idle  boast.  But  there  are  indications  that,  the 
supremacy  of  France  in  this  respect  will  not  long  remain 
unchallenged.  Fostered  by  the  training  school,  thousands  other  nations 
in  other  countries  are  becoming  adepts  in  science  and  art,  contestpar?ench 
and  prepared  to  wrestle  in  the  world’s  industrial  contention. supremacy' 
That  brains  and  talent,  properly  directed  and  developed, 
will  assert  themselves  on  Muscovite  as  well  as  on  Gallic 
soil  has  been  abundantly  proved  by  the  last  two  interna¬ 
tional  exhibitions. 

1  think  that  American  observers  of  the  textile  fabrics  at  immense  vari- 
Paris  must  have  been  surprised  at  the  infinite  variety  and  rics  on  exhibi- 
diversity  exhibited  by  European  manufacturers,  even  in  de-  lon‘ 
partments  where  Americans  could  with  proper  energy  and 
enterprise  successfully  compete.  It  is  a  matter  of  regret 
that  so  few  of  our  manufacturers  took  occasion  to  visit  the 
display,  as  it  was  very  suggestive  in  this  respect.  It  pointed 
the  way  which  we  must  pursue  if  we  expect  to  secure  a  last¬ 
ing  prosperity  for  our  manufacturing  industries.  We  must  we  should 

.  ..  *  _  .  make  a  wider 

introduce  and  prosecute  the  manufacture  ot  a  wider  range  range  of  fabrics, 
of  fabrics,  if  we  expect  to  give  employment  to  our  redundant 
machinery.  I  am  not  unaware  that  we  are  gradually  widen¬ 
ing  our  field  of  production,  but  we  are  not  progressing  in 
this  direction  so  rapidly  as  we  should.  I  find  by  inquiring  oursiow  prog 
that  there  are  many  fabrics  which  were  largely  imported  action!  th,s  dl 
into  this  country  when  more  extravagant  habits  prevailed, 
but  which  are  practically  withdrawn  from  the  market, 
because  the  duty  thereon  rendered  the  cost  too  excessive 


464 


UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1878. 


Exposition the$0Y  these  more  economical  days.  Some  of  these  goods  I 
have  seen,  and  can  safely  assert  of  them  that  they  can  be 
made  in  the  United  States  without  difficulty,  and  sold  at  a 
while  we  can- price  within  the  reach  of  all.  We  cannot  expect  to  rival  in 

not  rival  the  va-  . 

riety  of  Europe,  variety  of  production  the  long-established  houses  of.  Man- 

we  may  equal  the  . 

quality.  Chester  and  Zurich  and  Roubaix,  but  we  can  soon  equal 

them  in  the  quality  of  many  of  their  fabrics  if  we  will  estab¬ 
lish  and  foster  a  proper  system  of  trade  or  shop  instruction, 
o ur techno] ogi-  The  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technologv,  the  Cooper  In- 

cal  and  scientific  '  x 

schools  a  move-  stitute,  the  Stevens  Institute  of  Technologv,  the  Worcester 

ment  m  the  right  '  ' 

direction.  Free  Institute  of  Industrial  Science,  the  Cincinnati  School 
of  Design,  and  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  in  New  Haven 
are  movements  in  the  right  direction,  and  should  be  encour¬ 
aged  and  sustained  by  the  earnest  co-operation  of  our  people. 

tion3eCoS?  e great  ^T1  ^ne?  a  m^re  general  diffusion  of  systematic,  scientific, 

need.  °  artistic,  and  technical  education  among  our  manufacturers, 
and  increased  enterprise  on  their  part  in  the  invention  and 
introduction  of  a  greater  variety  of  fabrics,  are  now  the  main 
instrumentalities  needed  to  complete  the  success  of  the 
United  States  as  a  competitor  with  the  great  textile-pro¬ 
ducing  nations. 

omittfn^°ns  com  80me  may  deem  my  report  wanting  in  respect  to  con¬ 
structive  infor-  ^tractive  information,  I  desire  to  remark  that  there  are  two 
reasons,  each  in  itself  sufficient,  for  not  attempting  to  sup¬ 
ply  this.  The  first  is  that  exhibitors,  instead  of  imparting 
a  knowledge  of  their  processes  to  be  availed  of  by  compet¬ 
itors,  naturally  and  justifiably  withhold  it.  Most  of  the 
goods  were  in  glass  cases,  under  lock  and  key,  and  it  was  a 
rare  thing  for  an  exhibitor  to  allow  his  case  to  be  opened  by 
any  but  the  jurors.  Secondly,  to  describe  a  single  fabric  at 
length,  or  the  mechanism  by  which  its  peculiarities  are  pro¬ 
duced,  with  enough  of  clearness  and  detail  to  be  of  value  to 
fabricants  desiring  to  copy,  would  occupy  generally  much 
space,  even  if  all  mention  of  the  chemistry  of  colors  was 
omitted. 

It  has  been  my  simple  aim  to  reflect  as  comprehensively 
and  yet  as  tersely  as  possible  the  marvelous  group — con¬ 
sisting  of  six  thousand  specimens  of  textile  industry — to 
which  I  was  assigned. 

HENRY  HOWARD, 

Additional  Commissioner. 


TEXTILE  FABRICS:  COMMISSIONER  HOWARD. 


465 


Note. 


Since  the  completion  of  my  report,  an  article  lias  appeared  Remarks  in  tho 

4  ^Textile  TVfnTni- 

in  the  “Textile  Manufacturer,”  of  Manchester,  England, factnrer”  on 

,  .  ,  r  n  -i  ,  technical  schools. 

which  so  mlly  conhrms  some  remarks  ot  mine  m  relation  to 
technical  schools,  and  is  so  pregnant  with  hints  which  should 
serve  as  warnings  to  us,  that  I  deem  it  worth  while  to  sub¬ 
join  an  extract  therefrom : 


“ Little  by  little  the  truth  dawned  upon  the  minds  of  manufacturers 
that  the  progress  of  foreign  workmanship  could  not  be  attributed  to 
greater  industry  and  enterprise  on  the  part  of  foreigners,  both  manu¬ 
facturers  and  workmen,  but  that  the  cultivated  intelligence  resulting 
from  attendance  at  technical  institutions  was  the  secret  of  success,  and 
that  the  same  agencies  must  be  employed  on  British  soil  if  our  indus¬ 
tries  were  not  to  be  handicapped  in  competition  with  foreigners. 
An  unknown  amount  of  prejudice  had  to  be  surmounted  before  even 
feeble  and  tentative  measures  could  be  adopted  to  establish  classes 
for  technical  instruction  in  connection  with  the  textile  trades ;  and 
even  now  many  manufacturers,  not  even  excluding  some  in  the  front 
rank  of  their  respective  trades,  look  askanse  at  the  extension  of  textile 
schools.  Yet  day  by  day  the  conviction  is  being  forced  upon  them  that 
no  longer  will  the  egotistical  theory  hold  good  that  in  the  future,  as 
in  the  past,  Englishmen  can  hold  their  own  among  manufacturers  by 
working  upon  the  old  lines  their  fathers  worked  upon,  and  that  native 
energy  and  undaunted  perseverance  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  beat  the 
foreigner.  Exhibition  after  exhibition  only  confirms  the  statement  that 
in  every  department  Continental  nations  are  getting  well  abreast  of 
the  home  manufacturer  in  the  style,  make,  and  finish  of  textile  goods, 
even  if  in  some  cases  they  are  not  already  ahead.  Reports  have  been 
published  both  by  masters  and  men  of  the  position  of  affairs,  and  there 
has  been  a  general  consensus  of  opinion  that  the  Continental  technical 
schools  have  greatly  assisted  foreign  workmen  iu  gaining  ground  upon 
Englishmen.  The  first  outcome  of  the  awakened  conscience  of  En¬ 
glish  manufactures  was  the  establishment  of  the  Leeds  Textile  School, 
founded  by  the  munificence  of  the  Clothworkers’  Company  of  London, 
but  owing  its  origin  entirely  to  the  convictions  and  subsequent  action 
of  Leeds  manufacturers.  The  weak  sapling  then  planted  has  grown 
already  into  a  goodly  tree  of  no  mean  dimensions,  and  plants  from  the 
present  stock  have  been  so  carefully  planted  that  they  are  in  a  fair  way 
of  attaining  a  growth  that  will  overshadow  the  original  tree.  The 
Glasgow  Technical  School  took  advantage  of  the  experience  gained  at 
Leeds,  and  modified  and  extended  the  scheme  there  in  operaion.  Later 
in  time  a  vigorous  movement  was  set  on  foot  in  Bradford,  where  the 
idea  was  seized  upon  with  enthusiasm  ;  the  classes  of  instruction  formed 
in  that  town  numbered  hundreds  of  students.  Elsewhere  schools  and 
classes  have  been  formed,  or  are  in  course  of  formation,  and  in  no  direc¬ 
tion  is  there  any  indication  of  aught  else  but  success.” 

30  P  R 


Progress  of  for¬ 
eign  workman¬ 
ship  due  to  tech¬ 
nical  schools. 


British  manu¬ 
facturers  must 
give  up  their 
prejudices  for  the 
methods  of  their 
fathers. 


Lessons  of  the 
Exhibition. 


Establishment 
of  textile  school 
in  Leeds. 


Glasgow  Tech¬ 
nical  School. 


Bradford  school. 


INDEX. 


INDEX 


Note. — An  asterisk  (fi)  signifies  that  an  illustration  occurs  on  the  page  named. 

Page. 


Aagaard,  C.  F.  (Denmark),  painting  by .  103 

Aargau  (see  Switzerland :  cantons). 

Abbey,  E.  A.  (New  York),  aquarelle  by . .  110 

Abeles,  Leopold  (Vienna,  Austria),  cotton  fabrics .  437 

linen  fabrics  .  438 

provision  for  the  welfare  of  operatives .  437 


“Academic  school”  ( see  Art). 

Academies  (see  Education). 

Acamania  (see  Greece:  departments). 

Achaia  (see  Greece:  departments). 

Aclienbach,  A.  (Germany),  paintings  by .  86 

Aclienback,  O.  (Germany),  paintings  by .  .  .  86 

Adams,  John  (United  States),  statesman .  377 

Adams- Acton,  G.  C.  (England),  busts  by .  142 

Administration,  study  of  (see,  also,  Education) . . 352,354-359,370 

iEtolia  (see  Greece:  departments). 

AggMzy,  J.  (Hungary),  painting  by .  79 

Agriculture,  dependence  of  populations  upon .  186 

retarded  by  ignorance  .  232 

Aivazovski,  J.  C.  (Russia),  paintings  by .  89 

Aix  (France) — 

School  of  Arts  and  Trades  at . 218, 389  note,  401-404 

study  of  political  science  at . . .  356 

Aizelin,  E.  (France),  statue  by .  123 

Alabama  (see  United  States). 

Alaska  (see  United  States). 

Albert-Lefeuvre,  L.  13.  M.  (France),  statue  by .  123 

Alcan,  Professor,  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  Paris .  217 

Alexanders  &  Co.  (Hawick,  Scotland),  woolen  cloths .  .  434 

Alexandra,  Princess  of  Wales,  bust  of,  by  D’Epinay  .  142 

Alexieff  (Russia),  medals  by .  144 

Alfred  the  Great,  King,  ideal  bust  of,  by  Count  Gleicken .  142 

Algeria  (see  France:  colonies). 

Algiers,  a  department  of  Algeria  (see  France:  colonies:  Algeria). 

Algiers,  city  of  (Algeria) — 

lyc6e  at . . .  319,  320 

school  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  at . . .  320 

girls’  lay  school,  exhibit  by . . .  315 

school  for  Arab  girls  at . . . .  317, 318 

AJlar,  A.  J.  (France),  statue  by .  123 

Allason,  S.  (Italy),  painting  by .  76 

Allemand  (see  L’Allemand). 

Alleyn’s  College,  Dulwich,  England,  designs  for  the  buildings  of .  157 

Allingham,  Mrs.  (England),  aquarelles  by .  42 

Alma-Tadema,  L.  (England),  paintings  by .  63 

engravings  of . 159 

Alost  (Belgium) — 

linen  manufacture  at . 454 

wages  of  operatives  in . .  454 

Alsace-Lorraine,  loss  of,  to  France . 187, 189,  220, 405 

Alston,  Washington,  representative  American  artist .  109 

Alt,  Rudolf,  portrait  of,  by  Griepenkerl .  80 

Altamura,  J.  (Greece),  paintings  by .  108 

Amendola,  J.  B.  (Italy),  statue  by .  137 


469 


470 


INDEX, 


America,  American  (see  United  States). 

American  Indian  in  art . 

Amiens  (France) — 

cotton  manufacture  at  . 

Amsterdam  (Netherlands) — 

normal  courses  for  women  at . . . 

school  of  commerce  at . - . 

Catholic  intermediate  school  at . 

school  of  navigation  at . 

Ambachtschool  (of  civil  and  naval  architecture) . 

Amy,  J.  B.  (France),  statue  by . 

Anatomy  taught  in  drawing-schools  in  France . 

Angely  (see  De  Angely). 

Angers  (France) — 

School  of  Arts  and  Trades  at.  . . 

Antokolski  (Russia),  statues  by . . 

Antwerp  (see Belgium:  provinces). 

Antwerp,  city  of  (Belgium),  Hotel  de  Ville  at . 

commercial  institute  at . 

Aomori  (Japan) — 

public  reading  room  at . 

Apol,  L.  (Netherlands),  painting  by — . 

Apparatus,  school  (see  Education). 

Appenzell  (see  Switzerland :  cantons). 

Apprentices,  societies  in  aid  of,  in  France . 

schools  for  (see  Education). 

Aqua  fortis  (see  Art :  engravings). 

Aquarelles  (see  Art :  paintings) . 

Arabic  language  in  French  commercial  schools. . . 

schools  of  Algeria . 

Arabs  (see  Algeria :  Education). 

Arago,  ficole  (see  France:  Education,  superior  primary). 

Arbo,  P.  N.  (Norway),  painting  by . 

Arcadia  (see  Greece:  departments). 

Archaeology,  collections  in  the  Trocad6ro . 

by  L.  P.  Di  Cesnola . 

Architecture  (see  Art). 

ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC 

Education . . . 

exhibit . . 

popular  interest  in . . 

governmental  encouragement  of . . 

subsidies  toward . 

primary .  . . 

public  schools . 

private  schools . 

evening  schools . 

normal  schools . 

for  women . 

obligatory  in  some  provinces . 

secondary — 

provincial  and  private  colleges . 

national  provincial  colleges . . 

preparatory  schools . . 

industrial  schools . . . 

superior- 

national  universities . 

teachers — 

normal  schools . 

women  as . 

school  furniture . 

attendance . 

statistics — 

primary  schools  . . . 

secondary . 

of  education  in  the  provinces . 


Page. 

109 

446,447 

261 

264 

264 

270 

414 

124 

200 


.218, 389  note,  401-404 
.  142,143 

.  152 

246 

.  328 

.  101 


192 


220 
316, 319 


106 

148-150 

162 


.329-331,  334 
....  329,330 
330 
330 

330 

....  330,331 

331 
331 
331 
330 
330 
330 

330 

330 

330 

330 

330  ' 

330 

330 

....  329,330 
330,  331, 334 

...  331,334 

330 

331 


INDEX. 


471 


Page. 


Argolis  (see  Greece:  departments). 

Arizona  (see  United  States). 

Arkansas  (see  United  States). 

Armentieres  (France) — 

linen  manufacture  at .  449 

Armitage,  E.  (England),  art  tendencies  of .  39 

painting  by .  54 

Armstrong,  T.  (England),  painting  by . .  CO 

Arnhem  (Netherlands) — 

women’s  normal  school  of  the  Association  for  the  Public  Good  at . - .  261 

secondary  school  for  girls  at .  267 

Arnold,  Thomas  K.  (England),  educator . .  360 


Art,  workers  in  (see  Education:  apprentice  schools  ;  also,  Wood-carving). 
ART— 


[Note. — The  fine  art  exhibit  is  indexed  in  detail  under  the  titles  of  the  nations  which 
contributed,  viz: 


Austria-Hungary, 

Great  Britain, 

Norway, 

Spain, 

Belgium, 

Greece, 

Persia, 

Sweden, 

China, 

Italy, 

Peru, 

Switzerland, 

Denmark, 

Japan, 

Portugal, 

Tunis, 

France, 

Morocco, 

Russia, 

United  States.] 

Germany, 

Netherlands, 

Siam. 

Report  on  the  Fine  Arts,  by  William  W.  Story .  . , .  1-179 

Classification  of  Group  I  (Fine  Arts)  .  2 

List  of  Jurors  of  Group  1 . 171, 174, 176, 178 

List  of  Awards  in  Group  I .  . * .  176-179 

interests  of,  neglected  by  the  Government  of  the  United  States . 3,  4,  5,  6,  7, 110, 169, 170 

patronized  by  the  governments  of  Europe . 6, 8,  9, 146, 169 

individuals  in  the  United  States .  6 

disappearance  of  national  “schools”  in  modern .  9, 10 

paintings  exhibited .  .  12-116 

genre . 13, 14, 18-28, 47,  70-75,  78,  89,  90,  95-98,  99, 102, 110,  111 

historical . . 28-30,  48,  70,  76-78,  85,  90-95 

portraits . - . 30-32,  52,  61,  80,  85, 106, 116 

landscapes  . . 32-36, 48-52,  69,  75,  80, 86,  87-89,  97,  98,  99-102, 103, 104,  111 

aquarelles . . -  -  - . 36,  37,  39-45, 76,  80, 116 

black  and  white . .  63,  64 

“schools” — 


academic.., . 

realistic . . 

Dusseldorf . 

characteristics — 

medisevalism . 

literalness . 

sentimentalism . . 

impressionism . 

sensuality . 

brutality . . 

German  Renaissance . 

drawing . 

color . . * .  . 

technique . 

sculpture  exhibited . 

genre . 

portraits .  . . 

historical . 

realistic  school . . . 

technique . 

style . 

architecture . 

the  Exposition  buildings . 

the  Fine  Art  Gallery,  view  of  the  porch 

la  Rue  des  Nations . 

view  in  the . . 

architectural  designs . . 


14, 80 
24,  07, 73 
82 


45. 46 

46.47 
62 

68,  99 


. - .  26 

.  81 

. 38,45,58 

. .  .12,  38,  44,  58,  64,  66 
.  .12, 13,  37,  38,  66,  99 

.  116-148 

. 116, 117, 126,129 

128, 136, 140, 142, 146 

.  142 

. .  133 

.  117 

. 118,119 

.  153-159 

.  150-152 

. .frontispiece. 

.  152-156 

. .  *152 

.  156-159 


472 


INDEX, 


ART — Continued. 

archaeological  collections . 148-150 

Museum  of  the  Trocad6ro . 148-150, 427 

engravings  exhibited . . 159-162 

repoussee  work  .  162 

medals .  128,162 

national  art  education  {see,  also,  Education)  .  163-170 

carving  and  decoration  in  wood  ( see  Wood-carving). 

Artisans  {see  Education :  apprentice  schools  ;  also,  Operatives). 

Artz,  A.  (Netherlands),  style  of,  in  art .  99 

paintings  by  — .  101 

Asakousa  (Japan) — 

public  library  at . 328 

Asgaardried,  Norse  legend  of  the  . 106 

Askevold,  A.  (Norway),  painting  by .  106 

Asylums  {see  Education). 

Athens  (G-reece) — 

the  Parthenon  .  8 

Academy  of  Sciences .  159 

Erench  art  students .  . 165 

German  art  societies .  167 

normal  school . .  307 


Atkinson,  T.  L.  (England),  engravings  by . .  160 

Attica  {see  Greece:  departments). 

Aucoc  (Erance),  political  economist . - .  356 

Aumonier,  J.  (England),  painting  by  . .  49 

Australia  {see  Great  Britain:  colonies:  New  South  Wales,  Queensland,  South  Australia, 
Victoria,  Western  Australia). 

Austria,  Erancis  Joseph,  Emperor  of,  statue  of,  by  Tilgner .  146, 147 

engraved  portrait,  by  Biot . 161 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY  {see,  also,  Buda-Pesth,  Hohenbruck,  Tachau,  Vienna)— 

Art  patronized  by  the  government . 6, 146, 169 

characteristics  of . . . .  76,  80 

paintings  exhibited  . 76-80 

historical .  76-78 


genre . . . . .  78,  79 

landscapes . 80 

portraits .  80 

aquarelles .  80 

sculpture  exhibited .  146, 147 

architectural  designs  exhibited  .  .  158, 159 

engravings  exhibited  . 161 

education .  169 

Eagade  at  the  Exposition .  154 

Education .  . .  286-304, 354 

primary .  287-298 

Volkssehule  (common  school)  . . . 287-291, 294,  297 

Burgerschule  (citizen  school) . 288-291, 294 

teachers’  schools  . . .  293,  294 

Kwdergarten . 297,298 

private  instruction  . . i .  292 

reformatory  houses .  292 

secondary .  298-303 

middle  schools . 298-303 

gymnasiums . 298, 299,  300,  303 

real-schools .  . . .  . 298,  301,  302,  303 

real-gymnasiums . . .  . 298,  301, 303 

superior — 

universities . . 354 

industrial .  . . . 385, 412, 413 

weaving  schools . 462 

examinations  for  children  not  attending  public  schools .  292 

of  teachers . .  293, 294 

graduating . .  301, 302 

certificates,  diplomas,  etc. — 

qualifying  teachers . .  293, 294 


INDEX. 


473 

Page. 


AUSTKIA-HUNGAKY— Continued. 

Education— 
statistics — 

industrial  schools . 

control  of— 

Ministry  of  Education . 

Commerce . 

school  councils,  national . 

district . 

local . 

district  inspectors . 

corporations  of  teachers . 

church  authorities . 

school  laws,  ordinances,  etc. — 

of  1803 . 

1848 . 

18G7-8 . 

1869  . 

1870  . 

1874 . . 

1876 . 

school  boohs . 

libraries . 

apparatus  . 

furniture . 

houses  . 

support  of  schools . 

by  communes . 

districts  . 

provinces . 

taxes . 

voluntary  contributions 

teachers — 

requirements . 

certificates  . . 

schools  (normal)  for . 

for  women 

women  as . . 

of  religion . 

Kindergarten . 

the  deaf  and  blind . 

libraries  for . 

conferences  of . 

salaries . 

pensions . 

courses  of  study — 

in  Volksschule . 

Burgerschule . 

teachers’  schools . 

gymnasiums . 

real-gymnasiums . 

real-schools . 

University  of  Vienna  _ _ 

industrial  schools . 

studies — 

agricultural  subjects . 

arithmetic . , . 

bookkeeping . 

chemistry . . 

composition . 

drawing . 

geography . 

geology . 

geometry . 

gymnastics . 

history . . 


. .  412,413 

. 287, 289, 291, 297 

. .  413 

. 287, 289, 291 

.  287 

. .  287 

.  291,294 

. .  291 

. 286, 287, 291,  298 

. . 287,  288,  293 

.  287, 293 

. 286,  298,  299 

288, 291, 293,  295, 296,  303 

.  289,292 

. .  289,292 

. . 299 

. .286,291,304 

. 294,  296,  297 

.  295,296 

.  296 

. 294,  295,  296,  299 

. 294,295 

. 294,295,297 

.  294 

. .  294 

. 294,295 

.  295.297 


. 293,  299,300,  302 

.  293,298 

. 293,  294,  303,  304 

.  293,294 

.  201,293 

.  286,298 

.  293,293 

.  293 

. .  294,297 

. 294,297,  302 

. . 294,299 

.  299 

. 288,  289,  290,  293 

.  288,289,290,293 

.  293 

. . 299,  300,  303 

.  301,303 

. 301,  302,  303 

.  354 

.  412,413 

. . 288,  293,  295 

. 288,  289,  290,  293 

. - .  288 

. .  302,303 

.  288 

. .  . . .  288,  289,  290,  293,  299,  302,  303 

. 288,  289,  290,  300,  302,  303 

.  300 

. 288,  290,  293,  300,  303 

.288, 289, 290, 293,  295,  296,  302, 303 
. .  .288, 289, 290, 302,  303,  354 


474 


INDEX. 


AUSTKIA-rr  UNGARY — Continued. 

Education— 
studies — 

housekeeping  (for  girls) . . 

languages . 

ancient — 

Greek . 

Latin . 

modern . 

Croatian . 

English . 

French . 

Italian . 

German . 

Czechian . 


Page. 


.  288,293 

.288, 289, 290, 293,  298 

.  301,303 

.  300,303 

.  288,302 

.  299 

.  302,303 

. 301,302,  303 

.  299,302 

.288,  291,  299,  302,  303 
.  299 


Polish . . .  299 

Servian . . - .  299 

Rutlian .  299 

law,  administrative . 354 

constitutional .  354 

financial . .* . . .  354 


international .  354 

logic . . . .  302 

mathematics .  293, 303 

modeling .  302 

music . .  288,  289, 290,  293,  302 

national  economy .  .  302,  303,  354 

natural  history . . . . 290,  293,  300,  303 

pedagogy .  293 

physics . 288,  289,  290,  300,  302,  303 

political  science  .» . 354 

religion . . 288, 289, 290,  293,  298,  300,  303 

rhetoric  . 293 

sewing  (for  girls) . ..288,  290,  293 

writing . . . . . . . . 288,  289, 290,  293,  302,  303 

statistics .  . . .  354 

stenography .  302 

taxation . 35 


difficulties — 

diversity  of  nationalities . . .286,  287,  298,  299 

diversity  of  languages .  286,  287, 291,  298 

popular  opposition  . 292 

absenteeism .  291,  292 

ecclesiastical  control . 286,  287,  295 

questions  in — 

enforcement  of  universal  school  attendance . 291,  292,  294 

rewards  and  punishments .  292 

reformatory  measures .  292 

school  age .  292 

coeducation  of  the  sexes .  293 

reforms .  .  286,291 

in  common  schools .  286,  287 

middle  schools . 298 

gymnasiums . 299 

real-schools  . .  301,  302 

universities  .  354 

schools  made  “free”  (from  religious  and  political  control,  etc.) .  286 

special  provisions — 

for  the  peasant  class .  287 

operatives . .  412, 413 

girls.. . 289,290,  293 

private  instruction .  292 

children  employed  in  factories . 294 

“ utraquistist"  instruction .  298,299 

candidates  for  the  public  service .  354 

scholarships . . . . .  293,  295 


INDEX. 


475 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY— Continued.  Page. 

Textile  Fabrics . 437-440 

cotton .  .  437, 438 

prints .  438 

manufacture .  437 

linen,  etc .  438 

flax  manufacture .  438 

jute  manufacture . 438 

worsted .  438,439 

manufacture .  438,439 

woolen .  439 

dress-goods  for  men’s  wear . - .  434, 439 

manufacture .  439 

native  wools .  439 

silk . 439, 440, 443 

manufacture .  439 

manufacture  by  power .  437,438 

hand . 437,438 

operatives,  provision  for  the  welfare  of .  437 

weaving  schools .  462 

exports — 

cotton  goods  to  Russia .  .  437 

Danubian  principalities .  437 

Germany .  437 

linen  yarn  to  Germany .  438 

wool .  439 

silk  goods .  440 

imports — 

cotton  yarn . 437 

wool  from  England .  438 

France .  438 

Germany .  438 

Australia .  439 

Russia . 439 

Turkey .  439 

silk . .  440 

■Wood-carving,  exhibit  of . 426 

PROVINCES— 

BOHEMIA— 

jute  manufacture .  438 

woolen  manufacture .  438 

HUNGARY— 

[Note. — The  following  references  are  to  Hungary  proper ;  matters  belonging  to 
the  empire  in  general  being  indexed  under  Austria-Hungary.] 

Education .  303, 304 

primary  schools,  statistics  of .  303 

normal  schools,  etc.,  statistics  of .  304 

secondary  schools,  statistics  of .  304 

girls’  schools .  304 

art  schools . .  304 

school  books . 304 

Textile  Fabrics— 

woolen  goods .  438 

excellence  of  native  wool .  438, 439 

LOWER  AUSTRIA— 

cottton  manufacture .  438 

MORAVIA— 

jute  manufacture .  438 

SILESIA— 

woolen  goods  manufacture .  439 

TYROL— 

popular  societies  for  promoting  education .  295 

wood-carving .  42(j 

silk  manufacture .  439 

UPPER  AUSTRIA— 

popular  societies  for  promoting  education .  295 

woolen  goods  manufacture .  439 


476 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Awards — 

for  art  exhibits  at  Philadelphia  (Centennial)  Exhibition,  1876 .  6 

Paris  Exposition,  1878,  list  of . 171-179 

for  educational  exhibits,  Paris  Exposition,  1878 .  341 


Baade,  K.  (Norway),  paintings  by . .  105 

Bache,  O.  (Denmark),  painting  by .  104 

Bacon,  Henry  (United  States),  painting  by .  113 

Bacon,  John  (England),  style  of,  in  art .  139 

Bagehot,  Walter  (England),  writings  on  political  economy .  .  367 

Baisch,  H.  (Germany),  painting  by . . . . .  86 

Bakhuyzen,  J.  van  der  San  do  (Netherlands),  style  of,  in  art. .  99 

painting  by  .  100 

Bale  ( see  Switzerland:  cantons). 

Bale,  city  of  (Switzerland). 

post-office  building,  designs  for .  158 

primary  schools,  statistics  of .  314 

secondary  schools,  statistics  of . 314 

University  of,  study  of  political  science  at .  355 

Ballarat  Woolen  Company  (Ballarat,  Victoria,  Australia),  woolen  fabrics .  436 

Balparda  (Uruguay),  advocate  of  employing  women  as  teachers . .  333 

Bank-note  engraving  (see  Art) . 

Barbella,  C.  (Italy),  statue  by .  .  131 

Barbour  (William)  &  Sons  (Lisburn,  Ireland),  linen  threads  . .  433 

employ  operatives  in  Paterson,  N.  J .  .  433 

Barnard,  E.  (England),  illustrations  to  Dickens’s  novels .  160 

Barnard,  Henry  (Hartford,  Conn.),  publisher  and  exhibitor  of  “  The  American  Journal  of  Edu¬ 
cation” . 340 

Barrias,  E.  L.  (Erance),  sculpture  by .  128 

Barrow  Elax  and  Jute  Company  (Barrow-in-Eurness,  England),  exhibit  of  “Ivalameit  ”  (jute 

fabric) .  433 

Barry,  Charles  (England),  architectural  designs  by .  157 

Barry,  E.  M.  (England),  architectural  designs  by . . .  158 

Bartholemy,  It.  (Erance),  statue  by .  123 

Bartholdi,  F.  A.  (France),  figure  of  Liberty  for  New  York  Harbor,  by .  127 

Bartolo  ( see  Di  Bartolo) . 

Barzaghi,  J.  (Italy),  statues  by .  . . .  135 

Bastien-Lepage  (Erance),  paintings  by  . .  . .  32 

Batignolles,  Normal  School  of  the  Boulevard  des  (Paris) . . .  204,  205 

Baudin  (France),  political  economist .  356 

Baujault,  J.  B.  (France),  statue  by .  122 

Baumann  &  Streuli  (Horgen,  Switzerland),  silk  fabrics .  445 

Baur,  A.  (Germany),  painting  by .  85 

Bautmy,  iSinile,  director  of  School  of  Political  Sciences,  Paris .  227,  356 

Bayeux  (France) — 

vacation  visits  of  schools  to .  209 

manufactures  of .  . . . . .  209 

Beaumont  (Erance),  paintings  by .  23 

Beauvais  (France) — 

national  manufactures  at . . .  165 

Beccaria  (Italy),  political  economist .  359 

Becker,  C.  (Germany),  paintings  by .  85 

Becker,  G.  (Franco),  painting  by .  26 

Beckwith,  J.  C.  (United  States),  painting  by .  115 

Becq-de-Fouqui&res,  Mme.  (Erance),  pastel  by .  .  37 

Becquerel,  Professor,  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  kldtiers,  Paris .  217 ' 

Becquet,  J. (Erance),  statue  by .  123 

Beei’,  E.( Austria),  statuary  by .  147 

Beethoven,  poetry  of . . . . .  87 

monument  to,  at  Vienna . . .  146 

Begas,  Charles  (Germany),  statues  by .  145 

Begas,  Roinhold  (Germany),  statues  by . . . . . . .  . .  145 


INDEX. 


477 


BELGIUM  (see,  also,  Alost,  Ghent, 

Antwerp,  Li6go, 

Brussels,  Nieuport, 

Gemblonx, 

Art,  characteristics  of . 

paintings  exhibited . 

historical . . . 

genre . 

landscapes . 

portraits . . ..  . . 

sculpture  exhibited . 

engravings  exhibited . 

Ea§ade  at  the  Exposition . 

Education . 

exhibit  of . 

provided  for  by  national  constitution . 

primary .  . 

exhibit  of . 

infant  schools  (gardicnnes) . 

primary  schools . 

adult  schools .  . 

evening . 

Sunday .  .  . 

special:  work  schools . 

deaf  and  dumb . 

blind . 

orphans  . 

reform  schools . 

boarding  schools . 

normal  schools,  state . 

for  men . . . 

women . . 

sections,  state . 

schools  “adapted”  for  men . 

women . 

secondary . - . 

athenaeums . 

colleges . 

secondary  schools  ( moyennes ) . 

free  institutions . . 

normal  schools . 

sections  . . 

industrial  schools  . 

of  weaving . 

technical .  . 

commercial . 

art . 

music . 

studies — 

arithmetic . 

art . 

languages . . . 

ancient — 

Latin . 

modern — 

English . 

Elemish  — . 

Erench . 

German . 

music . 

navigation .  . 

reading  and  writing . 

religion  and  morals . 

sewing . 

weights  and  measures . 


Ninhove, 

Termonde, 

Yerviers). 


Page. 


.  94 

.  94-97 

. .  .  94,  95 

.  95-97 

.  97 

.  97 

.  147 

.  161 

. .  152,451 

.  239-247 

185,  239-241,  385 

. .  240 

.  241-244 

.  240 

.  243 

.  243 

. .  243,244 

.  243 

. .  243 

.  244 

.  244 

.  244 

.  244 

.  244 

.  244 

. 242,  243,  244 

. 242,  243,  244 

. 242,  243,  244 

. 242,  244 

_ 242,  243,  244 

.  242,244 

.  244-247 

...  244,245,246 

. .  246 

.  244,245 

.  246 


246 
246,  385 
452 
246 

246 
246,  247 
246,  247 

241 

247 
241 


241 


241 

241 

241 

241 

247 

246 

241 

241 

241 

241 


478 


INDEX. 


BELGIUM — C  ontinued. 

Education— 

study,  courses  of,  in  normal  schools . 

athenaeums . . 

industrial  schools . 

art  schools . . . 

schools,  support  of— 

communes  (public) . 

“private  adapted”  ( agreees ) . 

private,  inspected . 

free . 

government  aid . 

provinces . 

control  of . 

government . 

communal  authorities . 

cantonal  inspectors . 

provincial  inspectors . 

ecclesiastical  authorities . 

officers:  administrative  branch . 

secretary . 

treasurer . 

directors  of  studies . 

overseers . 

teaching  branch . 

prefect  of  studies . 

professors . . 

directors  . 

regents  . 

teachers  . 

council  of  improvement  . 

gratuitous . 

subject  to  civil  and  religious  inspection . 

school  law . 

buildings . . . 

furniture .  . 

books  . 

material  of  instruction . 

competitive  examinations . 

teachers,  training  of . 

“conferences”  of . 

requirements  for . . . 

instrumentalities  for  promoting — 
societies— 

Ligue  de  V  Enseignement . 

model  school  of  Brussels . 

for  popular  contributions  to  schools . 

teachers’  conferences . 

competitive  examinations  of  schools . 

scholarships . 

Minister  of  the  Interior,  director  of  public  instruction. 

educational  exhibit  by . 

difficulties — 

religion . . 

instruction  by  clergy . 

Jesuits . . 

popular  indifference . . 

boarding-school  system . 

certificates,  diplomas,  academic  degrees — 

prerequisite  to  scholarship . 

for  instructors . 

statistics — 

illiteracy . 

instruction  in  the  provinces . . 

primary  education . . . . 

children  of  school  age . 


Page. 


.  243 

. .  245 

.  246 

.  246 

.241, 242, 243, 244,245 

. 241,  243,  244 

.  241 

. 241,  243  note 

. 241,242,  244 

. 242,  244,  245 

. 241,  242,  244-246 

.  245 

.  241,245 

.  241 

. 241,  242,  246 

.  241,242 

.  245 

.  245 

.  245 

.  245 

.  245 

. .  245 

.  245 

.  245 

.  245 

.  245 

.  245 

.  245 

.  241 

.  242,246 

.  243,245 

. 240, 241, 245 

. 240,  241,  245 

.  240,242 

.  240 

.  242 

. 242, 243, 244,  246 

.  242 

. . .  242,245 


...  237,238 
240 
295 
242 
242 

242,  243,  246 
240 
240 


236  note ,  241, 242 

.  241 

.  241 

.  247 

.  242,245 

.  243 

.  245 

.  240 

.  240 

. .  243,244 

.  244 


INDEX. 


479 

Page. 

BELGIUM— Continued. 

Textile  Fabrics .  451-454 

cotton . .  452 

manufacture . 452 

linen .  452 

manufacture . .  452, 454 

jute  manufacture .  452 

flax  manufacture .  452 

worsted .  434, 453 

manufacture .  453 

woolen . . .  .  . .  453 

operatives,  day’s  labor .  453, 454 

wages  . . . .  453, 454 

children  as .  454 

strikes .  454 

degradation .  454 

legislative  protection .  453 

weaving  schools . 452 

exports — 

cotton  goods .  452 

woolen  yarns . . 453 

manufacture  by  power . : . . .  452 

Wood-carving,  exhibit  of .  426, 427 

PRO  VIN  C  E  S — 

comparative  intelligence  of .  240 

EAST  FLANDERS — 

linen  manufacture .  452 

ateliers  dapprentissage  (weaving  schools) .  452 

WEST  FLANDERS— 

linen  manufacture  .  452 

ateliers  d’apprentissage  (weaving  schools) .  452 

Belliazzi,  R.  (Italy),  statue  by .  137 

B6nard,  H.  J.  E.  (France),  architectural  designs  by .  157 

Benk,  J.  (Austria),  statue  by .  .  146 

Bennetter,  J.  J.  (Norway),  painting  by .  105 

Benson,  Eugene  (United  States),  painting  by . 115 

Benvenuti,  A.  (Italy),  statuary  by . . .  137 

Berchdre  (France),  aquarelles  by  .  37 

Bergamo  (Italy) — 

art  education  at .  167 

Berger,  designer  of  the  Rue  des  Nations  at  the  Exposition . .  .  156 

Berlin  (Germany) — 

art  collections  at . 166 

University  of— 

study  of  natural  sciences .  351 

political  science .  354,  355 

Bernard,  Montaguo  (England),  political  economist .  360,361 

Berne  {see  Switzerland :  cantons). 

Berne,  city  of  (Switzerland)— 

University  of— 

study  of  political  science . 355 

Berne-Bellecour  (France),  paintings  by . . .  21 

Bernier,  C.  (France),  paintings  by .  34 

Bernier,  Louis  (France),  architectural  designs  by .  .  157 

Bertaux,  Mme.  L.  (France),  statue  by  .  126 

Berunot,  G.  N.  ( France),  engravings  by  . . .  .  159 

Besangon  (France) — 

watch-making  school . .  407  408 

Bethmont  (France),  political  economist,  legislator .  356 

Bey  lard,  C.  (Fiance),  statue  by .  123 

Bianchi,  Chevalier  (Italy),  painting  by .  .  75 

Bienne  (Switzerland) — 

school  of  watch-making . 414 

Bilders,  J.  W.  (Netherlands),  painting  by .  100 

Biot,  G.  (Belgium),  engravings  by  .  161 

Bisschop,  C.  (Netherlands),  painting  by .  1Q£ 

Blaas  ( see  Do  Blaas). 


480 


INDEX 


Page. 

Black  and  white,  drawings  in  ( see  Art). 

Blanc,  Charles,  quoted . . . .  156 

Blanchard,  A.  (France),  engravings  by .  159 

Blankets  ( see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Blanqui,  promoter  of  commercial  education  in  France . .  220 

Bleuler  &  Keller  (Kiissnacht,  Switzerland),  silk  fabrics .  445 

Blidah  (Algeria) — 

College  of .  320 

School  of  St.  Charles  at .  320 

Blind  ( see  Education). 

Bliss  (William)  &  Son  (Chipping  Norton,  England),  woolen  fabrics .  434 

Boarding-schools  for  girls  objectionable  .  233 

Bock  ( see  De  Bock). 

Bock  (Russia),  statuary  by .  144 

Bockelmann  (Germany),  painting  by .  84 

Boehm,  J.  B.  (England),  statues  by . . .  140 

Bceotia  ( see  Greece:  departments). 

Bogoluboff,  A.  P.  (Russia),  paintings  by .  94 

Bohemia  (see  Austria-Hungary :  provinces). 

Boilvin,  E.  (France),  etchings  by .  159 

Bois-le-Duc  (Netherlands) — 

normal  school  at . 259 

Boit,  E.  D.  (United  States),  painting  by .  116 

Boitte,  F.  P.  (France),  architectural  designs  by .  120 

Boks,  E.  J.  (Netherlands),  painting  by . . .  102 

Bologna  (Italy) — 

art  education  at .  167 

University  of .  359 

Bone  (Algeria) — 

College  of .  320 

school  for  Arab  girls  at . 317, 318 

Bonn  (Germany) — 

University  of— 

study  of  political  science .  354 

Bonnat  (France),  portraits  by .  30 

Bonnet  (Lyons,  France),  silks . . .  451 

Books,  school  (see  Education). 

Bordeaux  (France) — 

commercial  school  at .  220 

study  of  political  science  at . . .  356 

Borg,  A.  (Sweden),  painting  by . . . .* .  108 

Borg,  O.  E.  (Sweden),  education  of  the  blind  and  deaf  mutes .  272 

Borghi,  A.  (Italy),  statues  by . 135, 136, 137 

Borgstrom,  C.  A.  (Sweden),  educational  exhibit .  .  272 

Borjesson,  Mile.  Agnes  (Sweden),  painting  by .  108 

Borselen  (see  Yan  Borselen). 

Boston,  Mass. — 

public  schools  . .  338,  341 

buildings . .  338 

drawing  as  taught  in .  338 

Perkins  Institution  and  Massachusetts  Asylum  for  the  Blind . .  340 

Institute  of  Technology  . 340,  385, 464 

Botticelli,  influence  of,  on  other  artists. . . . .  46, 122 

Bottinelli,  A.  (Italy),  statue  by .  136 

Boughton,  G.  H.  (England),  paintings  by .  57,  58 

Bouguereau  (France),  paintings  by .  27 

Boulenger,  H.  (Belgium),  painting  by  . . . . . .  97 

Bourdais,  architect  of  the  Trocad6ro,  Paris . . .  151, 152 

Bour6,  A.  F.  (Belgium),  statue  by .  147 

Bourses  (—  scholarships)  (see  Education:  scholarships). 

Boussingault,  Professor,  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  Paris .  217 

Bouvard,  architect  of  Paris  Municipal  Pavilion  at  the  Exposition .  151 

Bouvier  (Italy),  painting  by .  74 

Boyce,  G.  P.  (England),  aquarelle  by .  41 

Brabant  (see  Belgium :  provinces;  £t(so,  Netherlands:  provinces). 


INDEX. 


481 

Page. 


Brackeleer  ( see  De  Brackeleer). 

Bradford  (England)  — 

woolen  clothes  manufactured  at . 434, 435, 449 

imitated  abroad .  434,442 

technical  instruction . 465 

Bradlaugh,  Charles  (English),  socialist . 376 

Braga,  E.  (Italy),  statue  by . 135 


BRAZIL — 

Education— 

school  statistics . . 

Brelay,  Ernest  (France),  promoter  of  popular  education . 

Breton,  Jules  (France),  paintings  by . 

influence  of,  on  other  artists  . 

style  of,  in  art .  . 

Brett,  J.  (England),  paintings  by .  . . . 

Brewtnell,  E.  F.  (England),  paintings  by . . 

Bridgman,  F.  A.  (United  States),  painting  by . 

medal  awarded  to . 

Bridgman,  Laura,  blind  asylum  products  by  .  . . 

Brilliants  ( see  Textile  Fabrics) . 

British  ( see  Great  Britain) . 

British  Columbia  (see  Great  Britain:  colonies:  Canada). 

British  Guiana  ( see  Great  Britain:  colonies). 

Brocade  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Brodie,  W.  (Scotland),  busts  by . . 

Brooke  (James)  &  Son  (Huddersfield,  England),  woolen  cloths . 

Brown,  J.  G.  (Hew  York),  painting  by .  . 

Brown,  John  (Huddersfield,  England),  woolen  cloths . . . . 

Brown,  Linstead,  &,  Co.  (Manchester,  England),  woolen  cloths . 

Browning,  Robert,  portrait  of,  by  G.  F.  Watts  . 

by  R.  Lehmann  .  . 

Bruck,  L.  (Hungary),  painting  by .  . 

Bruneau  (France),  aquarelles  by .  . 

Brunet,  inspector  of  primary  education,  Algeria,  educational  exhibit . 

Brunet-Debaines,  A.  (France),  aquarelle  by . 

engravings  by .  . 

Brunin,  C.  (Belgium),  sculpture  by . 

Brussels  (Belgium) — 

model  school  of  Ligue  de  V E  nseignement . . 

Buckle,  Henry  Thomas  (England),  political  economist . . 

Buda-Pesth  (Hungary)  — 

School  of  the  Fostress  (art  school)  . 

normal  school . 

art  museum . . . 

Buenos  Ayres  (see  Argentine  Republic :  provinces) . 

Buisson,  F.  (France),  report  by,  on  primary  education  in  the  United  States  as  shown  at  the 

Centennial  Exhibition,  referred  to . .. .  . 

Bunce,  W.  G.  (United  States),  painting  by . . . 

Bluntschli,  J.  K.  (Switzerland),  political  economist . . . 

Bunyan,  John,  illustrations  to  his  “  Pilgrim’s  Progress” . 

Buquet,  Charles  (Paris,  France),  carved  furniture . . 


334 

229 

33 

114 

119 

53 

54 

111, 112 
112, 172 
340 


142 

434 
115 

434, 435 

435 
52 
61 
79 
37 

315 

37 

160 

147 

240 

369 

304 

304 

424 


229 

114 

301 

160 

421 


illustration  of .  421* 

Burat,  Jules,  professor,  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  Paris .  217,  359 

Burdett-Coutts,  Baroness,  portrait  of,  by  Brodie  .  .  .  142 

Bureau  of  Education  ( see  United  States  Bureau  of  Education) . 

Burgers,  H.  J.  (^Netherlands),  painting  by .  . .  101 

Burgerscholen  (see  [Netherlands  :  education,  secondary:  lower  intermediate  schools) . 

Burke,  Edmund,  statue  of,  by  Foley .  140 

as  political  economist  .  377 

Bumard,  E.  (Switzerland),  painting  by .  98 

Burne-Jones  (see  Jones,  E.  B.). 

Butler,  G.  B.  (United  States),  painting  by . . .  115 

Butler,  Mrs.  (nee  Thompson,  England),  paintings  by .  53,  54 

engravings  of .  160 

. .  134 


Butti,  E.  (Italy),  statue  by 

31  PR 


482 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Cabanel  (France),  paintings  by .  28,  31 

Oabells,  M.  (Spain),  painting  by . .  70 

Cabot,  J.  P>.  P.  (France),  statue  by .  124 

Cabinetmakers  (see  Education :  apprentice  schools). 

Caen  (France) — 

instruction  in  political  science  at .  350 

Cain,  A.  1ST.  (France),  statues  by .  127 

Cairns,  Peter  (Edinburgh,  Scotland),  wood-carvings .  .  423 

Calamata  (see  Greece:  provinces). 

Calderow,  P.  H.  (England),  paintings  by .  54 

California  (see  United  States). 

Calvi,  P.  (Italy),  statues  by  . 135, 137 

Cambos,  J.  J.  (France),  statue  by .  .  124 

Cambric  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

*  Cambridge,  portrait  of  the  Duke  of,  at  the  battle  of  the  Alma,  by  Sir  Francis  Grant .  61 

Cambridge  (England) — 

University  of,  study  of  natural  sciences . . . .  351, 361 

Camel’s  hair  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Canada  (see  Great  Britain :  colonies) . 

Canada  Cotton  Manufacturing  Company  (Cornwall,  Ontario,  Canada),  cotton  fabrics .  430 

Canon,  H.  (Austria),  portrait  by .  8u 

Canton  (China)' — 

wood-carving  at .  425 

Cape  of  Good  Hope  (see  Great  Britain :  colonies). 

Captier,  E.  F.  (France),  style  of,  in  art .  119 

statues  by .  124 

Caracci,  influence  of,  on  art .  .  46 

Caradeuc  de  la  Chalotais  (see  De  la  Chalotais). 

Carbonaro  (Spain),  painting  by .  68 

Carey,  Henry  C.  (Philadelphia,  Pa.),  political  economist .  370,  379 

Carlier,  M.  (Belgium),  painting  by . . .  .  95 

Carlyle,  Thomas,  statue  of,  by  Boehm . .  140 

Carnielo,  R.  (Italy),  statue  by .  . . .  130 

Carpaccio,  influence  of,  on  modern  art  .  122 

Carpenters  (see  Education :  apprentice  schools). 

Carpets  (see  Textile  Fabrics) — 

manufactured  of  ‘  ‘  ivalameit  ’  ’  (j  ute  fiber) .  433 

Carton-pierre,  imitations  of  wood-carvings  in  .  420, 426 

Carvers  (see  Education :  apprentice  schools ;  also  Operatives). 

Carving  (see  Wood-carving). 

Casado  (Spain),  painting  by .  68 

Cashmere  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Casse,  B.  (Tives-Lille*  France),  linens .  448 

Cassel  (Germany) — 

art  collections  at .  166, 167 

Castan,  G.  (Switzerland),  paintings  by.  . .  98 

Castleraaine  Woolen  Company  (Castlemaine,  Victoria,  Australia),  blankets .  436 

Catamorca  (see  Argentine  Republic  :  provinces). 

Cattier,  A.  (Belgium),  statue  by . .  147 

Cavour,  Camillo  Benso,  Count,  Italian  statesman .  .  360,  377 

Cederstrom,  Baron  G.  O.  (Sweden),  painting  by . .  107 

Cencetti,  A.  (Italy),  busts  byr  .  .  137 

Centennial  Exhibition  (see  International  Exhibitions). 

Cephalonia  (see  Greece:  departments). 

-Ceramic  industry,  schools  for  instruction  in,  in  Austria . 412, 413 

Cermak,  J.  (Austria),  paintings  by .  79 

Cerro  Largo  (see  Uruguay:  provinces). 

Cesnola  (see  Di  Cesnola). 

-Ceylon  (see  Great  Britain:  colonies). 

Chabrie,  J.  G.  (France),  statue  by .  . . .  123 

Chaffanjon,  C.  (Hudson  City,  X.  J.),  silks .  458 

Chaigneau  (France),  pastel  by .  37 

Chalcis  (see  Greece:  provinces). 

Chalons-sur-Marne  (France) — 

School  of  Arts  and  Trades  at 


.218, 389  (note),  401-404 


INDEX 


483 


Page. 

Chalotais  (see  De  la  Chalotais). 

Chamberlain,  Joshua  L.,  additional  commissioner  to  the  Exposition. 

report  on  Education . .  181-347 

Chantrey,  Sir  Erancis  (England),  style  of,  in  art . .  139 

Chaplain,  J.  C.  (France),  medals  and  coins  by .  162 

Chaptal,  College  ( see  France:  education,  superior  primary). 

Chapu,  Hull.  A.  (France),  sculpture  by .  120, 121 

Charities,  need  of  intelligent  administration  of .  363,  364,  365 

Charles  Albert,  King  of  Sardinia,  founder  of  the  school  of  watch-making  at  Cluses  (1848) .  407 

Chatrousse,  13.  (France),  statue  by . .  124 

Chauvel,  T.  (France),  etchings  by .  .  159 

Chaux-de-Fonds  (Switzerland) — 

school  of  watch-making . . .  414 

Chevalier,  Emile,  professor  at  the  College  de  France,  promoter  of  public  education .  186,  356 

Cheville  (France),  architectural  designs  by .  .  157 

Chicago,  Ill. — 

public  schools  ot . .  339 

Children  (see  Education ;  also,  Operatives). 

CHILI— 

education — 

school  statistics .  334 

CHINA  (see,  also,  Canton,  Ningpo) — 

Fagade  at  the  Exposition .  154 

early  use  of  books  .  322 

silk  goods,  exhibit  of . . . . .  457 

resembling  French . . . , .  457 

wood-carving,  exhibit  of . 425 

imitated  in  France .  420 

Chinese  language  used  in  Japan . . .  325,  326 

Chippendale  (England),  designer  of  wood-carvings .  423 

Church,  F.  E.  (Hudson,  N.  Y.),  paintings  by .  113 

Ciardi,  G.  (Italy),  painting  by . . .  75 

Cincinnati,  Ohio — 

public  schools .  339 

School  of  Design .  464 

Cities,  population  gravitating  into,  in  France .  186 

Civiletti,  B.  (Italy),  statuary  by .  131 

Civil  service,  education  for — 

in  France . . . .  . 227,  228,  356-359,  361 

in  Great  Britain . .  360,  361 

needed  in  United  States . 365,  367,  380 

Clabburn,  Sons,  &  Crisp  (Norwich,  England),  silk  fabrics .  435,  436 

Clair,  A.  (France),  instructor  in  technology  .  392 

Classification  of  exhibits,  Paris  Exposition,  1878 — 

First  Group  (Art) . 2 

Second  Group  (Education,  etc)  . . . . .  182 

Third  Group  (as  to  Wood-carving) .  418 

Fourth  Group  (Textile  Fabrics) .  430 

Classification  of  trades . . .  197 

Claude,  influence  of,  on  Art .  33 

Clays,  J.  (Belgium),  painting  by .  97 

Clermont-Ferrand  (France) — 

vacation  visits  of  schools  to .  209 

C16singer,  J.  B.  A.  (France),  statuary  by .  126, 127 

Cloth  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Clothing  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Cluny,  normal  school  of  (see  France :  education,  secondary) — 

abbey  of .  213 

Cluses  (France) — 

National  School  of  Horology . . . 216, 218,  407 

Cluysenaar,  A.  (Belgium),  painting  by .  95 

Clyde,  Lord,  statue  of,  by  Foley .  . . .  140 

Cochin-China  (see  France:  colonies).  * 

Coffin,  Altemus,  &  Co.  (Philadelphia,  Pa.),  cotton  fabrics .  458 

Coins  (see  Art). 


484 


INDEX. 


Col,  D.  (Belgium),  painting  by  . 

Colbert,  ficole  ( see  France:  education,  superior  primary). 

Coleman,  Samuel  (Hew  York),  painting  by . . 

Collart,  Mile.  Marie  (Belgium),  paintings  bv . 

o“M5*S}(s“Bducation)- 

College  Cbaptal  ( see  France:  education,  superior  primary)- 

College  Rollin,  Paris,  designs  for  tbe  buildings  of . 

Collier,  Thomas  (England),  aquarelle  by  . 

Collin  son  &  Locke  (England),  designer  of  building  at  the  Exposition . . 

carved  furniture . 

Colman,  C.  C.  (United  States),  paintings  by . . 

Colmet  (France),  political  economist . .  . . . 

Colonia  (see  Uruguay:  provinces). 

“Color”  in  art,  definition  of . 

Colorado  (see  United  States). 

Columbia,  District  of  (see  United  States). 

Colvin,  Prof.  Sidney,  essay  by,  on  Burne-Jones’s  paintings . . . 43  and  note , 

Commerce  (see  Education). 

Commercial  school  (see  Education). 

Commission  des  Monuments  Historiques  (France),  architectural  and  antiquarian  work  by . 

Communism — 

in  education  in  France — 

the  cr&che . 

school  reforms .  . . . 

a  problem  in  social  science . . . 

Como  (Italy) — 

silk  manufacture  at . 

Competition  (see  Protective  legislation). 

Comte  (France),  paintings  by . . 

Concordi,  L.  (Italy),  engravings  by  .  . . . 

Congress  of  United  States  (see  United  States). 

Connecticut  (see  United  States). 

Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers  ( see  France:  education,  secondary). 

Constantine,  a  department  of  Algeria  ( see  France :  colonies :  Algeria). 

Constantine,  city  of  (Algeria). 

college  of  (now  Lyeee  of)  . 

communal  school,  exhibit  of  pupils’  work. .  ...  . . . 

school  for  Arab  girls . . . 

normal  school  . .  . .  . 

Constructions  (see  Education :  apprentice  schools). 

Cooper,  Peter,  promoter  of  education  in  the  United  States . . . 

Co-operation  and  the  labor  question . .  . . 

Coosemans,  J.  T.  (Belgium),  paintings  by . . . . . 

Cope,  C.  W.  (England),  painting  by . . . - . *. 

Copenhagen  (Denmark) —  Y 

schools  of . 

Uielsen  Institute  (art) . 

Copernicus,  painting  of,  by  G-erson .  . . . . . 

Coppello  (see  Van  de  Coppelo). 

Corcoran,  W.  W.,  Art  Gallery  at  Washington,  D.  C  . . . . 

Cordova  ( see  Argentine  Republic:  provinces). 

Corea,  written  characters  introduced  into  Japan  from . . .  . 

Corfu  (see  Greece:  departments). 

Cornelius,  influence  on  German  art . 

Cornell,  Ezra,  promoter  of  education  in  the  United  States . 

Corot  (France),  landscapes  by . . . 

influence  of,  on  other  artists  . 

engravings  of  his  paintings . . 

Corrientes  (see  Argentine  Republic:  provinces). 

Corroyer,  E.  (France),  architectural  designs  by . 

Costenoble,  F.  (Austria),  statues  by  . .  . . 

Cotton  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Courland  (see  Russia:  provinces). 

Cours  de per/ectionment  ( see  France:  education:  finishing  courses). 


Page. 

95 

115 

97 


157 

41 

153 

422 

114 

361 

58 


59  note. 


157 


188 

236 

369 

446 

23 

163 


320 
315 
317,  318 
319 

381 

369 

97 

59 

272-274 

273 

94 

6 

322 

81 

381 

16 

115 

159 

157 

146 


INDEX. 


485 


Page. 

Courtry,  C.  L.  (France),  engravings  by .  160 

Crane,  Walter  (England),  aquarelle  by .  42 

style  in  art .  46 

Cranea  (see  Greece:  provinces). 

Crauk,  G.  (France),  sculpture  by .  128 

Cr&ches  ( see  Education). 

Societe  des  ( see  France:  education). 

Crime,  need  of  intelligent  legislation  concerning . 363,  364,  365,  366 

Croatian  language  used  in  Austrian  schools . - .  290 

Croft,  E.  (England),  painting  by . .  60 

Croisy,  A.  (France),  statue  by .  . .  126 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  statue  of .  136 

Crowe,  Eyre  (England),  painting  by .  61 

Cullen,  Paul,  Cardinal  (Ireland),  opponent  of  popular  education .  228 

“Culture”  in  collegiate  education . . .  373 

Cyclades  ( see  Greece:  departments). 

Czechian  language  used  in  Austrian  schools .  299 

Dacca  Twist  Company  (Manchester,  England),  cotton  textile  goods .  432 

Dahl,  H.  (Norway),  painting  by .  105 

Dakota  ( see  United  States). 

Dalsgaard,  C.  (Denmark),  painting  by . .  104 

Dalziel  Eros.  (England),  engravings  exhibited  by .  160 

Dalziel,  E.  G.  (England),  illustrations  by,  to  Bunyan’s  “Pilgrim’s  Progress  ” .  .  1G0 

Damele,  E.  (Italy),  engravings  by .  161 

Dana,  W.  P.  W.  (United  States),  paintings  by . .  Ill 

medal  awarded  to .  Ill,  173 

Danquin,  J.  B.  (France),  engravings  by . . .  159 

Dareste,  member  of  the  Institute  of  France,  political  economist . .  359 

Darwin,  Charles,  engraved  portrait  of,  by  Rajon . . . .  .  159 

Daubigny  (France),  landscapes  by . .  .  16 

engravings  of .  159 

David,  King,  numerous  statues  of .  121 

David,  W.  (Austria),  statues  by .  146 

Davioud,  architect  of  the  Trocad6ro,  Paris . .  151, 152 

D’Azeglio  (Italy),  statesman .  .  360 

Deaf-mutes,  education  of  the,  at  Paris . .  193 

De  Angely,  H.  (Austria),  portraits  by . . .  80 

Debaines  ( see  Brunet-Debaines) . 

De  Berryer,  statue  of,  by  Chapu . .  121 

De  Blaas,  Chevalier  C.  (Austria),  painting  by .  79 

De  Bock,  T.  (Netherlands),  painting  by .  101 

De  Brackeleer,  H.  (Belgium),  painting  by . . .  96 

Declercq  (France),  political  economist .  356 

Decoration  ( see  Wood-carving). 

De  Fouqui6res  (see  Becq-de-Fouquieres) . 

Defregger,  F.  (in  Austrian  section),  paintings  by .  79 

(in  German  section),  paintings  by . . .  84 

De  Gegerfelt,  W.  (Sweden),  painting  by .  108 

Degeorge,  C.  J.  M.  (France),  statue  by .  . .  123 

medals  by  .  162 

De  Girard,  Philippe  (Girardowo,  Russia),  linens .  441 

founder  of  Girardowo  and  its  manufactures .  .  441 

provision  for  the  welfare  of  operatives . .  441 

inventor  of  flax-spinning  by  power . . . .  449 

De  Girardin, dfimile,  portrait  of,  by  C.  Duran . .  31 

De  Groot,  G.  (Belgium),  sculpture  by . . . .  147 

De  Gubernatis,  A.  (Italy),  political  economist . .  360 

De  Kryff,  Chevalier  A.  (Belgium),  painting  by . . .  .  97 

De  Kulture,  Consul  of  Uruguay  at  Paris . . .  329 

De  Kuyper,  P.  (Netherlands),  painting  by  . . .  .  101 

De  la  Chalotais,  Louis  Ren6  de  Caradeuc  (France),  Procurateur  of  the  King  (Louis  XV),  op¬ 
ponent  of  popular  education  . .  . . j .  228 

De  Lacretelle,  Deputy  (France),  promoter  of  popular  education .  .  235 

De  la  Goumerie,  Professor,  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  Paris .  217 

De  Lamorici&re,  General,  monument  to,  at  Nantes .  120 


486 


INDEX. 


Delaplanche,  E.  (France),  statues  by . 

Delaunay  (France),  paintings  by  . 

Delaware  (see  United  States). 

De  l’£p6e,  Abb6,  Charles  Michel,  educator  of  deaf-mutes . . 

Della- Yos,  Victor,  director  of  the  Imperial  Technical  School,  Moscow,  Russia 

treatise  on  industrial  education,  quoted . 

Delorme,  J.  A.  (France),  statue  by . 

De  Luyncs,  Professor,  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  M6 tiers,  Paris . 

Demagogues  in  politics . 

De  Mesgrigny,  F.  (France),  painting  by . . . 

De  Nittis  (Italy),  paintings  by . . . 

DENMARK  (see,  also,  Copenhagen). 

Art,  characteristics  of . 

paintings  exhibited . 

Fagade  at  the  Exposition . 

Education . *. . 

primary . 

public  schools . 

private  schools .  . 

evening  schools  . 

Sunday  schools . 

FolkehoisJcoler  (people’s  high  schools) . 

vacation  schools  for  teachers  . 

studies — 

drawing  . 

sculpture . 

obligatory . „ . 

gratuitous  where  necessary  . 

instrumentalities  for  promoting — 

Society  of  Domestic  Industry  . 

"Wood-carving,  exhibit  of . . 

Woolen  manufactures . . . 

De  Pausinger,.  F.  (Austria),  aquarelles  by . . 

D’Epinay  (England),,  statues  by . . 

De  Ritter  (William)  &  Co.  (Goricer  Austria)r  silk  fabrics  . . 

De  Salve  (Algeria),  book  on  public  education  in  Algeria,  quoted . 

Descartes,  Ren6,  promotion  of  industrial  education  in  France  . 

Desenfans,  A.  (Belgium),  sculpture  by . 

Desgotfe  (France),  paintings  by  . . . 

De  Souches,  Charles  (France),  book  on  popular  education . 

Dc  Yasselot,  A.  Marquet  (Fiance),  statues  by .  . 

Deventer  (Netherlands) — 

normal  school  at  .  . 

De  Yigne,  P.  (Belgium),  sculpture  by . 

Deville,. Sainte  Clare  (France),  views  on  popular  education. . 

De  Yriendt,  A.  (Belgium),  painting  by  . • . 

De  W impffen,  General,  bust  of,  by  Richard . 

De  Witte-Losbergs  (Mechlin,  Belgium),  linens . 

Diaquo  (Spain),  painting  by . . . 

Diaz,  J.  J.,  charg6  d’affaires  of  Uruguay  at  Paris  . 

Di  Bartolo,  F.  (Italy),  etchings  by  . . 

Di  Cesnola,  L.  P.,  antiquarian  and  archaeological  collection . 

Dickens,  Charles,  illustrations  to  the  novels  of . 

Didier,  A.  (France),  engravings  by . . 

Didier,  J.  (France),  engravings  by . . 

Die-sinking  (see  Art). 

Dijon  (France) — 

instruction  in  political  science  at .  . 

Dimures,  Frangois  (Algeria),  exhibit  of  carving . 

Ding,  H.  M.  (France),  bronze  statue  by . 

Dini,  C.  (Italy),  statue  by . 

Dion,  assistant  architect  of  main  building  at  the  Exposition . 

“Discipline  ”  of  the  mind  in  collegiate  education . 

District  of  Columbia  (see  United  States). 

Dmitrieff,  N.  D.  (Russia),  painting  by . 


Page. 
.122, 124, 128 
....  25,31 

193 

386 

....  386-394 
123 
217 
367 
33 

....  75 


.  103 

_  103,104 

_  155 

272-274,415 

_  273 

....  273,274 

_  273 

273 

.  273 

_  273 

-  415 

_  272,273 

.  273 

.  235,273 

....  273,274 

_  273,415 

-  427 

.  457 

-  80 

140 

-  439 

317  note,  322 

_  216 

.  147 

39 

.  238 

.122, 126, 128 

.  260 

147 

_  233 

.  95 

.  128 

_  452 

_  69 

.  329 

.  160 

.  162 

.  160 

.  159 

.  159 


356 

315 

122 

136 

150 

373 

90 


INDEX. 


487 


Page. 

Dobrovolsky,  N.  (Russia),  painting  by .  88 

Doctrinaires  in  politics .  361, 377 

Dominion  of  Canada  ( see  Great  Britain:  colonies). 

Donatello,  influence  of,  on  modern  art . - . . .  122 

Donner,  influence  of,  on  other  artists .  .  32 

Don  Quixote,  pictures  of . - .  68 

Doo,  G.  T.  (England),  engravings  by .  160 

Dor6,  Gustave  (France),  paintings  by . 30 

sculpture  by .  125 

Doublemard,  A.  D.  (France),  bust  by . . .  128 

Doulton  &  Co.  (England),  building  exhibited .  153 

Drawings  (see  Art ;  also,  Education). 

Drenthe  ( see  Netherlands  :  provinces). 

Dresden  (Germany) — 

art  collections  at .  166, 167 

Drills  (see  Textile  Fabrics) . 

Dublin  (Ireland) — 

Museum  at . 163 

National  Gallery  at .  163 

Dubois,  A.  (France),  medals  and  coins  by .  163 

Dubois,  Paul  (France), paintings  by .  31 

sculpture  by . .  120, 128 

Diicker,  E.  (Germany),  paintings  by .  86 

Dulwich  (England) — 

Alleyn’s  College  at,  designs  for  the  buildings  of .  157 

Dumas,  Alexandre,  fils,  portrait  of,  by  Meissonier . .  19 

Dumb  (see  Deaf-mutes). 

Du  Nouy  (see  Lecompte-du-Nouy). 

Dunoyer  (France),  political  economist .  361 

Dupuis,  D.  (France),  medals  and  coins  by .  . .  162 

Duran,  Carolus  (France),  painting  by .  31 

Durand,  S.  (Switzerland),  paintings  by .  98 

Durazno  (see  Uruguay  :  provinces) . 

Diirer,  Albert,  portrait  of,  in  painting,  by  Makart .  77 

by  C.  Becker . 85 

statue,  by  Schmidgruber  . .  146 

collections  of  prints  from  his  works .  167 

Duruy,  promotion  of  popular  education  in  France .  199 

Diisseldorf  (Germany) — 

art  1 1  school  ’  ’  of  (and  see  Art)  .  82, 106 

Duval,  assistant  architect  of  main  building  at  the  Exposition .  150 

Dyers  (see  Operatives). 

Dyes  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 


East  Flanders  (see  Belgium:  provinces). 

Eaton,  W.  (New  York),  painting  by .  114 

Ebner,  L.  (Hungary),  painting  by .  79 

jficoles  Arago,  Chaptal,  Colbert,  etc.,  etc.  (see  France:  education). 

Jttcoles  de  maitrise  (see  France :  education) . 

Edelfeldt,  A.  (Russia),  painting  by .  94 

Edinburgh  (Scotland) — 

Museum  at .  163 

National  Gallery  at .  163 

Education  League  (see  Ligue  de  V Enseignement) . 

EDUCATION— 


[Note. — Details  of  educational  systems,  etc.,  are  indexed  under  the  titles  of  the  countries 


referred  to,  viz: 

Argentine  Republic, 

Austria-Hungary, 

Belgium, 

Brazil, 

Chili, 

Denmark, 

See  also  Art  education.] 

Classification  of  Exhibits  (group  II) . . .  182. 183 


France  (and  Algeria), 
Germany, 

Great  Britain  (and  Canada), 
Greece, 

Italy, 

Japan, 


Netherlands, 

Russia  (and  Finland), 
Sweden, 

Switzerland, 

United  States 
Uruguay. 


488 


INDEX. 


Page. 

EDUCATION— Continued. 

Report  on  “Education  at  the  Universal  Exposition,”  by  the  Hon.  Joshua  E.  Cham¬ 
berlain . . .  181-347 

“The  Provision  for  Higher  Instruction  in  Subjects  bearing  directly  upon 

Public  Affairs,”  by  the  Hon.  Andrew  D.  White,  LL.  D  .  349-381 

“Manual  Training  Schools  represented  at  the  Exposition,”  by  Eliot  C. 

Jewett .  383-415 

Higher  Education  in  Europe,  by  Commissioner  John  W.  Hoyt  (1870),  referred  to  351 
problems  in — 

obligatory  instruction .  341,  342 

gratuitous  instruction . .  342 

unsectarian  instruction .  342 

co-education  of  the  sexes .  342 

women  as  teachers .  343 

text-books .  343 

penmanship .  . . .  343, 344 

education  of  the  senses . 344 

women .  344 

school  buildings .  344 

grading  of  schools . . . . .  344,  345 

relation  of  the  state  to  schools .  345 

schools  to  form  of  government . .  345,  346 

popularizing  knowledge . 346,347 

study  of  social  and  political  science  . 346,  349-381 

educating  influences  of  international  exhibitions .  347 

need  of  intelligent  legislation  concerning .  . . 363,  364,  365,  375 

industrial  training . 340,  365,  383-415 

schools  of  weaving . 449, 452,  460, 462, 465 

Edwards,  E.  (England),  engravings  by .  160 

Ekenas  (Finland) — 

Swedish  women’s  normal  school .  277 

filias.  E.  (Belgium),  sculpture  by .  147 

Embroidery,  schools  for  instruction  in,  in  Austria . .  412, 413 

Emerson,  It.  W.,  American  quality  of  his  writings . - .  109 

Employers  ( see  Operatives). 

England,  English  ( see  Great  Britain). 

English  language  used  in  Japan .  . 321,  322,  325, 326 

Engravings  (see  Art). 

Enschede  (Netherlands) — 

free  school  at  .  264 

Enseignement  ( see  Ligue de  V Enseignement) . 

Entre  Bios  ( see  Argentine  Republic :  provinces). 

]2p6e  (see  De  I’l2p6e,  Abb6). 

Spinal  (France) — 

Industrial  School  of  the  Vosges . . 212, 404-407 

Classical  School .  405 

Esthonia  (see  Russia:  provinces). 

Etchings  (see  Art:  engravings). 

Euboea  (see  Greece :  departments). 

Eude,  L.  A.  (France),  statue  by  .  . .  125 

EUROPE,  patronage  of  art  by  the  governments  of . 6, 163-170 

urban  and  rural  population  throughout .  186 

political  and  social  science  studied  in  the  universities  of . . . . . .  352 

industrial  education  in .  385 

Evening  courses  of  instruction  (see  Education). 

Evershed,  A.  (England),  engravings  by . 160 

Exhibition  (see  International  Exhibition). 

Exhibition  of  Manufactures,  1870,  St.  Petersburg,  Russia .  393 

Exhibits,  classification  of  (see  Classification). 

Faed,  J.  (Scotland),  engravings  by .  160 

Fagerlin,  F.  (Germany),  painting  by .  83 

Fagerlin,  F.  J.  (Sweden),  painting  by .  108 

Fahey,  E.  H.  (England),  aquarelle  by .  41 

Falguiere,  A.  J.  (France),  statues  by . .  121 


INDEX. 


489 


Page. 

Fait  is,  licirs  of  Joliaan  (Trautenau,  Austria),  linen  fabrics .  438 

Faraday,  Michael,  statue  of,  by  Foley .  140 

Farriers  (see  Education :  apprentice  schools). 

Favretto,  J.  (Italy),  painting  by .  74 

Fawcett,  Professor  Henry  (England),  political  economist .  360,361 

Felt  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Ferdinand  Lousbergs  Company  (Ghent,  Belgium),  cotton  fabrics .  452 

Ferrari,  E.  (Italy),  statue  by . - .  130 

Ferrari  (Spain),  painting  by . . .  70 

Ferstel,  Chevalier  H.  de  (Austria),  architectural  design  by .  158 

Fibers  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Field,  David  Dudley  (New  York),  political  economist . .  370 

Fiji  (see  Great  Britain:  colonies). 

Filangieri  (Italy),  political  economist .  .  359 

Fildes,  Luke  (England),  painting  by  .  49 

drawings  in  black  and  white .  64 


138 

159 


414 


Fine  arts  (see  Art). 

Finland  (see  Russia :  provinces). 

Flanders,  East,  TVest  (see  Belgium:  provinces). 

Flannel  (see  Textile  Fabrics) . 

Flax  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Flaxman,  John  (England),  style  of,  in  art  . . . . 

Fleming,  Leopold  (France),  etchings  by . 

Fleurier  (Switzerland) — 

school  of  watch-making . . . . 

Fleury  (see  Robert-Fleury). 

Florence  (Italy) — 

cathedral  at,  architectural  designs  for .  158 

art  education  at . . .  167, 168 

Preparatory  School  of  Intaglio .  424 

wood-carving  at .  424 

silk  manufacture  at .  446 

Florida  (see  United  States). 

Florida  (see  Uruguay:  provinces). 

Floss  (see  Textile  Fibres) . 

Flourens  (France),  political  economist .  361 

Focardi,  J.  (Italy),  statuary  by .  131 

Foley,  J.  U.  (England),  statues  by . .  140 

Folser,  Stephen  (Hungary),  art  education  exhibit . .  304 

Fontanes,  Lyc6e  de  (see  France:  education,  secondary). 

Forsberg,  N.  (Sweden),  painting  by .  107 

Forssa  Company  (Tammela,  Finland),  cotton  fabrics .  440 

il  Fortnightly  Review  ”  (London),  quoted . 43  note,  59  note 

Fortuny,  Mariano  (Spain),  influence  of,  on  art . . . 64, 71,  72,  75 

paintings  by . . .  64-66 


Foster,  Birket  (England),  aquarelle  by . 

Foster  (John)  &  Son  (Queensbury,  England),  worsted  fabrics 
Fouquikres  (see  Becq-de-Fouquieres). 

Fourtou,  Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  France . . 

views  of,  in  education . 

Foville  (France),  political  economist . 

Fraikin,  C.  A.  (Belgium),  sculpture  by . 

Frangais  (France),  paintings  by . 

FRANCE  (see,  also,  Aix, 


42 

433 

186 

192 

361 

147 

34 


>,  Aix, 

Clermont-Ferrand, 

Noiseil, 

Amiens, 

Cluses, 

Paris, 

Angers, 

Dijon, 

Poictiers, 

Armenti&res, 

Fpinal, 

Rennes, 

Bayeux, 

Gobelin, 

Rheims, 

Beauvais, 

Grenoble, 

Roubaix, 

'  Besangon, 

Havre, 

Rouen, 

Bordeaux, 

Lille, 

St.  Etienne, 

Caen, 

Lyons, 

Sevres, 

CMlons-sur-Mame, 

Marseilles, 

Toulouse). 

Art  patronized  by  the  government . 6,  8, 165, 166 

Prix  de  Rome .  8 

Trocad6ro .  8 


490 


INDEX. 


I 

FR  AN  C  E — C  ontin  ued. 

Art  education  in  (see,  also,  Education) . 

the  Dictionnaire  des  Beaux- Arts . 

collections  in  the  Trocad6ro . 

its  influence  on  other  countries  . . 

characteristics  of . 

under  the  Second  Empire . 

exhibit  of  paintings . 

genre . 

historical . 

landscapes . 

portraits . 

aquarelles . 

sculpture . 

architectural  designs . 

engravings . . 

coins,  medals .  . 

Education . . 

exhibit  of . 

primary . 

scope  of . 

defects  of  . 

creches . . . 

salles  d'asile . 

asiles  modeles . 

ecoles  laiques . 

congreganistes . 

elementary . 

public . 

free . 

half-time  schools . 

normal  schools  for . 

special — 

for  the  blind . 

deaf-mutes . 

ecoles  de  maitrise . 

orpheonic  societies . 

adult  schools .  . 

apprentice  schools . 

La  Yillette . 

Rue  Tournefort . 

evening  courses.  - . . 

free  schools . 

public  schools . 

superior-primary . 

scientific  schools . 

College  Chaptal . . 

Ill  cole  Turgot . 

Colbert . . 

Lavoisier . . 

J.  B.  Say . 

Arago . 

secondary .  . 

Iyc6es . — 

Louis  le  Grand . . . 

Fontanes . 

Saint  Louis . 

Henri  IY . 

Yanves . . 

noTTnal  school  of  Cluny . 

Ecole  Alsacienne . 

Monge . 

industrial  schools . 

Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  Paris, 
imitated  in  Japan  — . . .  — 


Page. 

. 165,166 

.  165 

.  148-150 

.  10, 15 

. 12-15,  37,  39,  47, 116-119, 138 

.  14 

.  12-37 

. 13, 14, 18-28 

.  28-30 

. .  32-36 

.  30-32 

.  36 

.  119-128 

. .  156,157 

.  159,160 

. - .  162 

....  185-239,  355-359,  361,  401-412 
185-186,  385,  401,  404,  407,  408, 412 

.  188-203 

.  188-231 

. 229 

.  188 

. . 188, 189,  211 

.  189 

. .  189, 190,  211 

. 189, 190,230 

.  189-192 

.  190-191 

.  191 

.  191 

. 192,  203-205 

.  193 

.  193 

.  194 

.  194 

. 194, 199,200 

. 191,194 

. 194-196,  408-412 

. . 194, 196-199,  408-412 

.  199,200 

.  202,203 

.  202,203 

. 205-210,  211 

.  206-210 

.  206-210 

.  206-210 

.  207,209 

. .  207,210 

. .  209,209 

.  207 

. .211-225,231 

.  211 

.  211 

.  212 

.  212 

.  212 

. .  212 

. 212,213-215 

. .  212 

. . .  212 

. . .  .212,  216-219,  359,  385, 401-412 

. 216-218,  359 

.  329 


INDEX. 


491 

Page. 


FRA  N  C  E — C  ontinued. 

Education— 
secondary — 

industrial  schools — 

ficoles  des  Arts  et  M6tiers . . 218, 401-404 

at  Aix .  401-404 

Angers .  401-404 

CMlons-sur-Marne . . . .  401-404 

local  technical  schools .  218, 401 

Industrial  School  of  the  Yosges,  Spinal . .  404,  407 

National  School  of  Watch-making,  Cluses  . .  218, 407 

watch-making  school  at  Besanijon  .  407, 408 

weaving  schools . .  449, 462 

commercial  schools . 219-225 

Blanqui’s,  Paris .  220 

Parc  Monceau,  Paris  - . .  220 

Mulhouse . 220 

Havre .  220-225 

Rouen .  220 

Lyons .  220 

Lille .  220 

Marseilles .  220 

Bordeaux .  . .". .  220 

superior .  . 227, 231,  355-359,  361 

Independent  School  of  Political  Sciences  . . 227,  356-359 

College  de  France  .  . . ....  356,359 

Sorbonne .  356 


studies — 

accounts . 

agricultural  subjects  . . . 
anatomy  (in  art  schools) 

botany . 

chemistry . 

commercial  subjects 

drawing . 

finance  . 

geography . 

commercial . 

geometry . 

gymnastics . 

handwriting . 

history  . 

hygiene . 

languages— 
ancient — 


.  403,410 

.  190,233 

. .  200 

. . .  205,  213 

. 402, 406, 410 

. . 219-225 

190, 192, 193, 196, 197, 198,  200,  216,  219,  226,  401,  403, 406,  409,  410 

.  357 

. 204,212,223,357,406,410 

. 221,223,357 

.  401,406 

.  193,212,406,409,410 

. .  . .  ....  222,401 

. 204,  205,  233,  355,  356,  357, 406,  410 

. 203, 212,  220 


Latin . 

modern . 

French  . 

Arabic . 

English . 

German . 

Greek  (Romaic) 

Spanish . . 

law . 

commercial . 

international . 

legislation . . 

maritime  affairs . 

mathematics . 

mechanics . 

microscopy . . 

military  drill . 

morals . 

music . 

pedagogy . 


.  206 

190, 199,  208,  212,  214,  220,  222,  358,  406 

.  190,  206,  214,  221,  233,  410 

.  ...  . .  220 

. . 208,  214,  358, 410,  411,412 

.  208,214,222,358 

.  221 

222 

. 410 

.  227 


.  356,357 

. 224,  357,  406 

. 220,  222,  225 

206,  207,  218,  401,  403,  406,  410 

. .  403,410 

.  221 

.  406 

. .  197,203 

. .  194,207 

. 203-205,  213 


492 


INDEX 


Page. 

FEAN  CE— C  ontinued. 

Education— 
studies — 

political  sciences . 227,  355-359,  361, 406 

physics . 205,  218, 406, 410 

railway  tariffs . .  221 

religion .  403,406 

sewing  (in  girls’  schools) . .  193,  233 

shop- work  (in  industrial  schools) .  . 403, 406, 408, 410, 411 

statistics . 357,359 

taxation  . 357 

technology . 194-199,  208, 216-219, 410 

study,  courses  of— 

in  normal  schools  . ... .  189, 192 

elementary  primary  schools .  190 

apprentice  schools . 194-199, 409, 410 

evening  schools . . .  199 

Coll6ge  Chaptal,  Paris .  206, 209 

l5cole  Turgot,  Paris . 206,  207, 209 

special,  for  Protestants . . 192 

finishing  courses  ( cours  de  perfectionment) . 208 

vacation  excursions . 209 

normal  school  of  Cluny  —  .  213-215 

Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers . . .  217,  218 

Scales  des  Arts  et  Metiers . - . . .  218,  402-406 

commercial  school  at  Havre. . 220-225 

Marseilles . 220 

Lyons  . 221 

Eouen . 221 

country  schools  for  girls .  .  233 

city  schools  for  girls .  233 

College  de  France ,  Paris .  . . . .  356 

Independent  School  of  Political  Sciences,  Paris . 356-359 

Industrial  School,  fipinal  .  406 

certificates,  diplomas,  academic  titles .  215, 223 

of  primary  studies . 190, 192, 198, 199 

‘  ‘  restricted  ” . - . 1 .  199 

‘  ‘  complementary  ” . 199 

proficiency  in  drawing .  192, 193 

qualification  to  teach  .  210 

preparatory  to  superior  education  . . 214, 215,  221, 408 

schools  of  arts  and  trades . 218, 402, 405 

horology .  218 

commerce .  . . .  223 

examinations — 

in  entering  industrial  schools . . . . . . .  401, 408 

instrumentalities  for  promoting — 

lectures. . 208,217 

“conferences” . 237 

libraries . 238 

school - ‘ . 192,202,217 

popular . 237 

of  the  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  MUiers . . . . .  217 

societies,  etc. — 

in  aid  of  apprentices .  192 

Societe  des  Creches . 188 

Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences . 233 

Society  for  the  Advancement  of  the  Sciences .  233 

Superior  Council  of  Public  Instruction .  212 

Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Commerce,  schools  under  the  direction  of .  216 

Central  Union  of  the  Fine  Arts  applied  to  Industry . 219 

Ligue  de  V Enseignement .  . 186,  229,  237,  238 

Society  of  the  Sou  (popular  contributions  to  education) .  295 

Assistance  Paternelle  aux  Enf  ants  Employes  Ians  'Industrie  de  V  Ameublements 
en  General . . ......  . .  ...  . . 421, 422 


INDEX. 


493 


Page. 

FRANCE— Continued. 

Education— 

instrumentalities  for  promoting— 

state  aid  to  schools . . . 215,  407 

scholarships  (bourses) .... . 208,  214,  215,  225 

pupils’  excursions . .  201,  408 

tuition  fees . -  -  . - . 402,  405, 408 

assistance  to  poor  pupils .  402 

prizes . 402, 411,  421 

instructors  also  statesmen .  .  . 356,  359,  361 

teachers,  preparation  of,  in  normal  schools  .  . 189, 192,  213-215 

women  as  .  200, 201 

frequently  incompetent . 232 

in  congreganist  schools  discriminate  against  non-paying  pupils  . .  230 

salaries  of .  210,  211 

school  officers’  salaries .  211 

schools  for  workingmen’s  children .  201,  202 

girls’  hoarding  schools,  evils  of . .  233 

school  law . 191, 207,  210,  212,  232,  234 

libraries . 192,202,217 

furniture  . . . 201,  202,  226 

hooks .  227 

buildings .  -  225,  226 

for  drawing  classes .  226 

questions  in .  . . . - .  227-239 

connection  with  politics . ' . .  227 

separate  education  of  the  sexes .  232,  235 

class  distinctions . . —  -  -  .  230-232 

injustice  to  poorer  classes .  231,  232 

exclusion  of  agricultural  class -  .  -  .  232 

girls  of  all  classes . .  233 

obligatory  education . 234 

gratuitous  education . . .  234,  235 

lay,  unsectarian  education . .  235,236 

limitation  of  children’s  labor .  191, 192 

reforms  sought . .  . 185, 186,  228-238 

modeled  on  the  United  States .  229, 230 

difficulties — 

from  religion . 232,  235-237 

the  Protestants . . . . . . . 192,  235,  238 

the  Jesuits  .  236 

incompetent  teachers .  232 

neglect  by  officials .  232 

statistics — 

children  of  school  age . . . . .  187, 189 

attending  school .  232 

illiteracy . . . 187,188  and  note. 

cr&ches,  number  and  attendance .  188 

asiles  modeles,  number  and  attendance .  189 

elementary  primary  schools,  number  and  attendance . : .  189-191 

public  schools,  number  and  attendance . . 190-191 

free  schools,  number  and  attendance . 191 

school  libraries .  192 

normal  schools,  number  and  attendance .  192 

apprentice  schools .  196, 198 

evening  schools .  200 

free  schools . 202 

public  schools .  202 

scientific  schools . T. .  206,207 

teachers’  salaries . . .  210,  211 

schools  of  scondary  education .  211 

lycees .  .  212,  215 

colleges . , .  212.215 

scholarships  in . 215 

awards  to  exhibitors  in  the  department  of .  341 


494 


INDEX, 


Page. 

FRANCE — Continued. 

Textile  Fabrics  .  446-451 

exhibit  .  446 

cotton . 446-448 

preparation  for  the  market . 446 

designs .  446,447 

local  competition . .  446, 447 

imitated  abroad . 461 

manufacture  .  447, 448 

tariff .  447,448 

overproduction .  448 

linens,  etc .  448, 449 

designs .  448 

art  work  in .  448,449 

J acquard  loom  weaving . 448 

flax  manufacture .  449 

worsted .  449, 450 

designs .  449,450 

imitated  in  Russia .  442 

manufacture .  450 

woolen . 434, 449, 450 

designs .  . 434,  449, 450 

manufacture .  450 

silk .  450, 451 

dyes .  451 

velvets . 451 

manufacture . 451 

imitated  in  China .  457 

manufacture  by  hand . .  447, 449 

power . .  447, 449,  451 

operatives,  day’s  labor .  447,  448 

schools  of  weaving .  449,462 

protective  legislation .  447, 448 

exports — 

linens  . 449 

woolen  goods  . 450 

imports — 

linens .  449 

wool  from  New  Zealand . 450 

United  States .  450 

Russia .  450 

Australia .  .  450 

Cape  of  Good  Hope .  450 

Buenos  Ayres .  450 

Saxony . 450 

Silesia .  450 

Wood-carving — 

exhibit. . .  420-422 

over  elaborate . 420 

imitated  in  carton-pierre . _ . .  4C0 

zinc .  420 

copies  from  Chinese  styles . . .  420, 421 

J apanese  styles .  420 

encouraged  by  the  Societe  pour  1’ Assistance  Paternello  aux  Enfants  Employes  dans  l’ln- 
dustrie  de  l’Ameublement  en  G6n6ral . .  421, 422 

Second  Empire — 

influence  on  art .  14 

education . 227 

Republic  of— 

internal  administration .  355 

legislation .  355 

finances . 355,356 

statesmen . 356 

civil  service  (see  Education,  above) . 227, 228, 356-359 


INDEX. 


495 


FRAN  C  E — C  ontinued . 
misrule — 

taxation  under  the  Bourbons  . 

municipal  abuses  under  Louis  XYI . 

revolution  . 

industrial  affairs . 

political  doctrinaires . 

population  of . 

in  cities .  . 

in  rural  districts . . . 

of  school  age . 

lost  in  Alsace-Lorraine . . 

comparative  intelligence  in  the  provinces . — 

agricultural,  ignorance  of . 

subdivision  of  land  in . 

PROVINCES :  ALGERIA  (see,  also,  Algiers,  M6d6ah, 

Blidah,  Milianah, 

Bone,  Mostaganem, 

Constantine.  Oran, 

Palais  in  the  Park  of  the  Trocad6ro . 

Education . 

exhibit .  . 

native  (Mussulman)  schools . 

primary .  . 

superior  (Medraga) . 

secondary  instruction  wanting . 

French  governmental  system . 

replacing  native  schools . 

French  schools  for  Arab  children . 

adults . 

Arabic  colleges  for  natives .  . 

schools  for  native  girls . 

French  schools  for  European  population . 

established  on  French  model . 

primary . 

public .  . 

free . 

lay . . 

congreganist .  . 

evening  courses  for  adults . 

number  inadequate . . . 

normal  schools . 

secondary . 

Iyc6es . 

communal  colleges . 

public .  . 

free . . 

teachers — 

need  of . 

normal  schools  for  men . 

women . 

salaries . 

women  as . 

schools  held  in  tents  by  Arabs . 

houses  . 

furniture . 

statistics — 

Mussulman  schools . 

European  primary  schools . 

secondary  schools . 

school  attendance . . . 

studies — 

Arabic . . 

the  Koran  . 


Page. 


.  365,374 

.  365 

.  374 

.  374 

.  377 

.  186 

.  186 

.  186 

. . .  187 

.  187,189,238 

. 187, 188  and  note 

.  232 

.  355 

Philippeville, 

Setif, 

Tlemcen). 


.  315 

.  315-320 

. 185,315 

.  316,317 

.  316 

.  316,317 

.  316 

315,  316,  317-320 

. .  317 

. 317,318 

.  317 

. .  317 

.......  317,318 

.  316 

. .  316 

.  318,319 

. .  318 

. .  318 

.  318 

.  318,319 

. .  319 

. .  320 

.  319 

.  319,320 

.  319,320 

. . 319,320 

.  320 

. . . .  320 


319 

319 

319 

319 

315,  319 

316 
315 

315 

317 
318,  319 

320 
318,  319 

316,  319 

316 


496 


INDEX. 


Page. 


PRANCE — Continued. 

PROVINCES:  ALGERIA — 

Education — 

courses  of  study — 

in  Arab  primary  schools . » .  316 

Medra$a .  317 

gratuitous  in  primary  schools .  319 

normal  schools .  319 

Ligue  de  V Enseignement . .  238,  315 

Francis  Joseph,  Emperor  of  Austria,  statue  of,  by  Tilgner . . .  146, 147 

Franck,  A.,  professor  at  the  College  de  France,  political  economist .  356 

Frankfort  (Germany) — 

art  collections  at . .  .  166, 167 

Franklin,  Benjamin  (United  States),  statesman .  377 

Free  trade  ( see  Protective  legislation). 

Fremiet  (France),  statuary  by .  128 

French  Guiana  ( see  France:  colonies). 

French  language  used  in  Japan  {see,  also,  Japan:  education) . 321,  322,  326 

Frentz,  R.  (Russia),  paintings  by . .  .  90 

Fribourg  ( see  Switzerland :  cantons) . 

Fricker,  Adolph,  founder  of  real-gymnasiums  in  Austria .  . .  301 

Friedberg,  Mme.  de,  principal  of  the  'Women’s  Normal  School,  Boulevard  des  Batignolles, 

Paris .  204,  205 

Friesland  {see  Netherlands :  provinces). 

Frin,  inspector  of  the  Academy  of  Constantine  (Algeria),  educational  exhibit .  315 

Frith,  W.  P.  (England),  style  in  art . 47 

paintings  by . 62 

influence  of,  on  other  artists .  79,  90 


Frodinge  (Sweden) — 

superior-primary  school  at .  .  .  272 

Frullini,  Luigi  (Florence,  Italy),  wood-carvings . . .  424 

illustrations  of . 423*,  424*,  425*,  426* 

Fuller,  C.  F.  (England),  statues  by .  141 

Fullers  {see  Operatives). 

Furniture  {see  Wood-carving). 

Furniture  for  schools,  etc.  {see  Education). 

Fux,  J.  (Austria),  painting  by .  79 


Gaboon  {see  France  :  colonies). 

Gabriel,  P.  J.  C.  (Netherlands),  paintings  by .  101 

Gaillard,  C.  F.  (France),  portrait  by .  .  32 

Gaillard,  L.  F.  (France),  engravings  by .  159 

Galban  y  Candela,  J.  M.  (Spain),  engravings  by .  161 

Galbrund1  (France),  pastel  portrait  by .  37 

Gallaudet,  Edward  M.,  Report  on  Art  Exhibit  at  Vienna  Exposition,  1873,  reference  to .  3 

Gallois,  A.  (Paris,  France),  carved  fumituro .  421 

Gancel,  A.  F.  (France),  architectural  designs  by .  157 

Gandi,  J.  (Italy),  aquarelles  by  . .  76 

Gangeri,  L.  (Italy),  bust  by .  . 136, 137 

Gans,  mechanical  engineer  Imperial  Technical  School,  Moscow,  Russia . . .  390 

•Garibaldi,  bust  of,  by  Count  Gleichen . . .  142 

Gamier  (France),  paintings  by . . .  . . .  23  24 

Gaul,  archaeology  of,  exhibited  in  the  Trocad6ro .  149 

Gault  Brothers  (Montreal,  Canada),  woolen  fabrics,  clothing . . . . .  436 

Gautherin,  J.  (France),  busts  by .  . .  128 

Gebhardt  {see  Von  Gebhardt). 

Gegerfelt  ( see  De  Gegerfelt). 

Gembloux  (Belgium)  Agricultural  Institute .  246 

Geneva  {see  Switzerland :  cantons). 

Geneva,  city  of  (Switzerland) — 

University  of,  study  of  political  science  .  355 

school  of  watch-making .  413  414 

Genoa  (Italy) — 

art  education  at . 167 

silk  manufacture  at .  446 


INDEX 


497 


Page. 

Genodios,  Mile.  A.  (Greece),  aquarelle  portraits  by .  108 

Genre  ( see  Art) . 

George  &  Peto  (England),  architectural  designs  by . .  .  158 

Georgia  (see  United  States). 

Gerhard t,  G.  A.  (France),  architectural  designs  by .  157 

German  language  used  in  Japan .  32G 

GERMANY  (see,  also,  Berlin,  Gottingen,  Marburg, 

Bonn,  Hamburg,  Mulhouse, 

Cassel,  Heidelberg,  Munich, 

Dresden,  Jena,  Stuttgart, 

Diisseldorf,  Konigsberg,  Tubingen). 

Frankfort,  Leipsic, 

Art  patronized  by  the  government . . 6, 166, 167 

influence  on  other  countries  .  10 

collections  at  Munich . 9 

characteristics  of . 81,  86,  87 

paintings  exhibited . 81-87 

Diisseldorf  school  of .  82 

revival  of . 81 

paintings  exhibited,  religious . 85 

historical . .  85 

portraits . 85 

landscapes  .  86 

sculpture  exhibited  .  145, 146 

education .  166, 167 

Education— 

exhibit . 185,  286,  314,  385 

women  as  teachers . 201 

gratuitous  schools  disliked  by  working  people .  230 

secularizing  common  schools .  236  note 

badly  made  text-books . 343 

high  standard  enforced  by  government .  346 

educators  also  statesmen . . .  355,  361 

Healschule .  206 

Vorbildungschule . .  2C8 

universities .  352-354 

of  Tubingen .  352,353 

Leipsic . 353 

industrial  schools .  385 

weaving .  462 

study  of  political  and  social  science . .  227,  352-354 

courses  of  instruction . . . .  352,  353,  354 

studies — 

accounts . 353 

administration . 352 

agricultural  policy .  353 

subjects . 354 

army  system . 353 

banking . 353 

book-keeping .  353 

commerce . 352 

finance . 353 

history,  general .  353 

modern . 353 

of  communism .  353 

English  revolution . . . - .  .  353 

eighteenth  century . 353 

year  1848 .  353 

socialism . . 353 

law . .  352,  353 

jurisprudence . 352 

law . . .  352,  353 

administrative . 352 

constitutional .  352 

international .  353 

32  p  R 


498 


INDEX, 


Page. 

GERMANY— Continued. 

Education — 
studies — 
law- 

history  of . . . . . . . . .  „ . . . . .  353 

philosophy  of . . .  352,  353 

money . . . . . .  353 

parliamentary  institutions . 353 

political  economy . f . . . . . . .  352 

science . 353 

theories . 352 

public  instruction . 353 

revenue . 353 

statistics . 353 

taxation . . . . .  352, 353 

trade . 352 

governmental  administration*  excellence  of .  352 

training  in,  at  the  universities . .  352-354 

music .  87 

poetry . 87 

Gerome  (France),  paintings  by .  20 

influence  of,  on  other  artists . . . . . . .  29,  72, 112 

style  of . 47 

influenced  by  Zamacois .  20,  69 

sculpture  by  . 125 

engravings  of  his  paintings . 160 

Gerson,  "W\  A.  (Russia),  painting  by . . .  . .  94 

Ghent  (Belgium) — 

cotton  manufacture  at . 452 

linen  manufacture  at . 452 

wages  of  operatives . 454 

Giani,  V.  (Italy),  statue  by .  137 

Gibson,  John  (England),  style  of,  in  art .  139 

GierymsM,  M.  (Germany),  painting  by .  84 

Gifford,  R.  Swain  (New  York),  painting  by .  .  115 

Gifford,  Sandford  R.  (New  York),  painting  by .  115 

Gilbert,  A.  I.  (France),  etchings  by .  159 

Gilbert,  Sir  John  (England),  aquarelle  by . . . - . . . . .  42 

oil  paintings  by . 54 

Gillaume,  E.  J.  B.  (France),  statuary  by .  .  125, 128 

Gilli,  A.  B.  (Italy),  engravings  by.... . . .  161 

Gioii,  J.  (Italy),  painting  by . 73 

Giorgione,  art  qualities  of .  58 

Giotto,  statue  of,  by  Salvini . . . .  136 

Girard  (France),  painting  by .  36 

Girard,  Professor,  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  Paris .  217 

Girard,  Philippe  de  (Girardowo,  Russia),  linens . . . . .  441 

founder  of  Girardowo  and  its  manufactories . .  441 

provision  for  the  welfare  of  operatives .  441 

inventor  of  flax-spinning  by  power . .  . .  449 

Girardet,  J.  (Switzerland),  painting  by . . .  98 

Girardet,  P.  (Switzerland),  engravings  by . . . . . . .  161 

Girardin  ( see  De  Girardin). 

Girardowo  (Russia) — 

linen  manufactories  . .  . . . . . . . . . . . . .  441 

provision  for  the  welfare  of  operatives . . . .  441 

Giuliana,  Chevalier  B.  (Italy),  painting  by .  75 

Gladstone,  "William  E.  (England),  writings  on  political  economy .  366 

Glaize  (France),  paintings  by . . .  24 

Glarus  (see  Switzerland:  cantons). 

Glasgow  (Scotland) — 

Technical  School . . .  465 

Glass-making,  schools  for  instruction  in,  in  Austria .  412 

G  leichen,  Count,  bust  by . .  142 

Glyptothek,  at  Munich . . . . .  9 


INDEX. 


499 


Gneist  (Germany),  political  economist . 

Gobelins  (France) — 

national  manufactures  at . 

Godwin,  Parke,  portrait  of,  by  Le  Clear . 

Goetlic,  poetry  of  . 

quoted . 

Gold  Coast  ( see  France:  colonies). 

Goldsmith,  Oliver,  statue  of,  by  Foley  . . 

Gomito  (Italy),  statue  by . . 

Gonzales  (Spain),  paintings  by . . 

Gonzalvo  y  Perez  (Spain),  painting  by . . 

Goodall,  F.  (England),  paintings  by . . 

engravings  of . 

Good  Hope,  Cape  of  ( see  Great  Britain:  colonies). 

Gottingen  (Germany) — 

University  of,  study  of  political  science . 

Goubio  (France),  painting  by . . 

Gough,  Lord,  portrait  of,  by  Sir  Francis  Grant . 

Goupil  (France),  painting  by . 

ehgravings  of . 

Gournerie  {sec  De  la  Goumerie). 

Government,  American  {see  United  States). 

Gower,  Lord  Ronald  (England),  statue  by . 

Goya,  engravings  from  his  paintings . . . 

Goyarts  (A.)  &  Son  (Filbourg,  Netherlands),  blankets . 

Graham,  'Villiam  (United  States),  painting  by  . 

Grammar  schools  {see  Education). 

Granet,  P.  (France),  statuary . . 

Grant,  Sir  Francis  (England),  paintings  by . . 

busts  of,  by  Miss  Grant . 

Grant,  Miss  Mary  (England),  statues  by . . . 

“Graphic”  (art  journal,  London),  drawings  for . 

Grattan,  Thomas,  statue  of,  by  Foley . 

Graumann  &  Co.  (Vienna,  Austria),  cotton  fabrics . 

linen  fabrics . . 

Gr6ard,  O.,  Inspector-General  of  Public  Instruction,  France. 

views  on  education . 

promoter  of  popular  education . . 

GREAT  BRITAIN— 

Art  patronized  by  the  government . 

paintings  exhibited . 

characteristics  of . . 

false  shading  in . 

revived  mediae valism  in . 

aquarelles . . 

genre . . 

historical . . 

humorous . . 

sentimental . 

drawings  in  black  and  white . 

sculpture  exhibited . 

characteristics  of . 

architectural  designs  exhibited . 

engravings  exhibited . 

coins  and  medals . . 

education  in . 

Facade  at  the  Exposition . 

Education— 

not  represented  in  the  Exposition . 

popular,  opposed  by  Cardinal  Cullen  . 

gratuitous  schools  disliked  by  woiking  people . 

study  of  political  science . 

industrial,  need  of . . . . 

stimulated  by  international  exhibitions  . . . 


Page. 

361 

165 

116 

87 

93 

140 

134 

68 


56  57 
160 


354 

22 

61 

22 

160 


141 

161 

455 

114 


128 
Cl 
142 
141, 142 
63,  64 
140 

437 

438 


.  18G 

194, 199,  200,  202,  203,  204,  208,  345,  408,  409 
.  .  196 


.  . 6,8, 163, 164 

.  37, 64 

.37-39,  45-48,  55,  58 
.38,  48,  53,  56,  57,  GO 

.  45, 46 

.  39-45 

.  47 


49 

61 


63 

....  138-142 
....  138,139 
....  157,158 
160 
162 

....  163,164 
153 

314 

. . . .  228 
230 

.227,  360,  361 
....  459-465 
.459, 4G0,  465 


500 


INDEX. 


GEE  AT  BRITAIN— Continued. 

Textile  Fabrics . 

cotton . . . 

combined  with  wool,  silk,  etc . 

“stuffing”  «Tnd  “filling” . . 

patent  velvet . . . 

linen,  etc . . 

arrangement  for  the  market . 

“Kalameit”  (jute  fiber) . 

carpets  of . . 

hosiery  of .  . 

worsted . 

alpaca . . 

mohair . 

woolen . . . 

cloths  for  men’s  wear . 

silks. . 

manufacture  by  power . . . 

operatives,  day’s  labor  of . 

designs  for .  . 

deficient  in  originality . 

•  instruction  in . . . . . 

competition  from — 

France . .  . 

Switzerland . . . 

United  States . 

Russia . 

Austria-Hungary . 

Belgium . 

Spain . 

Japan . •- . 

imports  from — 

Canada . . 

exports — 

wool  to  Austria . 

'Wood-carving . . ’ . . 

ENGLAND  (see,  also ,  Bradford,  Leeds, 

Cambridge,  Liverpool, 

Dulwich,  London, 

Huddersfield, 

Education— 

secularizing  common  schools . 

public  schools  (^preparatory  colleges) — 

training  for  civil  service .  . 

universities — 

instruction  in  political  science . . — 

instructors  also  statesmen . 

industrial,  need  of . 

demanded  by  the  textile  manufacturers . 

schools  of  weaving . 

Wood-carving  exhibited . 

wages  of  workmen  - . . 

designs  and  materials . . . 

pauperism  . . . . . . 

municipal  abuses . . . . 

popular  political  intelligence  .  . . 

contests  of  Crown  and  Parliament  for  power . . 

political  doctrinaires . 

IRELAND  (see,  also,  Belfast,  Dublin). 

Education — 

of  the  people  opposed  by  Cardinal  Cullen . 

common,  secularizing  . . . . 

Textile  Fabrics — 

linens  exhibited. . . . 


Page. 


.  431-436 

. 431, 432, 434 

.  431 

.  432 

.  432 

. .432,  433, 434 

.  433 

.  433 

.  433 

.  433 

.  433,434 

. .  433 

.  433 

.  434,435 

.  435 

.  435,436 

. : .  431 

.443, 445,  447,  448, 461,  462 

.  432 

. 449,  460,463 

. . 460,  462,  463,  465 


432,  484,  448,  449 

.  432,444 

.  432 

.434,  440,  442,  459 
. . . .  434,  489,  459 

.  .  434, 453 

.  454,459 

.  459 


.  437 

.  438 

.  422,423 

Manchester, 

Nottingham, 

Oxford). 


236  note 

360 

360 
360 
459-465 
462 
462,  465 
422,  423 
422 
422,  423 
365 

365 

366 
374 
377 


228 
236  note 

432, 433 


INDEX. 


501 


Page. 

GREAT  BRITAIN — Continued.  , 

IRELAND — 

Textile  fabrics— 
linen  exhibited. 

thread .  433 

prepairw  Ion  for  the  market .  433 

silk  xioplins,  terries . 436 

SCOTLAND  (see,  also ,  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Saint  Hilda). 

Education — 

common,  secularizing . 236  note 

industrial,  schools  of  weaving . 40» 

universities — 

study  of  political  science .  361 

Textile  Fabrics— 

woolen  cloths . - .  434, 433 

Highland  homespun .  435 

imitated  abroad . . - .  435 

Wood-Carving .  423 

COLONIES:  AUSTRALIA- 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES- 
TEXTILE  Fabrics— 

woolen  goods,  manufacture  of .  436 

protective  legislation .  436 

VICTORIA  — 

Textile  Fabrics— 

woolen  goods .  436 

growth  of  manufacture .  436 

protective  legislation . 436 

CANADA  (see,  also,  Ottawa,  Toronto). 

Textile  Fabrics— 

woolen  goods . .  436,  437 

cotton  goods .  436 

manufacture  of .  437 

protective  legislation . 437 

exports  to  England .  437 

France .  437 

ONTARIO— 

Education . . .  334-337 

exhibit .  334 

primary — 

common  schools .  336 

county -town  public  schools .  335 

secondary — 

high  schools . .  336,  337 

institutes . . 336 

collegiate  institutes .  337 

teachers . . .  335,  336 

training . 335 

county  normal  schools .  .  335 

provincial  normal  schools .  335,  336 

certificates  (three  grades) .  335,  336 

examination  (course  of  study) .  336 

women  as . . .  336 

salaries .  336 

statistics — 

teachers .  336 

common  schools .  336 

secondary  schools .  337 

support  of— 

by  local  contributions .  337 

county .  337 

province .  337 

INDIA:  Wood-Carving . 423 


502 


INDEX. 


Page. 

GREECE  (see,  also,  Athens) — 

AltT,  explorations  in . .  3,167 

exhibit  of .  108,147 

Fa£ade  at  the  Exposition . 155 

cotton  manufactures  exhibited .  457 

Education .  .  304,308 

exhibit  of .  305 

recent  efforts  to  promote . «. . . .  304 

primary . .  306,  308 

public  schools . . : . - .  306 

private  schools .  306 

girls’  schools . - . . .  306,  307 

normal  schools . .  307, 308 

secondary  .  308 

Hellenic .  308 

gymnasiums  ( lycees ) . 308 

school  law  of  1834  .  306 

makes  education  obligatory . 306 

inoperative .  306 

courses  of  study — 

in  primary  schools .  . . 306,  307, 308 

normal  schools .  . . .  307, 308 

Hellenic  schools .  308 

gymnasiums . 308 

statistics,  apparently  untrustworthy .  307 

illiteracy..  . 305,306,307 

by  departments . . 1 . . .  305 

provinces  . : . 306 

schools . 306,308 

school  attendance .  . 306,  307,  308 

teachers  . . .  306,  308 

girls  and  women  uninstructed .  .  305,  307 

ANCIENT,  sculpture  of  . .  . . .  8, 118 

collections  from  Tanagra  shown  in  the  Trocad6ro .  148, 149 

coins  of  . 162 

Greek  language,  modern,  study  of  . . . .  .  221 

Green,  C.  (England),  aquarelle  by  ...  . . .  .  42 

oil  painting  by . 61 

black  and  white  drawing  by .  63,64 

Greenough,  G.  (United  States),  crayon  portrait  by .  116 

Gregory,  E.  J.  (England),  aquarelles  by . 42 

oil  painting  by  . . . 61 

black  and  white  drawing  by . . .  63, 64 

Grenada  (Spain) — 

Palace  of  Alliamar  at  . .  154 

Grenoble  (France)— 

instruction  in  political  science  at .  .  356 

Greux,  G.  M.  (Franco),  etchings  by.. . 159 

Gribanoff  &  Sons  (Vologda,  Russia),  linens .  441 

Griepenkerl,  C.  (Austria),  portrait  by .  80 

Grimelund,  J.  H.  (Norway),  painting  by .  105 

;  Grisons  (see  Switzerland :  cantons » . 

Groningen  ( see  Netherlands:  provinces). 

Groningen,  city  of  (Netherlands) — 

normal  school  at  (governmental) .  259 

women’s  normal  school  of  the  Association  for  the  Public  Good .  260 

Groth  V.  (Denmark),  painting  by . 103 

Grundtvig,  Bishop  (Denmark),  promoter  of  popular  education . .  273 

Guadalupe  (see  Uruguay:  provinces). 

Guadeloupe  (see  France:  colonies). 

Guardet,  J.  (France),  architectural  designs  by .  157 

Guberaalis  (see  De  Gubematis). 

.Gude,  H.  (Norway),  painting  by .  104 

Gu6,  N.  N.  (Russia),  painting  by . . .  94 

Guelders  (see  Netherlands:  provinces). 


INDEX. 


503 


Page. 

Gueret  Frdres  (Paris,  France),  carved  furniture .  421 

Gughelmo,  L.  (France),  statue  by . .  123 

Guiana,  British  {see  Great  Britain :  colonies). 

Guiana,  French  (see  France:  colonies). 

Guibert,  Cardinal,  bust  of,  by  Oliva . . .  128 

Guido,  influence  of,  on  art .  46 

the  “Aurora”  of,  executed  in  damask .  448 

Guizot,  Guillaume  (France),  political  economist  — . . .  356 

Gussow,  C.  (Germany),  painting  by .  85, 86 

Guynet  (L.  H.)  &  Co.  (Belfast,  Ireland),  lawns,  linens .  .  433 

Gymnases  ( see  Education). 

Gymnastics  (see  Education). 

Gyzis,  N.  (Greece),  paintings  by .  108 

Haanen,  Mile.  A.  (Netherlands),  painting  by . . .  102 

Haden,  S.  (England),  engravings  by . .  160 

Haes,  C.  (Spain),  painting  by .  69 

Hagborg,  A.  (Sweden),  painting  by . .f .  107 

Hainaut  ( se *•  Belgium:  provinces). 

Hainisch,  Michael  (Vienna,  Austria),  cotton  fabrics . . .  437 

provision  for  the  welfare  of  operatives .  437 

Hair  (see  Textile  Fibres). 

Halicarnassus  (Asia  Minor) — 

Mausoleum  at,  exploration  of .  8 

restoration  of .  157 

Hamburg  (Germany) —  9 

Hotel  de  Ville,  design  for  the  building .  158 

Hamilton,  Alexander  (United  States),  statesman . .  377 

Hamilton,  J.  McL.  (Philadelphia),  painting  by . .  112 

Handley,  Montague  (United  States),  statuettes  by .  148 

Hanoteau,  H.  (France),  paintings  by .  . .  34 

Hansen,  Chevalier  T.  de  (Austria),  architectural  designs  by . — .  159 

Harcourt,  Sir  ’William  Vernon  ( see  Vemon-Harcoui  t). 

Hardy,  architect  of  main  building  of  the  Exposition .  150 

Hardy,  Haywood  (England),  painting  by . 61 

Harlamoff,  A.  A.  (Russia),  paintings  by . .  90 

Harlem  (Netherlands) — 

normal  school  (governmental)  .  259,  260 

women’s  normal  school  of  the  Association  for  the  Public  Good .  260 

secondary  school  for  girls . . .  267 

“Harmonies  ”  in  Art. ' .  53,  58 

“  Harper’s  Magazine  ”  (New  York),  engravings  in . , .  1C2 

Hartzer,  F.  (Germany),  statue  by  .  . .  145 

Harvard,  John,  promoter  of  education  in  United  States .  381 

Hasenauer,  Baron  C.  de  (Austria),  architectural  designs  by .  159 

Hats,  felt  {see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Haiiy,  Valentin,  educator  of.  the  blird .  193 

Havre  (France),  commercial  situation  of .  222 

vacation  visits  of  schools  to  .  . . . .  209 

commercial  school  at . 220-225 

Hawkins  (John)  &  Sons  (Manchester,  England),  cotton  textile  fabrics .  432 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  American  quality  of  his  writings .  109 

Healy,  G.  P.  A.  (United  States),  portraits  by . .  116 

H6bert  (France),  paintings  by .  36 

Hedouin,  E.  (France),  engravings  by . .  160 

Heffter  (Germany),  political  economist . .  361 

Heidelberg  (Germany) — 

University  of,  study  of  political  science .  354 

Hellqvist,  C.  G.  (Sweden),  painting  by .  107 

Hemp  {see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Hems,  H.  (Exeter,  England),  wood-carvings . . .  423 

Hdnard,  A.  J.  (France),  architectural  designs  by .  157 

Hennebicq,  A.  (Belgium),  painting  by .  95 

Henner  (France),  portraits  by .  31 

Henri  IV,  Lycee  de  ( see  France:  education,  secondary). 

Henry,  E.  L.  (New  York),  painting  by .  115 


504 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Herkomer,  EL  (England),  aquarelle  by .  42 

oil  paintings  by .  50 

medal  of  honor  (grand  prize)  awarded  to . . .  50, 172 

drawings  in  black  and  white  by .  64 

etchings  by .  160 

Hermann  (Belgium),  painting  by .  96 

Heseltine,  J.  P.  (England),  engravings  by. . -  -  -  -  160 

Heureux,  L.  (France),  architectural  designs  by .  157 

Heyerdahl,  H.  (Norway),  painting  by .  .  106 

Hildebrand,  A.  (Germany),  statuary  by .  145 

Hildebrandt,  E.  (Germany),  painting  by .  85 

Hilditch,  G.  &  J.  B.  (London,  England),  silk  fabrics,  flags .  .  436 

Hill6  &  Dietrich  (Girardowo,  Russia),  linens  .  44j 

Hiolle,  E.  E.  (France),  statue  by . .  123 

History,  study  of  (see,  also,  Education) .  368,  371. 

Hitz,  John,  Swiss  consul-general  in  United  States,  account  of  education  in  Switzerland  by -  314 

Hoboken,  FT.  J. — 

Stevens  Institute  of  Technology  . .» .  464 

Hodgson,  T.  E.  (England),  drawings  in  black  and  white .  64 

Hoff,  K.  (Germany),  painting  by .  . , .  85 

Hohenbruck  (Austria) — 

school  for  artistic  iron-work . . .  413 

Holbein,  influence  on  art . . .  82 

Holl,  Frank  (England),  paintings  by . . . .  49 

drawings  in  black  and  white . .  64 

Holland,  Nortli,  South  (see  Netherlands:  provinces). 

Holme,  George  (Bradford,  England),  fabrics  of  silk,  cotton,  wool .  436 

Holst  (Germany),  political  economist  .  361 

Homer,  "Winslow  (New  York),  painting  by . .  113 

Honegger,  Gaspard  (Riiti,  Switzerland),  cotton  fabrics .  444 

Hoogere  burgerscholen  (see  Netherlands:  education,  secondary:  higher  intermediate  schools). 

Hopkins,  E.  (England),  drawings  in  black  and  white. .  64 

Hopkins,  Johns,  promoter  of  education  in  the  United  States .  381 

Horology,  National  School  of,  at  Cluses  (see  France:  education,  secondary). 

Horrockses,  Miller,  &  Co.  (Manchester  and  Preston,  England),  cotton  textile  fabrics .  432 

awarded  gold  medal . .  432 

Hosiery  (see  Textile  Fabrics) — 

manufactured  of  “kalameit”  (jute  fiber) .  433 

Hoursolle,  P.  (France),  statue  by . .  123 

Houssin,  E.  G.  M.  (France),  bust  by .  . .  128 

Howard,  Henry,  Additional  Commissioner  to  the  Exposition — 

Report  on  Textile  Fabrics .  .  429-465 

Howells,  W.  D.,  American  quality  of  his  writings  .  109 

Howland,  A.  C.  (New  York),  painting  by .  .  115 

Hoyt,  John  W.,  Report  on  Higher  Education  in  Europe  (1870),  referred  to .  351 

Hubers,  Henry  (Ghent,  Belgium),  linens .  452 

Huddersfield  (England) — 

school  of  weaving .  462 

Hudson  Bay  (see  Great  Britain :  colonies:  Canada). 

Hudson,  Sykes,  &  Bousfield  (Leeds,  England),  woolen  and  cotton  fabrics .  434 

Huebner  Company  (Moscow,  Russia),  cotton  fabrics .  440 

Hugo,  Victor,  quoted . .  126 

promoter  of  popular  education  in  France .  186 

Hungary  ( see  Austria-Hungary). 

Hunter,  Colin  (England),  painting  by... .  .  59 

Huot,  A.  J.  (France),  engravings  by . . .  159 

Idaho  (see  United  States). 

“Idealistic  school”  (see  Art). 

Idrac,  J.  A.  M.  (France),  statue  by .  123 

Ignatius,  Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  (Finland) — 

educational  statistics  quoted  from .  275 

Illegitimacy,  prevalence  of,  in  Paris .  187 

Illinois  (see  United  States). 

Illiteracy  (see  Education). 


INDEX, 


505 


Pago. 

“Illustrated  News”  (journal,  London),  quoted .  ‘4  note 

Imhoof,  Blumer,  &  Co.  (Winterthur,  Switzerland),  cotton  fabrics .  444 

Impens,  J.  (Belgium),  paintings  by  . .  96 

“Impressionist  school”  ( see  Art). 

India  ( see  Great  Britain :  colonies) . 

Indian,  the  American,  in  art  .  .  109 

Indian  possessions,  French  ( see  France:  colonies). 

Indian  Territory  ( see  United  States). 

Indiana  ( see  United  States). 

Induno,  D.  (Italy),  painting  by .  74 

Induno,  J.  (Italy),  paintings  by .  74 

Indust i ial  schools  ( see  Education). 

Infant  schools  ( see  Education) . 

Ingres  (France),  painting  by  .  26 

Inness,  George  (New  York),  painting  by .  151 

Insanity,  need  of  intelligent  treatment  of . 363,  364,  365 

Instruction  ( see  Education). 

INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITIONS— 

educating  influence  of .  347 

influence  of,  on  textile  industries .  459, 460,  465 

of  London,  1851— 

eflect  of,  on  British  industries .  459,  460 

of  Paris,  1855— 

French  artists  represented  at . . .  15 

of  London,  1862 — 

representation  of  the  Papal  Government  in  art  department .  .  5 

of  Paris,  1867 — 

art  exhibit  at .  15, 16 

report  on  education  exhibit  at,  referred  to .  184 

textile  fabrics  at,  referred  to .  .  . „ .  431 

of  Vienna,  1873 — 

neglected  by  United  States  Congress  .  3 

report  on  education  exhibit  at,  referred  to  . . - .  .  184 

industrial  education  exhibit  at .  385,  393 

of  Philadelphia  (Centennial),  1876- 

art  awards  at .  6 

inadequate  provision  by  United  States  Congress  for .  6 

report  on  education  exhibit  at,  by  F.  Buisson  (France),  referred  to .  229 

exhibit  of  Russian  Pedagogical  Museum  at .  285 

education  in  the  Argentine  Republic .  329 

exhibit  of  newspaper  publications .  .  363 

industrial  education  exhibit .  .  385,  393 

of  Paris,  1878- 

classification  of  exhibits  ( see  Classification) — 

inadequate  appropriation  by  United  States  Congress  toward . 3, 11, 148, 156 

Art  exhibit,  general  report  on,  by  W.  W.  Story .  1-179 

paintings .  3-116 

sculpture .  116-148 

collections  in  the  Trocaddro . 148-150, 427 

architecture .  150-159 

engravings .  159-162 

medals  .  162 

education . 163-170 

jurors  and  awards  in  department  of .  170-179 

buildings  of .  150-156 

view  of  the  Art  Gallery . Frontispiece 

the  Rue  des  Nations . 152*-156 

Education,  general  report  on,  by  J.  L.  Chamberlain . .  181-347 

Higher,  report  on,  by  A.  D.  White,  LL.  D .  349-381 

Manual  Training  Schools,  report  by  Eliot  C.  Jewett . 383^15 

newspaper  publications,  exhibit  of . 363 

Wood-carving,  exhibit  of . 419-427 

report  on,  by  J.  T.  NORTON . .  417-427 

Textile  Fabrics,  exhibit  of .  431-465 

report  by  Hon.  Henry  Howard .  429-465 


506 


INDEX. 


Page. 

International  law,  study  of  (see,  also,  Education) .  369 

Iowa  (see  United  States). 

Ireland,  Irish  (see  Great  Britain). 

Irmer  C.  (Germany),  painting  by .  8G 

Israels,  J.  (Netherlands),  paintings  by .  100, 101 

ITALY  (see,  also,  Bergamo,  Milan,  Perugia,  Siena, 

Bologna,  Modena,  Pisa,  Sipontum, 

Como,  Naples,  Pompeii,  Torre  Pellico, 

Florence,  Padua,  Bavenna,  Turin, 

Genoa,  Palestina,  Beggio  Emilia,  Yenico, 

Lucca,  Parma,  Borne,  Verona). 

Massa,  Pavia,  Salerno, 

Art  patronized  by  the  government . 6, 167-1G9 

early,  its  influence  on  other  countries  .  40,  54 

characteristics  of .  . .  71,  72 

paintings  exhibited . 71-76 

genre . 71,72 

landscapes .  75 

aquarelles .  76 

sculpture  exhibited .  128-138 

characteristics  of . 128-130, 133, 138 

architectural  designs  exhibited .  158 

engravings  exhibited  by  ; . • .  160 

education  in  .  167-169 

Fagade  at  the  Exposition .  153 

archaeological  explorations  in . - .  168 

Education — 

Ligue  de  V Enseignement .  238 

illiteracy  . 305 

exhibit  . ,  .  . . 314,  385 

instructors  also  statesmen  .  361 

universities — 

political  science  studied  in . - . 227,  359,  360 

unduly  numerous  .  360 

recent  improvement  in .  359 

Textile  Fabrics — 

cotton  manufacture . 445 

printing  . . .  445 

linen,  etc. — 

flax  manufacture  .  445 

hemp  manufacture .  445 

jute  manufacture . 445 

worsted  manufacture . . .  445, 446 

woolen  manufacture .  446 

silk  manufacture . . ) .  446 

manufacture  by  hand . . .  445, 446 

power . . .  445, 446 

imports — 

yam . 445 

jute  goods  .  445 

worsted  goods .  445 

woolen  goods .  446 

Wood-carving,  exhibit  of . 419, 424 

wages  of  workmen . . .  .  - . .  419 

designers .  419 

taught  at  the  Preparatory  School  of  Intaglio,  Florence . 424 

illustrations  of  specimens . 423,*  424,*  425,*  426* 

Ivan  the  Terrible,  statute  of,  by  Antokolski .  142 

Jackson  &  Graham  (London,  England),  carved  furniture .  422 

Jacobson,  S.  (Norway),  paintings  by  .  — .  105 

Jacoby.  V.  J.  (Bussia),  painting  by  . .  .  93 

Jacovacci.  F.  (Italy),  painting  by . 74 

Jacquard  loom .  448 

Jacqucmart  (France),  statuary  by . 128 


INDEX. 


507 


Page. 

Jacquemart,  J.  F.  (France),  engravings  by .  159 

Jacquet,  J.  (France),  engravings  by  . . 159 

Jacqueti,  J.  C.  (France),  painting  by .  36 

Jamaica  ( see  Great  Britain:  colonies). 

James,  jr.,  Henry,  American  quality  of  bis  writings  . 109 

Janet,  Paul,  member  of  tbe  Institute  of  France,  political  economist .  359 

Jannicbe,  H.  E.  (Denmark),  exhibit  of  art  instruction  .  272 

JAP  AH  {see,  also,  Aomori,  Kioto,  Nagasaki,  Tokio). 

Asakousa,  Miyaghi,  Osaka, 

Facade  at  the  Exposition .  154 

map  of .  154 

model  farm  in  the  Trocadero,  illustration  of  the  gates . 419/  425 

Education .  321-329 

exhibit . 185,  321,  322 

dependent  on  political  organization .  323,  324 

remodeled  by  political  revolution  (1868) . . 323,  324,  327 

antiquity  of .  322 

books .  322 

written  characters,  derived  from  Corea .  322 

printing.  .  323 

by  types . 323 

stereotypes  (block-printing) .  323 

ancient  native  system .  323 

university  .  333 

provincial  colleges .  323 

controlled  by  provincial  princes  . 323,324 

modem  system .  324-329 

creation  of .  324 

imperial  schools .  324-327 

University  of  Tokio . 322,  324,  325,  326 

preparatory  school  of .  324,  325 

normal  schools . 324,  325,  326 

primary  schools  of .  325,  326 

for  girls .  .  .  325,  326 

school  of  foreign  languages .  325,  326 

the  English  language .  325,  326 

support  of — 

by  tuition  fees .  324 

government  subsidies .  324,326 

public  schools .  327-329 

primary .  327 

normal  schools  for  girls .  327 

boys .  327 

schools  of  foreign  languages . 327 

secondary  (colleges) .  327 

supported  by  taxes . .  327,  328 

tuition  fees . .  328 

government  subsidies . .  324, 328 

individual  donations .  328 

control  of— 

Ministry  of  Public  Instruction — 

creation  of . 324 

functions  of . 324,  326, 328 

1.  Division  of  school  affairs . 324 

2.  Division  of  finance .  324 

3.  Division  of  reports .  324 

exhibit  by .  321,322 

reports  of  .  321,324 

regulations  of .  324 

municipal  bureaus .  327, 328 

prefects .  327 

deputies .  327 

statistics — 

collection  of .  321, 324 

public  schools .  327 


508 


INDEX, 


JAPAbT — Continued. 

Education— 

school  buildings . 

furniture . 

apparatus  for  object  teaching . 

geographical . 

scientific . . . . 

medical,  surgical . 

attendance . . 

age . 

teachers — 

women  as . 

foreigners  as . 

Americans . .  . 

English . 

French . 

German . 

preparation  of . 

normal  schools . 

courses  of  study — 

in  ancient  colleges . . .  . 

university . 

preparatory  schools . 

schools  of  language . . 

normal  schools . . 

primary  schools . 

salles  d'asile . 

primary  schools . 

studies — 

art . 

arithmetic . . . 

astronomy . 

chemistry . 

chronology . 

composition . 

drawing — . . 

geography  . . 

gymnastics . 

handwriting . 

history . 

languages . . 

Chinese . 

English . 

French . 

German  . 

Japanese . 

Eussian . ' . 

law . . 

mathematics . . 

medicine . . 

morality . 

music  . 

natural  history . 

pedagogy . . 

philosophy . 

physics . 

sewing . - . 

certificates,  diplomas,  etc.— 

conferred  by  Minister  of  Public  Instruction. 

preliminary  to  teaching . 

examinations — 

half  yearly,  in  public  schools.  .  . 

preliminary  to  admission  to  higher  schools. . 
instrumentalities  for  promoting — 

government  publications,  reports,  etc . 


Page. 


321 
321, 329 


.  322,329 

.  322,329 

.  322 

.  327 

....  325,326,328 

. 323,  325,  326 

.  326 

.  326 

.  326 

.  326 

.  326 

.  325 

.  325,326 

.  323 

.  325 

.  325 

........  325,  326 

.  325,326 

.  326 

.  326 

.  328 

.  322 

. 325, 326,  328 

.  323 

.  325,328 

.  323 

.  322,328 

.  322,328 

. 322,  323,  328 

.  328 

. 323,  326,  328 

.  323,328 

. 325,  326,  328 

. 323,  325,  326 

....  322,325,326 

.  322,326 

.  326 

-  .  325 

.  326 

. 322,  323,  325 

. 322,  323,  325 

322, 323,  325,  328 

.  328 

.  323,328 

.  322,328 

325 

323 

. 322, 325,  328 

. .  328 

_  324 

.  326 

.  322 

.  325,326 

.  321 


INDEX. 


509 


Page. 

J  APAN—  Continued. 

Education — 

instrumentalities  for  promoting — 

public  libraries . : .  328, 329 

museums .  328, 329 

'Wood-carving,  exhibit  of .  419, 424, 425 

illustration  of .  419* 

imitated  in  England .  423 

France .  420 

Jay,  John  (United  States),  statesman  .  377 

Jeanneret,  G-.  (Switzerland),  painting  by . .  98 

Jefferson,  Thomas  (United  States),  statesman. . .  377 

Jena  (Germany) — 

Univerity  of,  study  of  political  science .  .  354 

Jenner  vaccinating  his  son,  statue  by  Monteverde . . .  .  131-134 

Jerie,  W.  (Hohenelbe,  Austria),  linen  fabrics . . .  438 

Jemberg,  A.  (Sweden),  paintings  by . 108 

Jemdorf,  A.  (Denmark),  painting  by .  104 

Jesuits’  schools  in  France .  211 

Jettel,  E.  (Austria),  paintings  by .  80 

Jewett,  Eliot  C.,  Honorary  Commissioner  to  the  Exposition — 

report  by,  on  Manual  Training  Schools .  . . . . . .  383-415 

Joan  of  Arc,  statue  of,  by  Chapu. . .  120 

Albert  Lefeuvre .  123 

Johansen,  J.  P.  T.  (Denmark),  exhibit  of  swimming  apparatus .  273 

Johnson,  Eastman  (New  York),  paintings  by . .  114 

Johnson,  E.  X.  (England),  aquarelle  by  .  . .  41 

Johnson,  Jabez,  &  Fildes  (Manchester,  England),  cotton  textile  fabrics  . .  432 

Joiners  (see  Education:  apprentice  schools). 

Jones,  E.  Burne  (England),  art  tendencies  of .  39 

aquarelles  by  . . .  . .  42, 44 

style  in  art  . . . 42-45,  40,  47,  58 

influence  of,  on  other  artists . .  .  54 

Jones,  W.  B.  (United  States),  painting  by .  114 

Joris,  P.  (Italy),  paintings  by .  .  .  .  74 

aquarelles  by . • .  . . .  70 

Joseph  II,  Emperor  of  Austria,  promoter  of  popular  education .  280,  291 

Jouravleff,  F.  (Russia),  painting  by .  90 

Journalism,  educational  power  of  . 303,378 

Jovels  (Netherlands),  style  of,  in  art.  . .  99 

Joy,  A.  B.  (England),  statues  by .  . . 141, 142 

Jujui  ( see  Argentine  Republic:  provinces). 

Jurisprudence,  study  of  (see,  also ,  Education) . .  369 

Jute  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Jyvaskald  (Finland) — 

Finnish  men’s  and  women’s  normal  school .  277 

1 1  Kalameit,  ’  ’  jute  textile  fabric .  433 

Kansas  (see  United  States). 

Karetnikoff  &  Son  (Russia),  cotton  fabrics. . . . .  440 

Karger,  C.  (Austria),  painting  by .  .  79 

Kaulbach,  F.  A.  (Germany),  paintings  by  .  82,  85 

“Keepsake  school”  (see  Art:  sentimental). 

Kensett,  J.  F.  (United  States),  painting  by .  115 

Kensington  Museum,  London  (see  London :  South  Kensington). 

Kentucky  (see  United  States). 

Kilburne,  G.  G.  (England),  aquarelle  by  . . . .  42 

Kindergarten  (see  Education). 

Kingsley,  Charles  (England),  educator  .  360 

Kioto  (Japan) — 

public  library .  328 

Klaus,  J.  (Austria),  engravings  by. . .  161 

Klover,  J.  J.  (Russia),  paintings  by .  .  89 

Klodt,  Baron  M.  P.  (Russia),  painting  by . .  90 

Knaus,  L.  (Germany),  paintings  by .  82 


510 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Knight,  Joseph  (England),  aquarelle  by .  41 

Knyff  (see  De  Knyfl). 

Koelle,  C.  A.  (Denmark),  painting  by .  IO3 

Koller,  R.  (Switzerland),  painting  by  .  98 

Konchine,  J.  H.  (Moscow,  Russia),  cotton  fabrics .  440 

Konigsberg  (Germany) — 

University  of,  study  of  political  science  .  354 

Koning,  C.  (Austria),  architectural  designs  by  .  159 

Konner,  Dame  H.  (Netherlands),  painting  by  . . .  102 

Kopf,  J.  (Germany),  statue  by . .  145 

Koran,  the,  studied  in  schools  of  Algeria .  316 

Korzoukhine,  A.  J.  (Russia),  painting  by . . .  .  90 

Kouindji,  A.  J.  (Russia),  paintings  by .  87 

Koukharevski  (Russia),  statue  by .  144 

Koutschkine  (Russia),  medal  by .  144 

Kovalevski,  P.  (Russia),  painting  by  . .  89 

Kramskoi,  J.  H.  (Russia),  paintings  by  . .  90 

Krantz,  J.  B.,  Commissioner-General  International  Exposition,  Paris,  1878 — 

superintended  construction  of  Exposition  buildings . .  150 

Krenek  (Franz)  &  Sons  (Frankstadt,  Austria),  cotton  fabrics .  437 

Kroeyer,  P.  S.  (Denmark),  painting  by  . . .  . .  103 

Kroner,  C.  (Germany),  painting  by  .  86 

Kuille,  O.  (Germany),  painting  by .  85 

Kulture  ( sec  De  Kulture). 

Kundmann,  C.  (Austria),  statues  by .  .  146 

Kunz,  Henry  (Zurich,  Switzerland),  cotton  fabrics . . . :  .  444 

Kurzbauer,  E.  (Austria),  paintings  by  . .  78,  79 

Kussnacht  (Switzerland) — 

training  schools  for  female  teachers . .  313 

Kuyper  (see  De  Kuyper) . 

Kyhn,  Y.  (Denmark),  painting  by .  103 

Labor,  hours  of  ( see  Operatives). 

need  of  intelligent  legislation  concerning . . . .  . .  363,  369 

Laboulaye,  Charles,  professor  at  the  Coll6ge  de  France,  political  economist,  senator. . .  356,  361 

Lace  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Lace-making,  schools  for  instruction  in,  in  Austria  . . .  412 

Lacedemon  ( see  Greece:  provinces). 

Laconia  (see Greece:  departments). 

Lacustrine  objects  shown  in  the  Trocadero . .  149 

Lafarge,  John  (Hew  York),  painting  by . . .  .  112 

Lafargue,  Georges  (France),  views  on  popular  education .  233 

Lafollye,  J.  A.  (France),  architectural  designs  by . .  .  157 

Lafrance,  J.  I.  (France),  statue  by . . . . .  123 

Lagos  (see  Great  Britain:  colonies). 

Lagrange,  J.  (France),  medals  and  coins  by  .  162 

Laguillermie,  F.  A.  (France),  engravings  by .  160 

Lagye,  J.  (Belgium),  painting  by  . .  96 

L’Allcmand,  S.  (Austria),  painting  by  .  .  78 

Lamb,  Charles,  essay  on  art,  referred  to . .  48 

Lambert,  E.  ( France) ,  painting  by .  36 

Lamorici6re  (see  Do  Lamoriciere). 

Lamorini&re,  F.  (Belgium),  paintings  by .  97 

Lanceray  (Russia),  statuary  by .  144 

Landscapes  (see  Art). 

Landseer,  Sir  Edwin  (England),  paintings  by .  60 

Languages,  study  of  (see  Education). 

Lanson,  A.  D.  (France),  statue  by .  126 

“L’Ari”  (journal,  Paris),  referred  to . . . . .  .113  note 

Laumans,  J.  A.  (Belgium),  statue  by .  147 

Laurens  (France),  paintings  by .  28 

Laussedat,  Professor,  Conservataire  des  Arts  et  MGtiers,  Paris .  217 

Laveretski  (Russia),  statuary  by . . .  .  144 

La  Villette,  "Workshop  School  of  the  Boulevard  de  (Paris)  (see  France:  education). 

Lavoisier,  l5cole  (see  France:  education,  superior  primary). 


INDEX. 


511 


Pago. 

Lawrence,  Sir  Thomas,  engravings  after  . . .  160 

Lax,  J.  (Austria),  statue  by  . .  146 

Le  Clear,  T.  (New  York),  portrait  by  .  116 

Leclerc,  C.  A.  (France),  architectural  designs  by . . .  157 

Lecompte-du-Nouy  (France),  paintings  by .  29 

Leeds  (England) — 

school  of  weaving . . .  . .  462, 465 

Lefebvre,  J.  J.  (France),  paintings  by . .  25,  31 

Lef6vre,  l5milo  (France),  book  on  popular  education  by . . .  232 

Legislation,  misguided .  . 362,  364,  365,  374 

remedy  through  education .  362-381 

Leglas-Maurice  (Nantes,  France),  carved  wood- work .  420 

Leguizamon,  Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  Argentine  Republic .  334 

Lehmann,  It.  (England),  paintings  by . .  61 

Lehman.  G.  J.  (Russia),  paintings  by . .  90 

Leibl,  W.  (Germany),  painting  by . . . . .  .  83 

Leibnitz,  statue  of,  by  Costenoble . . . . . .  146 

Leighton,  Sir  Frederick  (England),  paintings  by . . . . .  55,  56 

statues  by . . .  139, 140 

Leipsic  (Germany)— 

University  of,  study  of  political  science .  .  353 

Leleau  (France),  paintings  by  .  23 

Leloir  (France),  paintings  by .  23 

aquarelles  by . . .  37 

style  of .  47 

Lemaitre,  C.  (TAP  e,  France),  linens . . . ' .  448 

Lenbach,  F.  (Germany),  painting  by  . .  85 

Lennox  Art  Gallery,  New  York . 77 

L’Ep6e  ( see  De  l’ifipGe,  Abb6). 

Lerche,  Y.  S.  (Norway),  paintings  by . . . .  106 

Le  Roux  (France),  paintings  by .  27 

Leslie,  G.  D.  (England),  style  of . . .  .  39,  59 

paintings  by . 59 

Levasseur,  Professor,  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  Paris,  political  economist .  217,  356,  359 

report  on  public  instruction  in  Algeria . 1 .  315,  316 

L6veill6,  promoter  of  popular  education  in  France . .  196 

Levittoux  (Russia),  plaster  casts  from  the  life . . .  144, 145 

Lewis  Brothers  &  Co.  (Providence,  R.  I.),  cotton  fabrics  .  458 

Lewis,  J.  F.  (England),  aquarelles  by . . .  41 

Libraries  ( see  Education). 

Lieber,  Francis  (New  York),  political  economist . . . .  370.  373 

Li6ge  ( see  Belgium :  provinces). 

Liege,  city  of  (Belgium) — 

Normal  School  of  Humanities . . . .  . . . . . . . ......  241 

Lier,  Adolph  (Germany),  painting  by . . 86 

Ligue  de  V Enseignement . . . . . .  186,  229 

objects  of . 237 

in  France . . . 237  note 

Belgium  .  238,240 

Netherlands .  238 

Italy .  238 

Algiers . . .  238,  315 

Egypt . 238 

England .  238 

Lille  (France) — 

commercial  school . 220 

cotton  manufacture  at . 446 

linen  manufacture  at . . .  448,  449 

school  of  weaving .  462 

Lima  (Peru) — 

Casa  Marques  de  Torre  Tagle  (palace) . 155 

Limbourg  (see  Belgium :  provinces;  also,  Netherlands :  provinces). 

Lindholm,  B.  (Russia),  painting  by . 88 

Linen  ( see  Textile  Fabrics). 


512 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Linen  factory  of  Tammerfors  (Finland,  Eussia) . . . . .  443 

Linnaeus,  statue  of,  by  Costenoble . . .  146 

Linton,  J.  D.  (England),  aquarelle  by . . .  41 

Lisbon  (Portugal) — 

Cloister  of  Belem . . .  155 

Lithographs  (see  Art). 

Liverpool  (England) — 

new  Exchange,  design  for  the  building  of . . .  158 

art  collections  at  . . .  164 

Livonia  (see  Eussia:  provinces). 

Locksmiths  (see  Education :  apprentice  schools). 

Locle  (Switzerland) — 

school  of  watch-making . . . .  . .  414 

London  Exhibition  (see  International  Exhibitions). 

London  (England) — 

new  National  Gallery,  designs  for  the  building  of . . .  158 

new  Palace  of  Justice,  designs  for  the  building  of .  158 

St.  Augustine’s  Church,  Kilbum,  designs  for  the  building  of .  158 

Jermyn  Street  Museum  .  163 

British  Museum . . 8, 163, 164 

National  Gallery . 8, 163, 164 

Gallery  of  National  Portraits . . 8, 163, 164 

Eoyal  Academy . - . 8, 163, 164 

South  Kensington  Museum . . . 8, 164, 424 

Clothworkers’  Company .  465 

Longfellow,  H.  W.,  American  quality  of  his  writings  . .  109 

Loomis,  Chester  (United  States),  painting  by .  115 

Louis  I,  King  of  Bavaria,  patronage  of  art  .  9 

Louisiana  ( see  United  States) . 

Louis  le  Grand,  Lycee  de  ( see  France:  education,  secondary). 

Lousbergs  (Ferdinand)  Company  (Ghent,  Belgium),  cotton  fabrics .  452 

Lovetkine,  civil  engineer,  Imperial  Technical  School,  Moscow,  Eussia .  395 

Lowell,  J.  E.,  American  quality  of  his  writings .  . .  109 

Lucca  (Italy) — 

art  education  at . . .’ . .  . . .  167 

Lucchetti,  J.  (Italy),  statue  by . 106 

Lucerne  ( see  Switzerland :  cantons) . 

Ludwig,  Professor,  Polytechnic  School,  Munich,  Germany .  387 

Luminais  (France),  paintings  by  .  29 

Lutheran  Church,  influence  on  education  in  Scandinavian  countries . 271,  274,  275 

Luxembourg  (see  Belgium:  provinces). 

Lycees  ( see  Education). 


Lycees  Fontanes,  Henry  IV,  Louis  le  Grand,  etc.,  etc.  (see  France:  education). 


Lyceums  (See  Education). 

Lyons,  Lord,  portrait  of,  by  Healy .  116 

Lyons  (France) — 

commercial  school  .  220 

cotton  manufacture  at .  446 

silk  manufacture  at .  451 

imitated  in  China .  457 


Maatschappij  tot  Nut  van'tAlgemcen  (see  Netherlands:  education:  Society  for  the  Public  Good). 


Macallum,  H.  (England),  painting  by .  . . . . .  61 

Macaulay,  Lord  (England),  statesman . . .  376 

Macbeth,  James  (England),  aquarelle  by . .  42 

Macbeth,  E.  TV.  (England),  paintings  by . .  .  53 

engravings  by  - . .  .  160 

Maccagnani  (Italy),  busts  by .  . . .  137 

McCormick,  Eichaed  C.,  United  States  Commissioner-General  to  the  Paris  Exposition,  1878 — 

management  of  American  section .  4  note 

Mace,  Jean  (France),  President  Ligue  de  V Enseignement . .  237 

McEntee,  J.  (New  York),  paintings  by . . . . ,  115 

Machart  (France),  political  economist  . . .  361 

Machiavelli  (Italy),  diplomatist  .  377 


INDEX, 


513 

Page. 


Machinery — 
textile — 

power  first  employed  in  Great  Britain 

in  Australia . 

Austria . . 

Belgium . . 

Prance . 

Italy . 

Netherlands . 

Russia . 

Sweden . . 

hand,  in  Austria . 

Belgium . . 

France . 

Italy . 

Russia . . 

Sweden . 


431 

436 

....  437,438 
452 

447,  449,  451 
445 

455 

....  441,449 

456 

....  437,438 
452 

....  447,449 
....  445,446 
....  440,441 
456 


printing . 438,440,441,445 

combing . 447 

Jacquard  looms . 448,  449, 456 

wood-carving  . 419 

Machinists  ( see  Education:  apprentice  schools). 

McLean,  T.  N.  (England),  statue  by .  2, 141 

MacMahcn,  Marshal  (France),  aristocratic  and  clerical  sympathies .  237  note 

Macnee,  Sir  David  (Scotland),  engravings  of  his  paintings .  160 

MacTVhirter,  J.  (England),  painting  by .  01 

Madagascar,  St.  Marie-de-  (see  France  :  colonies). 

Madder  as  dye-stuff . 441 

Madou,  J.  B.,  painting  by .  96 

Mahony,  Francis  (“  Father  Prout  ”),  quoted .  120 

Maine  (see  United  States). 

Majoli,  L.  (Italy),  statue  by . . . .  136 

Makart,  H.  (Austria),  paintings  by . . . 77,  78,  80 

Makovski,  C.  G.  (Russia),  paintings  by .  90 

Makovski,  TV.  G.  (Russia),  paintings  by . .  90 

Maldonado  (see  Uruguay:  provinces). 

Maliclieff,  mechanical  engineer,  Imperial  Technical  School,  Moscow,  Russia .  390 

Manchester  (England) — 

art  collections  at .  164 

cotton  textile  manufacture . . .  431,  432 

imitated  abroad . 454 

Mandrazo  (Spain),  paintings  by  . 66 

Mangon,  Professor,  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  Paris .  .  217 

Manitoba  (see  Great  Britain  :  colonies  :  Canada). 

Mansolas,  Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Greece,  book  on  the  condition  of  Greece,  re¬ 
ferred  to . .  .  305,  306 

Mantinea  (see  Greece:  provinces). 

Manual  training  schools  (see  Education :  industrial). 

report  on,  by  Eliot  C.  Jewett .  383-415 

Manufacture  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Manville  Company  (Providence,  R.  I.),  cotton  fabrics .  458 

Maps  (see  Education). 

Maraini,  Signora  A.  (Italy),  statue  by .  136 

Marburg  (Germany) — 

University  of,  study  of  political  science .  354 

Marceau,  Death  of,  painting  by  Laurens .  28 

Marchetti,  L.  (Italy),  painting  by .  .  .  75 

Marcke  (see  Yan  Marcke). 

Marcotte  &  Co.  (New  York),  carved  furniture . 420 

Mar6chal  (Franco),  pastels  by .  37 

Maria  Theresa,  Empress  of  Austria,  promoter  of  popular  education .  286,  291 

Marie  Antoinette,  Queen  of  France,  statue  of,  by  Lord  It.  Gower .  141 

Marion  (France),  promoter  of  popular  education  .  . .  235 

Maris,  J.  (Netherlands),  style  of,  in  art . 99 

paintings  by .  100 


33  p  n 


514 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Maritime  affairs  ( see  France :  education :  commercial  school  at  Havre) . 

Markelbach,  A.  P.  J.  (Belgium),  painting  by .  9G 

Marling  &  Co.  (Stroub,  England),  woolen  cloths .  435 

Marseilles  (France) — 

commercial  school . . .  220 

Marsh,  A.  H.  (England),  aquarelle  by . .  41 

Marsh,  Henry  (New  York),  engravings  by .  161 

Marshall,  W.  Calder  (England),  statues  by  .  141 

Martens,  J.  B.  (Belgium),  sculpture  by  . ... . . .  147 

Martin,  Frederick,  “Statesman’s  Year  Book,”  referred  to . 188  note 

Martin,  Henri,  promoter  of  public  education  in  France . .  186 

Martin,  J.  B.  (Tarare,  France),  dyed  silks .  451 

Martinique  ( see  France :  colonies) . 

Maryland  (see  United  States). 

Mason,  George  H.  (England),  paintings  by .  60 

Mason,  Luther  W.  (Boston,  Mass.),  musical  publications .  340 

Massa  (Italy) — 

art  education  at .  167 

Massachusetts  ( see  United  States). 

Massardi,  Count,  monument  by  Monteverde . . .  131, 133 

Masure,  J.  (France),  paintings  by .  35 

Mauris,  M.  D.  (England),  drawings  in  black  and  white .  64 

Mauritius  ( see  Great  Britain:  colonies). 

Maury,  Alfred  (France),  political  economist . . .  356 

Mausolus,  tomb  of  (see  Halicarnassus). 

Mauve,  A.  (Netherlands),  painting  by . . .  101 

Max,  G.  (Germany),  painting  by . . .  85 

Maxim  off,  B.  M.  (Bussia),  painting  by .  90 

May,  E.  H.  (United  States),  portraits  by .  116 

May,  Thomas  Erskine  (England),  political  economist . . .  365 

Mayotte  (see  France:  colonies). 

Mazzini,  Joseph  (Italy),  bust  of,  by  Gangeri . . .  136 

Mechtcherski,  A.  J.  (Bussia),  painting  by .  88 

Medals  (see  Art;  also,  Awards). 

Meddali  (Algeria) — 

College  of . . . . . .  320 

‘‘Mediasval  school”  (see  Art). 

Medical  schools  (see  Education). 

Medraca,  Mussulman  secondary  school  in  Algeria .  316,  317 

Meissonier,  J.  C.,  fils  (France),  paintings  by . , . . .  20,  36 

Meissonier,  J.  L.  E.  (France),  paintings  by .  18, 19 

influence  of,  on  other  artists .  35,  73 

style  of . . . 18, 19,  47 

engravings  of  his  paintings .  159 

Melis,  H.  J.  (Netherlands),  painting  by . . . , .  103 

Mendosa  (see  Argentine  Bepublic  :  provinces). 

Mdne,  P.  J.  (France),  statues  by .  .  127 

Menier  (France),  “workingmen’s  city”  provided  by,  at  Noiseil . . .  201 

Menzel,  A.  (Germany),  paintings  by . . .  83,  84 

aquarelles  by .  84 

Meradel,  A.  (Italy),  painting  by . . . . . .  74 

Mercedes,  Queen  of  Spain,  art  work  in  damask  executed  for .  448 

'Mercid,  M.  J.  A.  (France),  statue  by . . . . . . .  121 

surmounting  the  Trocaddro,  Paris .  151 

Merino  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Merley,  L.  (France),  medals  and  coins  by . .  162 

Mesdag,  H.  W.  (Netherlands),  style  of,  in  art . 99 

paintings  by .  99 

Mesgrigny  (see  De  Mesgrigny). 

Messenia  (  see  Greece:  departments). 

Metallurgical  industries,  schools  for  instruction  in,  in  Austria . . .  .  413 

Metals,  workers  in  (see  Education :  apprentice  schools). 

Metejko,  J.  (Austria),  painting  by .  78 

engraving  of .  161 

Meunier  (Bussia),  painting  by . 90 


INDEX. 


515 


Page. 

Meyer,  Thrap  (Norway),  architect  of  Sweden  and  Norway  Facades  at  the  Exposition .  153 

Meyerheim,  P.  (Germany),  painting  by .  84 

Michael  Angelo,  quoted .  10 

influence  of,  on  other  artists .  120, 141 

statue  of,  by  Majoli . . .  136 

Pozzi .  136 

Wagner .  146 

Michigan  (see  United  States). 

Michitti  (Italy),  paintings  by .  75 

Middlehourg  (Netherlands) — 

normal  school  at .  260 

Milan  (Italy) — 

art  “school”  of . 154 

Palazzo  Marino  at,  engraving  of .  161 

art  education  at .  167 

cotton  manufacture  at . 445 

silk  manufacture  at .  446 

Milianah  (Algeria) — 

College  of .  320 

Milius,  F.  A.  (France),  etchings  by .  159, 160 

Mill,  John  Stuart  (England),  political  economist .  .  370,  373,  378 

Millais,  J.  E.  (England),  paintings  by .  50-52 

medal  of  honor  (grand  prize)  awarded  to . .  50, 172 

style  of,  in  art . . 50-52,  55 

engravings  of  his  paintings .  160 

Millet,  A.  (France),  bust  of  Georges  Sand  by . 128 

Millet,  F.  (France),  paintings  by,  at  Paris  Exposition,  1867  . 16 

influence  of,  on  other  artists .  36 

Milton  dictating  “Paradise  Lost,”  painting  of,  by  Munkdcsy  .  76 

Milutines,  the  brothers  J.  and  B.,  manufacturers  at  Tcherepovetz,  Russia .  398 

founders  (in  1868)  of  the  Alexander  Technical  School,  Tcherepovetz .  398,  399 

Milwaukee,  Wis. — 

public  schools . . . < .  339 

houses .  339 

Minas  ( see  Uruguay:  provinces). 

Minnesota  (see  United  States). 

Mion,  L.  (Italy),  painting  by . .  74 

Miquelon  (see  France:  colonies). 

Mississippi  (see  United  States). 

Mississippi  Mills  (Wesson,  Miss.),  cotton  fabrics . . .  458 

Missolonghi  (see  Greece:  provinces). 

Missouri  (see  United  States). 

Mitchell,  J.  A.  (United  States),  engravings  by .  161 

Miyaghi  (Japan) — 

normal  school .  . . .  325,326 

Modelers  (see  Education:  apprentice  schools). 

Modena  (Italy) — 

art  education  at . 167 

Mohair  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Mohilef  (see  Russia :  provinces). 

Molikre,  painting  from  his  “  Precieuses  Ridicules ,”  by  Vibert .  21 

Molinari,  member  of  the  Institute  of  France,  political  economist .  356 

Moll,  Professor,  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  Paris .  217 

Moller,  Fred.  (United  States),  engraving  by . .  161 

Mollwand,  Dr.,  writings  on  Austrian  education . .  286,  291 

Mommu,  Emperor  of  Japan  (A.  D.  700),  founder  of  colleges  in  Japan .  .  323 

Ministers,  instruction  of  pupils  by . .  203 

Montague,  M.  (France),  statue  by . .  .  123 

Montana  (see  United  States). 

Montesquieu  (France),  political  economist . ! .  373 

Monteverde,  G.  (Italy),  statutes  by . 131-134, 138 

leader  in  the- “realistic  school” .  133 

Montevideo  (see  Uruguay :  provinces). 

Montevideo,  city  of  (Uruguay) — 

normal  school .  333 


516 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Monzies,  J.  L.  (France),  etchings  by . . . 150,100 

Moore,  Albert  (England),  paintings  by .  53 

Moore,  Henry  (England),  painting  by .  53 

Moravia  (see  Austria-Hungary :  provinces). 

Moreau,  A.  (France),  painting  by . . .  35 

Moreau,  G.  (France),  paintings  by .  27 

Moreau,  General,  at  Hobenlinden,  painting  of,  by  Moissonier .  19 

Moreau-Vauthier,  A.  J.  (France),  busts  by .  128 

Moreray  Galicia  (Spain),  painting  by . . .  69 

Morgan,  F.  (England),  painting  by  . . . . . .  60 

Morius,  Molidre  (Algeria),  exhibit  of  carving . . . . . .  315 

MOROCCO — 

Fagade  of,  at  the  Exposition . .  155 

Morozoff,  V.  (Wladimir,  Russia),  cotton  fabrics . . .  440 

Morris,  P.  R.  (England),  paintings  by .  48, 49 

Moscow  (Russia) — 

Palace  of  Kolonera  at . . . .  155 

Imperial  Technical  School . 386-396 

school  of  weaving  . 462 

Mostaganem  (Algeria) — 

College  of .  320 

Moulin,  H.  (France),  statue  by . . . .  125 

Mounier,  Mme.  (France),  promoter  popular  education  . i .  229 

Mozart,  statue  of  the  death  of,  by  Carnielo .  130 

Mulhouse  (Alsace)  ( see  Alsace-Lorraine) — 

Commercial  School  of  . .  . . .  220 

transferred  to  Lyons . . . .' .  220 

Industrial  Society  of .  220 

Industrial  School  of,  suspended .  405 

Muller,  A.  G.  (Wallenstadt,  Switzerland),  cotton  fabrics .  444 

Muller,  L.  (  Austria),  painting  by .  79 

Muller,  Max,  bust  of,  by  Joy .  142 

Munich  (Germany) — 

art  collections  at . . .  9, 166 

“school”  of . 114 

Munk&csy,  Michel  (Hungary),  paintings  by .  76,  77 

engravings  of .  160 

Munthe,  L.  (Norway),  painting  by .  105 

Murphy  (Joseph)  &  Son  (Belfast,  Ireland),  linen  fabrics . . .  432 

furnished  linen  to  the  Pavilion  of  the  Prince  of  "Wales 
at  the  Exposition . * .  432 

Music  (see  Education). 

Music,  German . . 87 

Music,  schools  of  ( see  Education:  ecoles  de  maitrise,  orpheonic  societies). 

Muslin  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Mylius,  General,  endowed  scholarships  in  Paris  schools .  208 

Nagasaki  (Japan) — 

normal  school . . . . . .  325, 326 

Namur  (see  Belgium:  provinces). 

Naples  (Italy) — 

art  education  at . . . s  . .  167 

University  of,  study  of  natural  sciences .  .  351 

political  science .  359 

Napoleon  I,  statue  of,  by  Tortone .  136 

Napoleon  III  (see  France :  Second  Empire). 

Napp,  R.  (Argentine  Republic),  book  on  “ La,  Republique  Argentine" .  .  329 

Nash,  J.  (England),  black  and  white  drawing  by .  63,  64 

Naucklioff,  W.  (Sweden),  educational  exhibit  by .  . .  . . .  272 

Nauplia  (see  Greece:  provinces). 

Navarrete  y  Jos,  F.  (Spain),  engravings  by .  161 

Nebraska  (see  United  States). 

Nero  and  the  Christian  Martyrs,  painting  by  Siemiradski . . .  90-93 


INDEX, 


517 


NETHERLANDS  (see  also  Amsterdam,  Ensched6, 

Arhcm,  Groningen, 

Bois-le-Duc,  Harlem. 

Deventer,  Middlebourg, 

Art,  characteristics  of . 

paintings  exhibited . 

landscapes . 

genre . 

Fasado  at  the  Exposition . 

Education . . . 

tendency  in . . . 

provided  for  by  national  constitution . 

exhibit . 

primary . . 

elementary .  . 

superior . 

classiiication  of— 

public  . . . 

free . 

subsidized .  . 

not  subsidized . 

Reformed . 

Catholic .  . 

Jewish . . 

privato . 

independent  . 

evening  schools . : . 

adult  schools .  . 

normal  schools . 

of  practice . 

courses . . 

secondary . . . . 

limits  of,  not  fixed  by  law . 

lower  intermediate . 

day  school . 

evening  school . 

higher  intermediate . . . 

threo  years’  course . 

five  years’  course . 

for  gills  . 

agricultural  schools.  . 

polytechnic  school . 

schools  of  navigation  . 

ultimate  occupation  of  pupils .  . 

Ambachtschool  (of  civil  and  naval  architecture) . 

studies — 

agricultural  subjects . 

anatomy,  physiology,  hygiene . 

architecture . 

arithmetic . 

bookkeeping . . 

botany . . 

chemistry . 

commercial  science  . . . 

drawing .  . . 

geography . 

geology . 

geometry . 

gymnastics . 

history  . 

languages . . . — 

modern . 

Dutch . 

English . 


Page. 

Nymegen, 

Rotterdam, 

Wageningcn). 

. 98. 99, 102 

.  98-103 

.  99 

. .  99, 102 

. 155 

.  247-271 

. .  247-271 

. . 248,248 

. 185,414 

.  251-262 

. .  .  251,  253 

. 251,253,254 

. 252, 253, 254 

. 252,  253,  254 

. 253 

.  254 

.  254 

.  254 

. . . . 254 

. 254 

.  254 

. 257 

.  257 

.  259-261 

.  259,260 

.  261 

.  262-271 

.  248,261 

. 261,  262,  263 

. .  . .  262, 263 

.  262,263 

. . 261,263-265 

. 264 

. 264,  265-267 

.  261,267 

. 261,  267-269 

.  261,269 

. . 261,262  note,  270 

.  263 

. 414,415 


. 252, 260,  262,  268,  269 

.  260 

.  269 

. 251,  260,  266,  267 

. 264,267 

. 264,  267,  268 

. 262,  264,  265,  267,  268,  269 

. 264,265 

252,  260,  262,  264,  265,  267,  268,  269,  410 

. 251,  260,  202,  264,  265,  266,  267,  268 

.  268,269 

. 251,  260,  414 

. 252,  260,  262,  264,  265,  267 

. 251,  260,  262,  264,  265,  267,  268 

.  252 


.  251,262 

.251,  260,  262,  264,  265,  267,  268 
. 264,  265,  267,  268 


518 


INDEX. 


NETHEELANDS— Continued, 

Education — 
studies — 

languages — 
modern — 

Erench  .1 . . . 

German . 

'  mathematics . 

mechanics . 

mineralogy  . . . . 

modeling . 

morals . 

music . : . 

natural  history. . . 

natural  philosophy  (physics) . 

navigation . 

pedagogy  . 

sewing . 

social  science . 

statistics . . . 

technology . . . . 

writing . 

zoology . . . 

study,  courses  of— 

in  elementary  primary  schools . 

superior  primary  schools . 

normal  schools . 

of  Groningen . . 

lower  secondary  schools . 

higher  secondary  schools . . 

girls’  secondary  schools .  . . 

agricultural  schools . . 

polytechnic  school . . 

schools  of  navigation . . 

schools,  support  of— 

by  communes . 

provinces  . 

religious  bodies . . 

privately .. . . 

neighborhood  administrations 

government  aid . 

tuition  fees . . 

control  of . . . . 

communal  commissioners . 

district  inspectors . 

provincial  inspectors . 

superior  council . 

Minister  of  the  Interior . . 

Commissioner  of  the  King . 

schools — 

provisions  in  constitution  of  1848  . 

laws  concerning  . . . 

of  1855  . 

of  1857  . 

of  1874 . 

revision  demanded . . . 

districts . . 

houses . . . . 

furniture . . . 

teachers  (see  ^Normal  schools,  above) — 

requirements  for . 

classes  of  . 

teachers  in  chief . 

assistant  teachers . 

pupil  teachers . 


Page. 


. . 260, 264,265,267, 268 

.  260,264,265,267,268 

. 260,  262,  264,  265,  267,  268,  266 

. 262,  264,  265,  266,  268,  269,  414 

. 264,268,269 

.  262,269 

.  267 

.  251,260,267 

.  262,265 

251,  260,  262,  264,  265,  266,  267,  268, 414 

.  270 

.  260 

.  . .  252, 267 

.  262,  264,  265,  266,  267,  268,  269 

.  264, 266 

. 264,  266,  268 

. 251,  260,  264,  265,  268 

. 264,  267,  268 

. 251,254 

. 251,  252,  254 

. . .  260 

.  260 

.  262 

. 264, 265-267 

. : .  267 

.  268,269 

.  269,414 

. .  270 


.252, 254,262, 264 

.  252 

.  254,255 

.  254,255 

.  254 

.  262 

.254, 264, 269, 414 

.  252 

. 252, 258, 264 

.  252,258 

.  252 

.  252 

. 251, 252, 264 

.  265 


....  247,248 
....  235,248 
....  248-251 
....  251,259 
255 

251 

252 

....  252,261 
261 

....  248,257 
257 

....  257,261 
....  257,261 
.257, 259, 260 


INDEX. 


519 


NETHERLANDS— Continued. 

Education— 
teachers — 

ratio  of,  to  pupils . 

salaries,  allowances,  etc . 

examinations . 

pensions . 

women  as  . . 

instrumentalities  for  promoting — 
societies — 

School  League . 

Popular  Instruction . 

Association  for  Christian  Instruction 

Society  for  the  Public  Good . 

examinations  of  pupils . 

pupils’  study-excursions . 

difficulties — 

religion . . 

avoidance  of  dogmatic  teaching . 

legal  provision  for . 

sectarian  claims . 

Protestants . 

Catholics  . 

Jews . . 

political . 

absentees . 

ignorance  of  parents . 

poverty  of  parents . 

want  of  competent  teachers . 

limitation  of  children’s  labor . 

boarding-school  system  avoided . 

provision  for  educating  poor  children . 

provision  for  children  of  laboring  classes  .... 

at  work  during  day. . . . 

in  cities  . 

of  well-to-do  classes  — 

working  fanners . 

scientific  agriculturists  . 

engineers . 

navigators . 

certificates,  diplomas,  academic  degrees — 

prerequisite  for  instructors . 

to  navigators  . . 

statistics — 

illiteracy . 

primary  schools — 

number  of . 

attendance  at . . . 

teachers  in . 

religious  character . 

evening  schools . 

adult  schools . 

normal  schools . 

secondary  schools . 

attendance  at . 

provinces,  schools  in . 

ages  of  pupils . 

Textile  Fabkics . 

cotton . 

manufacture . 

linen . 

woolen . 

blankets . 

operatives,  provision  for  the  welfare  of . 

wages . 

WOOD-CABYING . 


Page. 


.  258 

258,  259,  264,  265,  269,  270 

.  258 

.  258 

. 257,  260,  261,  267 


.  238,251 

.  251 

.  254,255 

.  255,261 

. 265-267 

.  269 

236  note,  248-251,  254,  255 
248 

.  248 

.  . .  249 

. 249-251,  254 

.  250,254 

. 250,254 

. . .  251 

.  255 

.  255 

. 255 

.  259 

.  255 

.  259 

.  254 

.  262,263 

.  262 

.  264 

.  264 

.  268 

. .  268 

.  269 

.  270 


.  258 

.  270 

. .  247 

.  253 

. .  256,  257 

. .  258 

. .  254 

. .  257 

. .  257 

.  261 

_ 262,  263,  264 

_ 262,  263,  270 

.253,  254,  255,  258 

. 263,  264,  267 

. .  455,456 

.  455 

.  455 

.  455 

.  455,456 

.  455,456 

.  455 

456 

.  427 


520 


INDEX 


Pago. 


Neubers,  L.  (Germany),  painting  by .  86 

Neuchatel  ( see  Switzerland:  cantons). 

NeucMtel,  city  of  (Switzerland) — 

school  of  watch- making .  414 

Neumann,  F.  (Austria),  architectural  designs  by . . .  159 

Nevada  ( see  United  States). 


New  Brunswick  (see  Great  Britain:  colonies:  Canada). 

New  Caledonia  (see  France:  colonies). 

New  Hampshire  (see  United  States). 

New  Haven,  Conn. — 

Sheffield  Scientific  School . . . .  464 

New  Jersey  (see  United  States). 

New  Mexico  (see  United  States). 

New  South  "Wales  (see  Great  Britain:  colonies:  Australia). 

Now  York  Exhibition  (see  International  Exhibitions). 

New  York  (see  United  States). 

New  York,  city  of,  N.  Y. — 


Cooper  Institute . . . .  340, 464 

art  collections .  6 

Lenox  Library . 77 

Bartholdi’s  colossal  figure  of  Liberty  for  the  harbor  of .  127 

Nicolle,  E.  F.  (France),  engravings  by .  160 

Nielsen,  A.  (Norway),  paintings  by  .  .  104 

Nielsen,  A.  A.  (Denmark),  exhibit  of  art  education .  273 

Nieuport  (Belgium)  — 

School  of  Navigation  . . .  246 

Nihilism  in  Russia  the  result  of  political  ignoranco .  377 

Nikiforos,  L.  (Greece),  painting  by  .  108 

Ninhove  (Belgium) — 

linen  manufacture  at .  454 

wages  of  operatives .  454 

Ningpo  (China) — 

wood-carving  at  . 425 

Nittis  ( see  DeNittis). 

‘•Nocturnes”  in  Art .  58 

Noel,  T.  P.  (France),  statues  by .  126, 128 

Noiseil  (France) — 

Menier’s  “  workingmen’s  city  ”  at .  201 

Nollekens,  Joseph  (England),  style  of,  in  art .  139 

Noquet,  L.  (France),  architectural  designs  by . . .  157 

Normal  schools  ( see  Education). 

Normann,  A.  (Norway), paintings  by . 104 

North  Carolina  (see  United  States). 

North  Holland  (see  Netherlands:  provinces). 

Norton,  John  Treadwell,  Honorary  Commissioner  to  the  Exposition — 

Report  on  Wood-carving . 417-427 

NORWAY — 

Art,  character  of .  104 

paintings  exhibited  by .  104-106 

Fa9ade  at  the  Exposition .  153 

cotton  manufactures .  457 

Education  . . .  1 . . .  271, 272 

traveling  schools .  271 

support  of . 272 

promoted  by  Lutheran  Church . 271 

compulsory  .  235,  271 

FolJceshoisJcoler  (people’s  high  schools) .  273 

(VOOD-CARVING,  exhibit  of .  423,424 

imitated  in  Russia .  424, 426 

in  pine . 427 

Nossi-Be  (Comorra  Islands)  (see  France:  colonies). 

Nottingham  (England) 

art  collections  at . 164 

Nouy  (see  Lecompte-du-Nouy). 

Nova  Scotia  (see  Great  Britain:  colonies:  Canada) 


INDEX. 


521 

Page. 


Nykarloby  (Finland) — 

Swedish  men’s  normal  school . 

Nymegen  (Netherlands) — 

normal  school  for  women  at . . 

Oeder,  G.  (Germany),  painting  by . 

Ohio  (sec  United  States). 

Oil  paintings  ( see  Art:  paintings). 

Oliva,  A.  J.  (France),  bust  by . 

Olonetz  (see  Itussia:  provinces). 

Ontario,  a  province  of  Canada  (see  Great  Britain:  colonies:  Canada). 
Operatives  (see  Education;  also.  Wood-carving) — 

classification  of  trades . -. . . 

employers’  provision  for  the  welfare  of 

Menier’s  “workingmen’s  city,”  Noiseil,  Franco . . 

Abeles’s  cotton  manufactory,  Vienna,  Austria  . 

Girard’s  linen  manufactory,  Girardowo,  Itussia . 

enforced  by  law,  in  Itussia .  - 

Spinning  and  Weaving  Mill  of  nilversuiu,  Amsterdam,  Netherlands 

Hainiscli's  cotton  manufactory,  Vienna,  Austria . 

training  of  (see  Education), 
day’s  labor,  amount  performed — 

Itussia . 

Switzerland . 

Great  Britain . 

United  States . 

length  of — 

Switzerland . 

Franco . 

Great  Britain . 

Belgium . 

Sweden . 

legislation  to  protect — 

Itussia . . . 

thwarted  in  Belgium . 

children  as — 

Belgium . . 

Portugal . 

legislative  provision  for  the  education  of— 

in  France . 

Netherlands . 

Austria-Hungary . 

wages  of— 

in  factories  of  woolen,  cotton,  silk,  etc. — 

Itussia . 

Switzerland . 

Belgium .  . 

Portugal . . 

Netherlands . 

Sweden  .  . 

wood -carving . 

Italy . 

England . 

Oran,  a  department  of  Algeria  (see  France:  colonies:  Algeria). 

Oran,  city  of  (Algeria) — 

College  of  (now  Lycee  of) . . 

school  of  Sahut . . . 

Notre  Dame . 

for  Arab  girls . 

Oregon  (see  United  States). 

Orlovski,  W.  D.  (Itussia),  paintings  by . . 

Ornament,  workers  in  (see  Education:  apprentice  schools). 

Orphan  asylums  (see  Education). 

Orpheonic  societies  (see  France:  education). 


277 

260 


128 


197 

201,  202 
437 
441 
443 
455 
437 


440,  443,  462 
.444, 445, 462 
.443,445, 447 
443 

445 

447 

. . . .  ■  448 

....  453,454 
457 

443 

453 

454 

455 


191, 192,  234 
257 
294 


443 
444, 445 
453,  454 

455 

456 

457 
419 
419 
422 


320 
320 
'320 
317,  318 

89 


522 


INDEX 


Page. 

Osaka  (Japan) — 

normal  school .  325;  326 

school  of  the  English  language .  325 

.  public  library . .  328 

Ottawa  (Canada) — 

normal  school  .  335 

Oudine,  E.  A.  (Fiance),  medals  and  coins  by .  162 

Ouless,  W.  W.  (England),  paintings  by .  .  61 

Overbeck,  influence  on  German  art . . .  81 

Overyssel  (see  Netherlands:  provinces). 

Oxford  (England) — 

University  of  study  of  natural  sciences . . .  351,  361 

Oxford  Manufacturing  Company  (Oxford,  Nova  Scotia),  woolen  fabrics . . .  437 

Packer,  Asa,  promoter  of  education  in  the  United  States  . . . . .  381 

Paczka,  E.  (Hungary),  paintings  by .  79 

Padua  (Italy) — 

University  of .  359 

Pagliano,  E.  (Italy),  painting  by .  74 

Paintings  (sec  Art). 

Palestina  (Italy) — 

archaeological  explorations  at .  16$ 

Palmer,  S.  (England),  engravings  by . . .  160 

Pannemaker,  S.  (Belgium),  engravings  by .  161 

Pantazis,  Pericles  (Greece),  paintings  by .  108 

Papal  Government,  art  exhibit  of,  at  London  Exhibition,  1862 .  5 

Papini,  J.  J.  (Italy),  statue  by .  135 

Paris  Exhibition  (see  International  Exhibitions). 

Paris  (France) — 

Palace  of  the  Trocad6ro  . . . 148, 150 

designs  for  public  buildings .  157 

College  Kollin,  designs  for  the  buildings  of .  157 

old  Hotel  de  Ville,  engraving  of  . 160 

Luxemburg  Palace,  art  collections .  165 

Hotel  Drouot,  art  sales  at .  165 

Sainte  Chapelle .  217' 

educational  institutions  of . 186 

illegitimacy  in .  187 

children  of  school  age . 187, 189, 191 

salles  d'asile,  number  of,  and  attendance  at .  189 

gratuitous  schools . . 190, 199, 203 

attendance . 190,191 

drawing  taught  in  the  schools . 192 

National  Institute  for  the  Blind . 193 

Institute  for  Deaf-mutes .  . _ .  193 

siege  of,  1870-71  .  199 

workshop  school  of  La  Villette . . . 194-196, 408-412 

Hue  Toumefort .  . 194, 196-199,  408, 412 

evening  schools . . .  199, 200 

free  schools .  202 

public  schools . .  202 

normal  schools . 203-205 

of  the  Boulevard  des  Batignolles .  204 

of  Cluny . 212-215 

College  Chaptal .  206-210 

IS  cole  Turgot .  206-210 

Colbert . 207,209 

Lavoisier . 207,210 

J.B.Say  . . . . . .  207,209 

Arago .  207 

teachers’  salaries . 210 

lycees .  - . .. . . .  212 

Louis  le  Grand .  212 

Fontanes .  212 

Saint  Louis . 212 


INDEX.  523 

Page. 

Paris  (France)  —Continued. 
lycees — 

Henri  I Y .  212 

Yanves .  212 

ficole  Alsacienne .  212 

Monge .  212 

Sainte  Barbe  des  Champs,  Colldge  of .  .  213 

Royal  Priory  of  St.  Martin  des  Champs . .  216 

Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Mbtiers .  . 216, 359, 404 

commercial  school,  Blanqui’s .  220 

Parc  Monceau .  220 

Chamber  of  Commerce,  promotes  education .  220 

Palais  Bourbon,  United  States  educational  exhibit  at .  .  230 

study  of  natural  sciences  at .  351 

Collbge  de  France,  study  of  political  science  at .  356,  359 

Sorbonne,  study  of  political  science  at .  356 

Independent  School  of  Political  Sciences .  356-359 

cotton  manufacture  at . 446 

silk  manufacture  at . . .  •  451 

Municipality  of — 

Pavilion  at  the  Exposition .  151 

exhibition  of  architectural  designs,  etc .  156, 157 

industrial  schools .  408-412 

art  prizes  given  by .  165, 166 

education  patronized  by .  200 

scholarships  endowed .  208 

vacation  excursions  provided . 209 

Parma  (Italy) — 

art  education  at . .  167 

Parrot  (France),  paintings  by . 25 

Parvd,  Dr.  Steyn,  Inspector  of  Secondary  Instruction,  Netherlands,  reports  of,  quoted.  .252, 254, 261  note 

Pasdeloup,  portrait  of,  by  C.  Durin . . . . . .  31 

Pasini,  A.  (Italy),  paintings  by . . .  . .  .  72 

Passini,  L.  (Austria),  aquarelles  by .  80 

Passy,  H.  (France),  political  economist,  legislator .  356 

Pastels  ( see  Art). 

Pata,  C.  (Switzerland),  painting  by . 98 

Patent  Yelvet  Company  (Manchester,  England),  velvets  and  cotton  fabrics .  432 

Paterson,  N.  J. — 

linen-thread  manufacture . 433 

Paton  Manufacturing  Company  (Sherbrooke,  Quebec,  Canada),  woolen  fabrics .  436 

Patras  ( see  Greece :  provinces). 

Pauperism,  need  of  intelligent  legislation  concerning . 363, 364,  365 

Pausinger  ( see  De  Pausinger). 

Pavia  (Italy) — 

art  education  at . 167 

Paysandu  ( see  Uruguay:  provinces). 

Peabody,  George,  promoter  of  education  in  the  United  States .  381 

Pearson,  J.  D.  (England),  architectural  designs  by .  158 

Pecher,  J.  (Belgium),  sculpture  by .  .  147 

Pedagogy  (see,  also,  Education :  normal  schools) .  203, 204 

Peduzzi,  R.  (Italy),  statues  by  ..  . . .  .  135 

P61igot,  Professor,  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Mdtiers,  Paris .  217 

Pelouse,  L.  G.  (France),  paintings  by .  35 

Pennsylvania  ( see  United  States). 

.  P&roff,  B.  G.  (Russia),  paintings  by .  90 

PERSIA— 

Fagade  at  the  Exposition . .  155 

Perugia  (Italy) — 

art  education  at .  168 

Peter  the  Great,  of  Russia,  statue  of,  by  Antokolski .  142 

Peters,  Dr.,  director  of  workshops,  Technological  Institute,  St.  Petersburg,  Russia .  397,  398 

Peterson,  E.  (Norway),  painting  by .  106 

Petitjean  (France),  political  economist . . . . .  356 

Philadelphia  (Centennial)  Exhibition  (see  International  Exhibitions). 


524 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Philbricic,  John  D.,  Superintendent  of  Education,  United  States  section — 

management  of  educational  exhibit . . . . 4  note,  337 

contributions  to  French  educational  collections .  230 

reports  by,  on  public  schools  of  Boston,  Mass .  341 

Philippeville  (Algeria) — 

College  of . . .  320 

communal  school,  exhibit  "by . .  315 

Phillip,  John  (England),  pictures  by .  60 

Phocis  (see  Greece:  departments). 

Photographs  taking  the  place  of  engravings . . . .  159 

Phthiotis  ( see  Greece:  departments). 

Pierantoni  (Italy),  political  economist .  3C0 

Piloty  ( see  Yon  Piloty). 

Pilz,  O.  (Germany),  painting  by .  84 

Pirn  Brothers  A  Co.  (Dublin,  Ireland),  silk  fabrics .  436 

Pimental  &  Queiros  (Portugal),  silks .  455 

Pinacothek,  at  Munich  .  .  9 

Pinel,  the  philanthropist,  painting  of,  by  Robert-Floury .  28 

Pinwell,  G.  J.  (England),  aquarelles  by . . .  41 

Piques  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Pisa  (Italy) — 

art  education  at .  168 

University  of . A .  359 

Plasencia,  C.  (Spain),  painting  by .  70 

Platonoif,  mechanical  engineer,  Imperial  Technical  School,  Moscow,  [Russia .  390 

Plumbe,  It.  (England),  architectural  designs  by . . .  158 

Plush  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Poetry,  German .  87 

Poggenbeck,  G.  J.  P.  (Netherlands),  painting  by .  101 

Poictiers  (France) — 

instruction  in  political  science  at . . .  356 

Polish  language  used  in  Austrian  schools .  299 

Political  economy,  study  of  (see,  also,  Education) . . .  368 

Political  science,  study  of . 349-381 

defined  .  351 

[Indexed  in  detail  under  the  heading  of  Education,  under  the  folloiving  titles : 

Austria-Hungary,  Germany,  Italy, 

Franco,  Great  Britain,  United  States.] 

Politics,  doctrinaires  in .  .  361,377 

demagogues  in .  367 

agitators  in  . 376 

avoided  by  educated  men  in  the  United  States .  379, 380 

Poma  (Italy),  painting  by .  76 

Pompeii  (Italy) — 

explorations  at .  .  168 

Ponemah  Mills  (Providence,  It.  I.),  cotton  fabrics .  458 

Ponscarme,  F.  J.  H.  (France),  medals  and  coins  by .  162 

Porter,  B.  C.  (Boston,  Mass.),  portrait  by .  116 

Porter  (II.  G.)  &  Co.  (St.  Kilda,  Shetland  Islands,  Scotland),  Highland  woolen  cloths .  435 

Portraits  (see  Art). 

PORTUGAL  (see,  also,  Lisbon) — 

Art  exhibit . 108 

Fa9ade  at  the  Exposition .  .  155 

Education  exhibit .  314 

Textile  Fabrics . 455 

cotton .  455 

linen . . . - .  455 

woolen . 455 

silk .  455 

operatives,  wages  of .  455 

children  as .  455 

“Poucif”  in  Art .  146 

Poynter,  E.  J.  (England),  paintings  by .  42,  52 

Pradilla  (Spain),  painting  by . . . . .  70,  71 

Preston,  Smith,  &  Co.  (England),  lawns,  linens .  432, 433 


INDEX. 


525 


Page. 

Priestman  ( John)  &  Co.  (Bradford,  England),  -worsted  fabrics . . .  433 

Prim,  General,  portrait  of,  by  Ilegnault .  17 

Princo  Edward  Island  (see  Great  Britain:  colonics:  Canada). 

Prinscp,  V.  (England),  paintings  by .  56 

Printing,  early  invention  of,  in  Japan .  322 

Printing  of  cottons,  etc.  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Prisons  (see  Crime). 

Professional  instruction  (see  Education). 

Protective  legislation- 

in  textile  manufactures . . . . . .  436 

Australia:  New  South  "Wales .  436 

Victoria .  436 

Austria .  440 

Canada . 437 

France . . .  447,448 

United  States .  437, 463 

Protestants  in  Franco,  special  school  instruction  for .  . .  .  192 

Proudhon,  Pierre  Joseph  (France),  socialist  writer . 376 

“Prout,  Father”  (see  Mahony). 

Pruszinski  (Russia),  statuary  by . . . . .  .  144 

Quartley,  Arthur  (New  York),  painting  by . . .  114, 115 

Quebec  (see  Great  Britain :  colonies:  Canada). 

Queensland  (see  Great  Britain  :  colonies:  Australia). 

Quesnaj,  Frangois  (France),  political  economist . 378 

Quixote,  Don,  pictures  of . 68 

Raffaelle,  influence  of,  on  art  . . . . .  46 

Rajon,  P.  A.  (France),  engravings  by . 1 . . . .  159 

Rallis,  T.  A.  (Greece),  paintings  by . .  108 

Ratazzi,  Brbano  (Italy),  statesman . 360 

Ravel,  E.  (Switzerland),  painting  by .  . .  98 

Ravenna  (Italy) — 

art  education  at . .  168 

Read,  S.  (England),  aquarelle  by . . .  41 

“Realistic  school”  ( see  Art). 

Redgrave,  Gilbert  R.  (England),  designer  of  building  at  the  Exposition . . . .  153 

Redlich,  H.  (Russia) ,  engravings  by . 161 

medal  of  honor  awarded  to . . . 161, 176 

Regenhart  &  Raymann  (Freiwaldau,  Austria),  linen  fabrics . . .  438 

Reggio  Emilia  (Italy) — 

art  education  at . 167 

R6gnault,  Ilenri  (France),  paintings  by . . .  17, 18 

death  of .  17 

aquarelles  by . . . . . . .  .  37 

Religious  difficulty  (see  Education). 

Rembrandt,  engravings  after . 160 

Renard,  E.  (France),  portrait  by .  32 

Rennes  (France) — 

instruction  in  political  science  at . .  356 

Reuleaux,  Professor  Francis  (Berlin,  Germany),  his  book,  the  “  Constructeur ,”  referred  to _  398 

Reunion  (sec  France:  colonies). 

Rheims  (France) — 

cotton  manufacture  at . . . . . .  446, 447 

Rhode  Island  (see  United  States). 

Ribarz,  R.  (Austria),  painting  by  . . . . . . .  80 

Ribbons  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Ribera  (Spain),  paintings  by . . . . . . . . .  67 

Ricardo,  David  (England),  political  economist .  378 

Richard,  M.  F.  (France),  bust  by . . .  128 

Richards,  W.  T.  (Newport,  R.  I.),  paintings  by . . . . . . .  114 

aquarelles  by . 116 

Richardson  (England),  paintings  by . . . . . . .  .  57 

Richet on,  L.  (England),  engravings  by  . . . . . . . . .  160 

Richmond,  W.  B.  (England),  painting  by .  61 

Richter,  G.  (Germany),  portrait  by  . . . .  85 


526 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Rico  (Spain),  paintings  by . . . . . . . .  66,  67 

Rieter,  John  &  Jacob  (Winterthur,  Switzerland),  cotton  fabrics .  444 

Riggi  (Italy),  statue  by .  .  136 

Riguer  (Russia busts  by .  144 

Rioja  ( see  Argentine  Republic:  provinces). 

Ritter  (see  De  Ritter). 

Riviere,  Briton  (England),  paintings  by .  59 

engravings  of .  160 

Robbins,  H.  W.  (New  York),  aquarelle  by . . . . . . . .  116 

Robert-Eleury  (France),  paintings  by .  28, 32 

portrait  of,  by  Bonnat .  30 

Robert,  L.  P.  (Switzerland),  paintings  by .  97,98 

Robie,  J.  (Belgium),  painting  by . . . . .  96 

Roelofs,  W.  (Netherlands),  paintings  by . . .  101 

Roger,  N.  A.  (France),  architectural  designs  by .  157 

Rogers,  John  (New  York),  statuettes  by .  148 

Rogers,  Thorold  (England),  political  economist .  360 

Rome  (Italy) — 

artists  at,  favored  by  the  Papal  Government .  5 

French  art  students  at . .  157, 165 

Baths  of  Titus,  restorations  of .  157 

Palestra  Palatina,  restorations  of .  157 

Temple  of  the  Sun,  restorations  of . .  157 

Forum  of  Augustus,  restorations  of .  .  157 

Trajan,  restorations  of . . .  .  157 

Villa  Madama,  restorations  of . . . . .  157 

Arch  of  Titus,  engraving  of . . .  161 

German  art  societies  at . . .  167 

explorations  at . , .  168 

University  of,  study  of  political  science  at .  359 

silk  manufacture  at . .  446 

Rosales  (Spain),  painting  by . . . .  70 

Roscher,  Wilhelm  (Germany),  political  economist . 361,  370,  379 

Rosenstand,  Y.  (Denmark),  painting  by .  103 

Ross,  A.  (France),  statue  by .  123 

Rossel  y  Torres,  I.  (Spain),  engravings  by . .  161 

Rossi  (Italy),  political  economist .  .  360 

Rossi  Scotti,  Count  (Italy),  painting  by . . .  75 

Rota,  A.  (Italy),  statute  by . . . . .  136 

Rothschild,  Baroness  (France),  aquarelles  by . . . .  37 

Rotta,  Signora  A.  (Italy),  aquarelle  by . .  76 

Rotterdam  (Netherlands) — 

normal  courses  for  women  at . . .  261 

Roubaix  (France) — 

cotton  manufacture  at . . 446, 447,  464 

Roubiliac,  L.  F.  (England),  style  of,  in  art .  139 

Rouen  (France) — 

commercial  school  at .  213,  220 

cotton  manufacture .  446 

school  of  weaving .  462 

Rouillard  (France),  statuary  by .  128 

Rousseau  (France),  landscapes  by,  at  Paris  Exposition,  1867 .  .  16 

Royal  Academy  (the  British),  portrait-painting  of,  by  C.  W.  Cope .  59 

Rozi6re,  Gaston  (France),  political  economist .  356 

Rubens,  Peter  Paul,  as  ambassador . .  110 

Rudisuhli,  J.  L.  (Switzerland),  paintings  by . . .  98 

Rue  Tournefort,  workshop  school  of  the  (Paris)  ( see  France:  education). 

Runeberg  (Russia),  statuary  by . 143 

Ruskin,  John,  art  theories  of .  47 

RUSSIA  (see,  also,  Girardowo,  Moscow,  St.  Petersburg,  Tcherepovetz) — 

A  kt,  characteristics  of . 87,89 

paintings  exhibited .  -87-94 

landscapes . 87 

genre .  89 

portraits . 90 

historical . 90 


INDEX, 


527 


RUSSIA — Continued. 

Art,  sculpture  exhibited . . . * . 

medals . . 

engravings .  . 

Fa§ade  at  the  Exposition . 

Education  (see,  also,  Finland :  education,  below) . 

tendency  in . 

condition  of  popular . 

exhibit . . 

governmental  provision  for . 

primary . . . 

elementary  schools . 

model  schools . 

local  schools . 

district  schools . 

urban  schools . . . 

normal  schools  . 

pedagogic  seminaries . - . 

courses . - 

Jewish  schools . 

Mohammedan  schools . 

Lutheran  schools . . 

secondary . . 

pro-gymnasiums  . . . 

gymnasiums  . .  . 

industrial  (manual-training  schools) .  . 

Imperial  Technical  School,  Moscow  .  . 

Technological  Institute,  St.  Petersburg . 

Alexander  Technical  School,  Tcherepovetz . . 

School  of  Trades  of  the  Czarewitch  Nicholas,  St.  Petersburg 

weaving  schools .  . . 

control  of — 

Ministry  of  Public  Instruction . . 

1.  Department  of  Public  Instruction . 

2.  Ministerial  Council  . . 

3.  Scientific  Committee .  . . 

4.  Archaeological  Commission . 

5.  Publication  of  the  Ministerial  Journal . 

6.  Archives  . . 

curators  of  school  divisions . . 

inspectors .  ... _ 

directors . . . . . 

district  marshals .  ... 

government  marshals .  ... 

district  school  boards . 

government  school  board . 

archbishop . . . 

Ministry  of  the  Interior . 

War . . 

school  laws . 

of  1871.  . . . . 


Page. 

.  142-145 

. .  144 

. .  161 

.  154 

. .  278-286 

.  278,282 

. 235,  278,  282 

185,  385,  394-396,  398,  401,  404 

. 278,  279 

. .  280-284 

. . .  281 

. .  281,282 

.  281 

.  283 

.  283 

.  283 

.  283,284 

.  284 

.  282 

.  282 

. .  282 

. 284-286 

. 284,285 

.  284 

.  385-401 

. .  386-396 

. 386,  396-398 

. . 386,  398,  39!) 

. 386,400,401 

.  462 

. 278,  279,  281,  282 

.  278,  279 

.  278,279 

- .  . .  278,  279 

.  279 

.  279 

.  279 

.  279 

. 279,280 

.  279,280 

.  280 

.  280 

.  280,281 

.  280 

.  280 

.  282 

.  285 

.  279 

.  284 


of  1872 . 

of  1875 . 

school  boohs . 

buildings . 

libraries . 

cabinets,  museums,  etc 

workshops . 

schools — 

support  by  state  aid . 

establishment  of . 

stai  istics — 

illiteracy . . 

primary  schools . 

elementary  schools . 


.  283 

.  281 

.  280 

.  281 

.  387 

. 387,393 

387,  389,  390,  392,  393,  394,  396,  397,  399,  400 

. 280,  281,  398 

.  281 

.  278 

.  282 

. . .  282 


528 


INDEX 


RUSSIA -Continued. 

Education  statistics- 

district  schools  — . . . 

teachers’  seminaries  .  . . 

study,  courses  of,  how  designated . 

in  elementary  scnools . 

model  schools . 

district  schools . 

normal  schools . . . 

teachers’  seminaries . . . 

gymnasiums . 

industrial  schools . . . 

studies— 

agriculture . . . 

arithmetic . . 

bookkeeping . 

botany .  . 

chemistry . 

didactics . .  . 

drawing . 

geography . . 

geometry . 

gymnastics  . . . 

history . 

horticulture . 

languages — 

ancient . . 

Latin . . . 

Greek . .  . 

modern — 

French . . . 

German . . . . 

Russian . .. . . 

Slavonian . 

logic . 

mathematics . 

mechanics  . .  . . 

metallurgy . 

mineralogy . . . . 

music . . . 

natural  philosophy . . . 

navigation .  . . 

pedagogy . . . . . 

religion . . . . . 

statistics . . . . . 

writing . . . . 

zoology . . 

teachers,  appointment  of . 

salaries . 

lack  of . . 

trained  in  normal  schools . 

pedagogic  seminaries . . 

for  women . 

men . 

pedagogical  courses  . 

instrumentalities  in  promoting — 

pedagogical  museum  at  St.  Petersburg . 

readings  for  the  people . 

asylum  for  poor  children  destined  to  become  artisans 
difficulties — 

religious  differences . 

scattered  population . 

poverty . . 

lack  of  teachers . . . . . 


Page. 


............  283 

.  284 

. 279,  280,  281 

.  281 

. . .  281 

.  283 

.  283 

.  283 

.  284 

.  386,389-401 

.  283 

281, 283, 391, 399, 400 
.  .  386 


.  386 

.  283 

281,  283,  386,  391,  399,  400 

. . 281,  283,  284,  400 

. 283,  386,  399,  400 

. 281,283,  284,  400 

. 281,  2S3,  284,  399,400 

. 281,  283 

. .  284 

. 284 

. .  284 

.  284,386 

.  284,386 

. 281,  283,  284,  399, 400 

.  283 

.  284 

.  284,386 

. 3SG,  399,  400 

.  386 

.  386 

. 281,'  283,  284,  400 

. 281,  283,  284,  386,  399 

.  399 

.  283,284 

.281,283, 284, 386,  399, 400 

.  386 

. . 281,284,399,400 

.  386 

.  280 

.  281 

. .  282,283 

.  283 

.  282,284 

. 284 

.  284 

.  284 


285 

285 

400 

282 
282 
282 
282,  283 


INDEX. 


529 


RUSSIA  —Continued. 

Education:  instruction  gratuitous . 

obligatory . 

tuition  fees . 

lodgings  for  pupils . 

government  aid  to  normal-school  pupils  . 

profits  of  pupils’  labor  in  industrial  schools . 

scholarships . . 

school  provision  for  the  provinces  (“  governments  ”) — 

Courland . 

Esthonia . 

Livonia  . 

Mohilef . 

Olonetz . 

Siberia . 

Vitebsk . . 

Vologda . 

Wikia . 

Nihilism  the  result  ot  political  ignorance . 

Textile  Fabrics . 

cotton . 

manufacture . . 

prints . 

dyes . . 

linen,  etc . 

flax  manufacture . 

growth  of . 

•worsted . 

imitation  of  English  goods . 

French  goods . 

designs . 

manufacture . 

woolen . 

camel’s  hair . 

mohair . . . 

manufacture . 

silk . 

designs . . . . 

decorative  weaving . 

manufacture . 

manufacture  by  power . 

hand . 

weaving  schools .  . . . . 

operatives,  provision  for  the  welfare  of . . . 

enforced  by  law . 

day’s  labor . 

wages . 

exports,  wool  to  Austria . 

imports,  linen  from  Finland . 

Wood-carving,  exhibit  of . 

resembling  that  of  Norway . 

PROVINCES— 

COURLAND— 

public  education . 

ESTHONIA— 


Page. 

.  235,281 

.  235 

281, 284,  387,  396,  399, 40o 

.  282 

.  283 

. 387,  390,  400 

.  397,399 

.  282 

.  282 

.  282 

.  282 

.  282 

. .  282 

.  282 

.  282 

.  282 

. . . .  377 

.  440-444 

. .  440,  441 

.  440 

.  441 

.  441 

.  441 

.  441,442 

.  441 

.  442 

.  434,442 

.  442 

.  442 

. .  442 

.  442 

.  442 

.  442 

.  442,443 

.  443 

.  443 

.  443 

.  443 

.  440 

.  440 

.  462 

.  441 

.  443 

. 440, 443, 462 

. .  443 

.  439 

.  444 

.  426 

.  426 


282 


public  education . 

FINLAND,  GRAND  DUCHY  OF 
Nykarlcby). 

Swedish  characteristics  of . 

Education . 

primary . 

in  towns,  lower . 

higher . 

in  country . 

normal  schools . 


.  282 

(a  province  of  Russia)  (see,  also,  Ekeniis,  Jyvaskald, 


274 

....  274-278 
....  274-276 
274 
274 
274 

274, 275,277 


34  P  E 


530 


INDEX 


Page. 

RUSSIA — Continued. 

PROVINCES—  ^ 

FINLAND,' GRAND  DUCHY  OF— 

Education— 
primary — 

traveling  schools . . . . . . . . . 274, 275, 276,  278 

secondary . . . .  276,  277 

elementary,  lover . . .  276, 277 

higher . 276.2777 

lyce.es . 276,277 

industrial  schools  . 277 

special- 

polytechnic  . 277 

technical .  277 

navigation .  277 

military . 277 

agricultural .  277 

commercial . . .  277 

apprentice .  277 

blind . . .  276 

deaf-mutes . 276 

girls’  schools .  276,277 

in  the  Swedish  language . 274,  275,  277,  278 

Finnish  language .  .275, 277,  278 

Russian  language . 275 

instrumentalities  for  promoting — 

Lutheran  Church . 274,  275 

Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Popular  Education . 277,  278 

studies — 

arithmetic .  275 

drawing .  275 

geography . * . . .  275 

geometry  . . 275 

history. .  275 

languages . 275,  276 

mathematics . 275 

music .  275 

reading . 275 

religion . 275 

sewing . 276 

writing . 275 

support  of  schools — 

by  communes . 274 

government  aid . . . 274,  275 

private  resources . 275 

teachers,  traveling . (271),  274 

preparation  of . . .  274,  277 

salaries . 275 

women  as . . . 275 

school  law .  274 

compels  attendance  or  home  instruction . . . .  274, 275 

statistics — 

primary  schools  .  275 

secondary  schools . . . . : .  275,  277 

school  attendance .  275,  277 

special  schools . 275,  277 

traveling  schools .  276 

normal  schools  .  277 

Textile  Fabrics .  443,444 

cotton . 440,443 

manufacture . 444 

linen .  443, 444 

manufacture . . .  444 

woolen  manufacture . 444 


INDEX 


531 


Page. 

RUSSIA — Continued. 

PROVINCES — 

FINLAND,  GRAND  DUCHY  OF— 


Textile  Fabrics— 
exports— 

linens  to  Russia .  444 

Sweden .  444 

LIVONIA— 

public  education  . .  282 

MOHILEF— 

public  education .  282 

OLONETZ— 

public  education .  282 

SIBERIA— 

public  education . 282 

VITEBSK— 

public  education .  282 

VOLOGDA— 

public  education .  283 

WILNA— 

public  education .  282 

Rusten,  O.  (Norway),  painting  by  —  . . .  106 

Rutben  language  used  in  Austrian  schools .  299 


Sacks,  Julius  (Australia),  inventor  of  “Kalameit,”  jute  textile  fabric . . .  433 

Saint  Etienno  (France) — 

silk  manufacture  at .  451 

Saint  Gall  ( see  Switzerland  -  cantons). 

Saint  Genevieve,  Churcb  of,  in  Paris,  Robert Bleury’s  pictures  in .  29 

Saint  Imier  (Switzerland) — 

school  of  watch -making .  414 

Saint  Kilda  (Shetland  Islands,  Scotland) — 

manufacture  of  woolen  cloths .  435 

Saint  Louis,  Lycee  de  (see  France:  education,  secondary). 

Saint  Louis,  Mo. — 

public  schools . 339 

drawing  as  taught  in .  339 

Sainte  Marie-de-Madagascar  (see  France:  colonies). 

Saint  Martin  des  Champs  (Paris),  Royal  Priory  of  .  216 


Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers  at  (see  France:  education, 
secondary). 


Saint  Petersburg  (Russia) — 

Pedagogical  Museum .  285 

Technological  Institute . .  386,  396-398 

School  of  Trades  of  the  Czarewitch  Nicholas . 386, 400,  401 

Asylum  for  Poor  Children  destined  to  become  Artisans .  400 

Exhibition  of  Manufactures,  1870  .  393 

Saint  Pierre  (see  France:  colonies). 

Sala,  T.  E.  (Spain),  paintings  by . .  67 

Salerno  (Italy) — 

cotton  manufactured  at . 445 

Salicis,  promoter  of  popular  education  in  France .  196 

book  on  “ JEnseignement  Primaire  et  Apprentissage"  referred  to  and  quoted _ 176  note ,  230,  231 

Salles  d'asile  (see  Education). 

Salmon,  L.  A.  (France),  engravings  by .  159 

Salmson,  H.  F.  (Sweden),  painting  by . . .  108 

Salon  (French  annual  art  exhibition) .  166 

Salta  (see  Argentine  Republic :  provinces). 

Salto  (see  Uruguay:  provinces). 

Salvator  Rosa,  statue  by  . . . . . .  136 

Salvini,  S.  (Italy),  statute  by .  .  136 

Samain,  L.  (Belgium),  sculpture  by .  147 

‘ 1  Sand,  Georges,  ”  bust  of,  by  Millet . .  128 

San  Jos6  (see  Uruguay:  provinces). 

San  Juan  (see  Argentine  Republic:  provinces) 


532 


INDEX. 


Page. 

San  Luis  ( see  Argentine  Republic:  provinces). 

Santa  Cruz,  E.  (Spain),  paintings  by .  67 

Santa  F6  ( see  Argentine  Republic:  provinces). 

Santiago  (see  Argentine  Republic :  provinces;. 

Sant,  J.  (England),  painting  by . .  61 

Sapojnikoff,  A.  &  V.  (Moscow,  Russia),  decorative  silk  fabrics .  443 

Sargent,  J.  L.  (United  States),  portrait  by . . .  116 

Saunier  (France),  aquarelle  by .  .  37 

Savetkin,  mechanical  engineer,  Imperial  Technical  School,  Moscow,  Russia .  393 

Savitsky,  C.  A.  (Russia),  painting  by .  89 

Savonarola,  portrait  of,  by  Eiggi . .  136 

Say,  Jean  Baptiste  (France),  political  economist .  370 

Say,  Jean  Baptiste,  iScole  (see  France:  education,  superior  primary). 

Scandinavian  countries,  educational  condition  of . .  271 

(See,  also,  Denmark,  Finland,  Norway,  Sweden.) 

Scarborough  Brothers  (Halifax,  England),  worsted  fabrics . .  433,434 

Schaffer,  A.  (Austria),  painting  by . .  80 

Schaff hausen  (see  Switzerland:  cantons). 

Schanche,  H.  G.  (Norway),  paintings  by .  105 

Scheibler,  C.  (Lodz,  Russia),  cotton  fabrics  .  440 

Scherres,  C.  (Germany),  painting  by . . . .  86 

Scheurenberg  (Germany),  painting  by  .  85 

Schichkine,  J.  J.  (Russia),  paintings  by . .  89 

engravings  by  .  161 

Schliemann,  Heinrich,  archaeological  explorations  by .  167 

Schloessing,  Professor,  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers ,  Paris .  217 

Schmidgruber,  A.  (Austria),  statues  by  .  146 

Schmidt,  F.  (Austria),  architectural  designs  by . . . . .  158 

Schneider,  statue  of,  by  Chapu .  121 

Sclicenewerk,  A.  (France),  statues  by  .  123,124 

Schcenleber,  G.  (Germany),  painting  by . . .  86 

Scholarship  (see  Education). 

Scbbnn,  A.  (Austria),  painting  by .  79 

“Schools”  in  Art — 

disappearance  of  national .  9 

the  “academic” . 14 

“idealistic”  .  24 

“impressionist” . . . 68, 73,  99 

‘  med  iae  val  ” .  45, 46 

‘realistic” . 24,133 

‘sensual”  and  “brutal” .  23-27 

“Dusseldorf” .  82,106 

“Milan” .  .135 

“Tiaenger”  . . 122 

“Tuscan” .  122 

Schools  (see  Education). 

of  practice  (see  Education:  normal  schools). 

Schreiber,  C.  M.  (Vienna,  Austria),  silks,  velvets . 439 

Schuleverbond  (see  Netherlands:  education:  school  league). 

Sehwytz  (see  Switzerland:  cantons). 

Scotland,  Scotch  (see  Great  Britain). 

“Scribner’s  Magazine”  (New  York),  referred  to.  . 113  note 

engravings  in .  162 

Sculptors  (see  Education :  apprentice  schools). 

Sculpture  (see  Art). 

risk  in  transporting .  5, 7 

Secularizing  schools'(see  Education:  difficulties:  religion). 

Sedille,  Paul,  quoted . . v .  156 

Seg6,  A.  (France),  painting  by .  35 

Seine,  Department  of  the  (see  Paris). 

Seliverstoff,  N.  (Korsoun,  Russia),  fabrics  of  wool,  camel’s  hair,  mohair . . .  442 

Semeyer,  Dr.  Karl,  writings  on  Austrian  education .  286 

Senegal  (see  France:  colonies). 

Serges  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Servian  language  used  in  Austrian  schools .  299 


INDEX.  533 

Page. 

Setif  (Algeria) — 

College  of .  320 

Settembrini  (Italy),  political  economist .  360 

Sevres  (France) — 

national  manufactures  at .  165 

Sewing  tauglit  in  girls’  schools  in  France .  193 

Seychelles  (see  Great  Britain :  colonies). 

Shade,  W.  A.  (United  States),  paintings  by . 115 

Shaw,  Norman  (England),  designer  of  building  at  the  Exposition .  153 

architectural  designs  by . . .  158 

Sheraton  (England),  designer  of  wood-carvings . ' .  423 

Shipping  (see  Franco:  education:  commercial  school  at  Havre). 

Shirlaw,  Walter  (New  York),  painting  by .  112 

Shonbom,  L.  T.  (United  States),  portrait  by . . .  .  116 

Shoolbred  &  Co.  (London,  England),  carved  furniture . .  423 

SIAM— 

Fagade  at  the  Exposition .  155 

Siberia  (see  Russia:  provinces). 

Sicmiradski,  H.  H.  (Russia),  paintings  by .  90-98 

Siena  (Italy) — 

art  education  at .  168 

Silesia  (see  Austria-Hungary :  provinces). 

Silk  (see  Textile  Fabrics^. 

Simon,  J.  (Paris,  France),  carved  furniture .  421 

Simon,  Jules  (France),  promoter  popular  education .  239 

Simonds,  George  (England),  statue  by  . .  .  141 

S Lading,  O.  (Norway),  painting  by .  105 

Singing  (see  Education). 

Sipontum  (Italy) — 

archmological  explorations  at .  168 

Sismondi,  Jean  C.  L.  (Switzerland),  political  economist  . . . .  370 

Skanberg,  C.  E.  (Sweden),  painting  by . . . . .  108 

Slater,  Buckingham,  &  Co.  (London,  England),  silk  fabrics  .  436 

Slater,  John  F.  (Jewett  City,  Conn.),  cotton  fabrics .  45S 

Smith,  Adam  (Scotland),  his  “Wealth  of  Nations” . 369,370,378 

Smith,  Goldwin  (England),  educator . .  300, 361 

Smith,  Walter  (Boston,  Mass.),  exhibit  in  art  education . .  340 

Smith-Hald,  F.  (Norway),  painting  by .  . .  105 

Smithson,  James,  promoter  of  scientific  education  in  the  United  States .  381 

Social  Science  Association  of  the  United  States . . .  364 

Societe  par  Actions  de  Forssa  (Tamela,  Finland,  Russia),  cotton  fabrics . .  443 

Societe  pour  V Assistance  Paternelle  aux  Enfants  Employes  dans  V Industrie  de  VAmeublement  en 

General  (France) .  421, 422 

Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industries  (Sweden) .  272 

Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Popular  Education  (Finland) .  277 

Society  of  Domestic  Industry  (Denmark) . . .  273, 415 

Society  of  the  Sou  (popular  contribution  to  schools  in  France) .  295 

Sollebrunn  (Sweden) — 

professional  school  of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industries .  272 

Solothum  (see  Switzerland:  cantons). 

Sonnenleitner,  J.  (Austria),  engravings  by . 161 

Soriano  (see  Uruguay :  provinces). 

SOUTH  AMERICA  (see  Argentine  Republic,  Guatemala,  Salvador,  Uruguay,  Venezuela)— 

Fagade  representing  the  states  of,  at  the  Exposition  .  155 

South  Australia  (see  Great  Britain:  colonies:  Australia). 

South  Carolina  (see  United  States). 

South  Holland  (see  Netherlands:  provinces). 

SPAIN  (sec,  also,  Granada) — 

Art  of,  its  influence  on  other  countries . 10,  36,  37,  64 

characteristics  of .  64 

paintings  exhibited .  64-71 

technique  of . 65 

realistic .  67 

impressionist . .  6S 

landscapes .  69 

historical . 70 


534 


INDEX. 


SPAIN — C  ontinued . 

Art,  engravings  exhibited  .  . 

Eagade  at  the  Exposition . 

Education  exhibit . 

Textile  Eabrics . 

cotton .  . 

manufacture . . . 

imitation  of  English  designs . 

linen . . . 

woolen . . . 

silk.... . 

Wood-carving,  exhibit  of . 

“Spectator”  (journal,  London),  quoted . 

Spinners  (see  Operatives). 

Stacpoole,  E.  (England),  engravings  by . . . 

Stallaert,  J.  (Belgium),  paintings  by . 

Stanhope,  B.  Spencer  (England),  style  in  art . 

paintings  by . 

Stanley,  Lady  Augusta,  bust  of,  by  Miss  Grant . 

States  of  the  Church  ( see  Papal  Government). 

Statistics,  study  of  (see,  also,  Education) . . . 

Steam  Spinning  and  Weaving  Mill  of  Hilversum  (Amsterdam,  Netherlands),  cotton  fabrics  . . . 

provision  for  the  welfare  of  operatives. . .  .  . 

Stearns  (John  N.)  &  Co.  (New  York),  silks . . 

Stein,  Heinrich  E.  K.  (Germany),  statesman . 

Steinmann  (Bussia),  medals  by . . . 

Stephen,  Sir  James  (England),  educator . 

Stereotyping,  early  anticipation  of,  in  Japan... . 

Sterne,  Laurence,  illustrations  to  his  “Sentimental  Journey” . . . 

Stevens,  Alfred  (Belgium),  paintings  by . 

Stevens,  J.  (Belgium),  painting  by . 

Stieglitz,  Baron  (St.  Petersburg,  Bussia),  sail  cloth .  . . . 

Stigel  (Bussia),  statuary  by . . . . 

Stockholm  (Sweden) — 

Asylum  for  the  Blind . . . . 

silk- weaving . . . . . . 

Stone-working,  schools  for  instruction  in,  in  Austria . 

Storey,  G.  A.  (England),  painting  by . . 

Story,  William  W.,  Additional  Commissioner  to  the  Exposition — 

Beport  on  Eine  Arts,  by . 

Straits  Settlements  (see  Great  Britain:  colonies). 

Street,  G.  E.  (England),  architectural  designs  by . : . 

Stubley,  George  &  James  (Bartley,  England),  woolen  cloths  . 

Stiickelberg,  E.  (Switzerland),  painting  by  . . . 

Stuttgart  (Germany) — 

school  of  weaving . . 

“Style”  in  sculpture  defined  . . . 

Sussmann-Hellborn  (Germany),  statue  by . 

Swans-down  (see  Textile  Eabrics). 

SWEDEN  (see,  also ,.  Erodinge,  Stockholm,  Sollebrun,  Yennersborg.) — 

Art,  paintings  exhibited . 

Eagade  at  the  Exposition . . 

Education . .  . . . 

schools . . : . 

special  (for  the  blind,  deaf-mutes,  etc) . 

Folkeslioiskoler  (people’s  high  schools) . . 

instrumentalities  for  promoting . . . . 

Lutheran  Church . 

Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industries . . . 

instruction  gratuitous  and  obligatory . 

Textile  Eabrics . 

cotton . . . 

manufacture . . . 

linen ...;  — . 

flax . 

hemp . • . . . 


Page. 

161 

154 

314 

454 

454 

454 

454 

454 

454 

454 
425 

44  note 

160 

95 
46 
54 

142 

370 

455 
455 
458 
374 
144 
360 
323 
160 

96, 97 

96 
441 
144 

272 
457 
412, 413 
61 

1-179 

158 

434 

98 


462 

118 

145 


107, 108 
153 
272 
272 

272 

273 

271 

272 
235 

456, 457 
456 
456 
456 
456 
456 


INDEX  535 

Page. 

SWEDEN — Continued. 

Textile  Eabrics— 

woolen .  456,457 

silk .  457 

manufactured  by  band  .  450 

power .  456 

operatives,  day’s  labor .  457 

wages . 457 

imports — 

cotton  clotb .  456 

yarn .  458 

linen . .  444,456 

wool .  456, 457 

exports — 

wool  to  Norway . '. .  457 

Sweden .  457 

Wood-carving . 423, 424, 427 

SWITZERLAND  (see,  also,  B&le,  Eleurier,  Neuch&tel, 

-Berne,  Geneva,  Saint  Imier, 

Bienne,  Kussnaclit,  Winterthur, 

Chaux-de-Eonds,  Locle,  Zurich). 

Art,  paintings  exhibited .  97,  98 

genre . *. .  97 

landscapes .  98 

engravings  exhibited .  161 

Ea§ade  at  the  Exposition .  155 

Education .  308-314 

exhibit . 185,  308, 385, 413, 414 

primary . . . 310,  311,  314 

public  schools .  310 

private  schools .  310 

denominational  schools .  310 

military  supplementary  schools  . .  .  309,  310 

secondary . 311-314 

cantonal  schools . 311-314 

secondary  schools .  311,  312 

gymnasiums . 311 

real-schools .  311 

communal  colleges  .  312 

industrial  schools .  312 

watch-making . 413, 414 

girls’  schools . 312 

normal  schools .  312, 313 

workshops .  312 

finishing  courses  ( Vorbildungschule) .  208 

polytechnic  school .  309, 311 

universities . . . .  309,  311,  355 

weaving  schools . 462 

provisions  of  federal  constitution  (1874)  regulating .  309,  310 

cantonal  constitutions  regulating .  309,  313 

secular . . . . . . 236  note,  309 

obligatory . . 235,  309,  310,  311 

gratuitous .  235,309 

support  of  schools — 

by  aid  of  federal  government . . . . .  309, 312 

cantons  . 309 

communes .  312 

tuition  fees .  312 

control  of— 

by  federal  government .  309,  311 

cantons . 309,  311,  313 

police  authorities .  311 

influence  of  the  Reformed  Church .  309 

Roman  Catholic  Church .  310 

military  regulations . . . . . . .  309,  310 


536 


INDEX. 


Page. 

SWITZERLAND — Continued. 

Education— 

school  age . 310,  811,  312 

attendance .  310,  314 

in  rrOtestant  cantons .  510 

Catholic  cantons .  310 

penalties  foi  failure . 311 

enforced  by  the  police .  311 

books,  doctrinal,  excluded .  309 

atheistic,  excluded . SOD 

examinations — 

of  youths  entering  the  army .  309,810 

preliminary  to  entering  secondary  schools .  312 

of  teachers .  313 

certificates,  diplomas,  etc. — 

for  teachers .  313 

teachers — 

preparation  of .  312, 513 

certificates . . . 

normal  schools .  312,313 

training  schools  for  women . 312,  313 

insufficient  for  the  number  of  pupils .  313 

salaries .  313 

pensions .  313, 314 

courses  of  study — 

preliminary  to  military  service .  309, 310 

primary  schools .  . - . 310,  311 

communal  secondary  schools . 311,312 

cantonal  industrial  schools . 1 . .  312 

review  courses .  311 

studies  too  numerous .  311 

religious  instruction .  309 

for  girls . 310,312 

in  political  and  social  science .  355 

watch-making  schools . 414 

statistics — 

illiteracy .  310 

school  attendance . 310,  314,318 

by  cantons,  primary  schools .  314 

secondary  schools .  314 

Textile  Fabrics— 

cotton  . 444 

manufacture .  .  444, 445 

3ilk.1 .  445 

designs .  445 

operatives,  steadiness  and  frugality  of .  444 

day’s  work . 444,445,462 

wages .  444, 445 

weaving-schools .  462 

Wood-carving .  426 

CANTONS— 

ARGO  VIE— 

Education— 

normal  school  for  men . 313 

training  school  for  female  teachers .  313 

BlLE  (see,  also,  E&le,  city) — 

Education— 

state  of  popular . . . 310 

cantonal  schools .  311 

statistics,  primary  schools .  314 

secondary  schools .  314 

BERNE— 

Education— 

state  of  popular .  310 

cantonal  schools . . . — .  311 


INDEX. 


537 

Page. 


SWITZERLAND— Continued. 

CANTONS — 

BERNE — 

Education— 

normal  school  for  men . 

training  school  for  female  teachers . 

statistics,  primary  schools . 

secondary  schools . 

FRIBOURG — 

Education — 

cantonal  schools . 

normal  school  for  men . 

training  school  for  female  teachers 
GENEVA  (see,  also,  Geneva,  city)— 
Education— 

state  of  popular . 

cantonal  schools . 

normal  schools . . 

statistics,  primary  schools . 

secondary  schools . 

GRISONS— 

Education— 

cantonal  schools  . . 

normal  school . 

LUCERNE— 

Education— 

cantonal  schools . 

normal  school . 

statistics,  primary  schools . 

secondary  schools . . 

NEUCHATEL— 

Education— 

state  of  popular . 

cantonal  schools . . 

normal  school  for  men . 

training  school  for  female  teachors . 

statistics,  primary  schools . 

secondary  schools . 

ST.  GALL- 
Education— 

state  of  popular . 

cantonal  schools . 

normal  school . 

SCHAFFHAUSEN— 

Education— 

state  of  popular . 

cantonal  schools . 

SCUWYTZ — 

Education — 

cantonal  schools . 

normal  school  for  men . 

training  school  for  women  teachers 
SOLEUEE— 

Education— 

state  of  popular . 

enforcement  of  school  attendance  . . 

cantonal  schools . 

normal  school . 

TESSIN— 

Education— 

normal  school . 

TURGOVIE— 

Education— 

state  of  popular . 

cantonal  schools . 

normal  school . 


313 

313 

314 

314 

311 

313 

313 

310 

311 

313 

314 

314 

311 

313 

311 

313 

314 

314 

310 

311 

313 

313 

314 

314 

310 

311 

313 

310 

311 

311 

313 

313 

310 

311 

311 

313 

313 

310 

311 

313 


538 


INDEX 


SWITZERLAND— Continued. 

CANTONS— 

VALAIS— 

Education — 

normal  school . 

VAUD— 

Education— 

constitutional  provisions  insuring  .  - . 

state  of  popular . 

cantonal  schools . 

normal  schools . 

statistics,  primary  schools . . 

secondary  schools . . 

teachers’  salaries . 

ZUG— 

Education— 

training  school  for  female  teachers. 
ZURICH  (see,  also,  Zurich,  city) — 
Education— 

state  of  popular . 

cantonal  schools . 

normal  schools  for  men . . 

training  schools  for  women  teachers 

statistics,  primary  schools . . 

secondary  schools . 

“  Symphonies  ”  in  Art . 

Syra  ( see  Greece :  provinces). 


Page. 


313 


309 

310 
311, 312 

313 

314 
314 
313 


313 


310 

311 

313 
311 

314 
314 

58 


Tahacchi,  A.  (Italy),  statues  by . . . 

Tachau  (Austria) — 

industrial  school . 

Tacuarembd  (see  Uruguay:  provinces). 

“  Taenger  school  ”  in  Art . . . . 

Tagliano,  E.  (Italy),  engravings  by . . . 

Takkanen  (Russia),  statuarj7  by . 

Tanagra,  archseological  collections  from . 

Tant,  L.  &  H.  (Brussels,  Belgium),  linens . . . 

Tapes  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Tariff  (see  Protective  legislation) . 

Tartans  ( see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Tautenhayn,  J.  (Austria),  sculpture  by . 

Taxation,  need  of  intelligent  legislation  concerning . . . 

Tchebyscheff  (Russia),  inventor  of  transmission  apparatus . . . . . . 

designer  of  steam-engine . 

Tcherepovetz  (Russia) — 

Alexander  Technical  School . . . . . . . 386, 

Tchijoff  (Russia),  statues  by .  . 

Teachers  (see  Education).- 
Technology  (see  Education). 

Tecum&n  (see  Argentine  Republic :  provinces). 

Ten  Kate,  H.  F.  C.  (Netherlands),  paintings  by . . . 

Tennessee  (see  United  States). 

Termonde  (Belgium)— 

blanket  manufacture  at . . 

Texas  (see  United  States). 

TEXTILE  FABRICS— 


135 

443 

122 
161 
144 
148, 149 
452 


147 
363, 365 
395 
395 


103 


454 


[Note. — The  exhibits  are  indexed  in  detail  under  the  titles  of  the  nations  which  con¬ 
tributed,  viz : 


Austria-Hungary, 

Belgium. 

China, 

Denmark, 

France, 

Great  Britain  (Australia, 
Canada,  England, 
Ireland,  Scotland), 
Greece, 


Italy, 

Netherlands, 

Norway, 

Portugal, 

Russia  (Finland), 
Spain, 

Sweden, 
Switzerland, 
United  States.] 


INDEX. 


539 


Page. 

TEXTILE  FABRICS— Continued. 

report  on,  by  Henry  Howard .  429-465 

classification  of  exhibits  (Group  1Y) . . .  .  430 

report  on,  at  Paris  Exposition,  1867,  referred  to .  431 

cotton . . . 431, 432, 437, 440, 443,  444,  446-448, 452, 454,  455, 457, 458 

“stuffing”  and  “filling”  cloth . .  432 

velvets  of . .  432,  437 

prints . . - . 431,  438, 445, 447 

linen,  etc .  432, 433,  438, 441, 442, 453, 455 

arranging  goods  for  the  market .  433 

“kalameit”  (jute  fiber) .  433 

jute  manufacture . 438, 445, 452 

flax  supply . .  .  - .  438, 441 

worsted . . . 433, 434,  438, 442, 452, 455 

dyeing .  438 

woolen  . . . 434,  435, 436,  439, 442,  453,  455 

cloths  for  men’s  wear .  435, 439 

wool  supply . .435, 438,  439, 450,  450, 457 

silk . 435, 436, 439, 443,  444, 446, 450, 451,  454, 455 

dyeing . 440,  445, 450,  451, 455 

decorative  weaving .  .  443, 451 

raw,  supply  of .  446 

velvets .  451 

manufacture  by  hand . 437, 438, 440,  445,  446, 452, 456 

power . 431, 437, 440, 441, 447, 451 

protective  legislation . . 436,  437,  440, 447, 448, 459, 463 

overproduction  .  448 

employers’  provision  for  the  welfare  of  operatives .  437, 441 

required  by  law . . .  -  443 

wages  of  operatives . 443,  444, 445, 453, 454,  455, 456, 457 

designs . .  . .  . 446,  447, 448, 449, 450, 460, 463 

schools  of  industrial  art . . 449, 460, 465 

weaving . , .  452,  562, 465 

need  of  industrial  training  in  the  United  States . .  460-464 

influence  of  international  exhibitions  upon . .  459,  460, 465 

“  Textile  Manufacturer  ”  (newspaper,  Manchester,  England),  quoted . . 442,459,465 

Thaulow,  F.  (.Norway),  painting  by . 104 

Theaters,  subvention  of,  by  the  government  in  France . . . . — -  165 

Thienpont  &  Son  (Ghent,  Brussels),  linens . .  .  452 

Thiers,  portrait  of,  by  Bonnat . 30 

Thompson,  Miss  Elizabeth  (see  Mrs.  Butler). 

Thoren  ( see  Yon  Thoren). 

Thornton  (St.  Petersburg,  Russia),  woolen  fabrics..  . 

Thorwaldsen,  influence  on  other  sculptors . , . 

Thread  ( see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Thurgau  ( see  Switzerland:  cantons). 

Ticino  (see  Switzerland :  cantons) . 

Tiffany  &  Co.  (Hew  York),  repouss6e  chasings . 

grand  medal  awarded  to . i . 

Tiffany,  L.  C.  (Hew  York),  painting  by . •. . 

»  aquarelles  by . 

Tilgner,  Y.  (Austria),  statues  by .  . 

Titian,  art  qualities  of . 

engravings  of  his  works  . . 

Tlemcen  (Algeria) — 

College  of . . . . 

Tokio  (Japan),  map  of . . . . . 

University  of. . 322, 324, 

primary  normal  school . 

secondary  normal  school . 

girls’  normal  school . 

school  of  foreign  languages . . 

public  library .  . 

Museum  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior . . . 

Tools  (see  Education :  apprentice  schools). 


442 
123, 145 


162 

162 

115 

116 
146, 147 

58 

161 

320 
154 
325,  326 
324,  325 

324,  325 

325,  326 
325,  326 

328 

328 


540 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Tootal-Broadhurst,  Lee,  &  Co.  (Manchester  and  Bradford,  England),  exhibit  of  textile  fabrics..  431 


awarded  grand  prize,  Class  30 .  431 

Toronto  (Canada) — 

normal  school .  335 

Torre  Pellice  (Italy) — 

cotton  manufacture  at .  445 

Tortone,  A.  (Italy),  statue  by .  136 

Toulmoucho  (France),  paintings  by .  22 

Toulouse  (France) — 

instruction  in  political  science  at .  356 

Trades,  classification  of . .  197 

Trebitsch  &  Son  (Vienna,  Austria),  silks .  439 

Trelat,  Professor,  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  M6tiers,  Paris . .  .  217 

Tresca,  Professor,  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Mdtiers,  Paris .  217 

Trinidad  (see  Great  Britain :  colonies). 

Tritt  (England),  art  tendencies  of .  39 

TrocadGro  (see  France :  art;  also,  International  Exhibitions :  Paris,  1878). 

Trollope  (G.)  <fc  Sons  (London,  England),  carved  furniture .  422 

Tschamer,  T.  (Belgium),  painting  by .  .  .  97 

Tubingen  (Germany) — 

University  at,  study  of  political  science . .  352,  353 

TUNIS— 

Fa9ade  at  the  Exposition .  155 

Turgot,  Anne  Robert  Jacques  (France),  political  economist . .  378 

Turgot,  ficole  (see  France :  education,  superior  primary). 

Turin  (Italy) — 

art  education  at . 167 

silk  manufacture  at . 446 

Turletti,  C.  (Italy),  engravings  by .  161 

Turner,  J.  M.  TV,  influence  of,  on  other  artists .  114 

engravings  of  his  paintings .  160 

Turners  (see  Education:  apprentice  schools). 

‘  ‘  Tuscan  school  ’  ’  in  art .  122 

“  Twain, Mark,”  American  quality  of  his  writings  .  109 

Tyrol  (see  Austria-Hungary :  provinces). 

Unger,  TV.  (Austria),  engravings  by . 161 

UNITED  STATES— 

representation  of,  at  Paris  Exposition,  1878 .  3, 11 

Art,  neglected  in . 3-9, 110, 148, 149, 169, 170 

privately  patronized .  6 

imitated  from  European  models . . .  10, 15, 108-111 

section  in  Paris  Exposition .  11 

paintings  exhibited . . .  108 

landscapes . Ill 

genre .  Ill 

portraits .  116 

aquarelles .  116 

coins  .  128, 162 

bank-note  engraving . 160 

sculpture  excluded  from  the  Exposition .  5, 148 

architecture  not  represented . 159 

engravings  exhibited . .  161, 162 

repoussOe  work  exhibited .  162 

awards  conferred  in  the  department  of .  179 

Facade  at  the  Exposition .  156 

Education . 337,341 

exhibits .  . 337, 341,  385 

by  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  .  347,  838 

from  Connecticut .  338 

District  of  Columbia . 339 

Illinois . 338, 339,340 

Indiana .  338 

Kansas .  338 

Massachusetts. . . 338,  339,  340,  341 


INDEX. 


541 

Page. 


UNITED  STATES— Continued. 

Education— 
exhibits — 

from  Michigan . 

Missouri . . . 

New  York . 

Ohio . . 

Pennsylvania . 

Rhode  Island .  . 

"Wisconsin . . 

of  pupils’  work . 

drawing . 

publications — 

educational  reports .  . 

supplant  treatises  on  pedagogy . 

periodicals — 

“Journal  of  Education” . 

“American  Journal  of  Education” . 

histories  of  colleges,  etc . 

school  buildings . 

furniture . 

apparatus — 

Kindergarten  material . . . 

drawing  models  . 

for  the  blind . 

music  teaching . 

text-books .  . 

system  imitated  in  Europe . 

awards  to  exhibitors . . 

deficiencies  in- 

obligatory  instructions . : . . . 

costly  school  books . . 

penmanship  . . . . . 

education  of  the  senses.  . .  . . 

higher  education  of  women . 

social  and  political  science  . 

industrial  education . .  . 

problems — 

unsectarian  instruction . 

coeducation  of  the  sexes  . . . . 

women  as  teachers . 

grading  of  schools . . 

relation  of  government  to  public  instruction . . 

training  for  public  affairs . . 

popularizing  instruction . 

colleges — 

scholarship  as  compared  with  German  universities . 

French  School  of  Political  Sciences 

need  of  political  training  in . 

limited  course  of  instruction .  . 

extending  courses  of  instruction . 

post-graduate  courses . . . 

loss  of  political  influence  . .  . 

insufficient  money  resources  of . 

endowments  of . . 

primary — 

provision  for . 

scope  of . 

in  social  and  political  science . 

cared  for  in  European  universities . 

neglected  in  United  States .  . 

need  of  in  United  States . 

Congress . 

State  legislatures . 

municipal  bodies . 


. .  339 

.  339 

.  339,340 

.  338,339 

. .  338 

.  338 

. .  338,339 

. . .  338,  339,  340 

. .  339,340 

.  338,339 

. .  341 

.  338 

.  340 

.  338,339 

. 328,  339,  340 

. 226,  240,  261,  339 

.  339 

.  340 

.  340 

.  340 

- .  339,343 

203,  229,  230,  235, 236  note 
.  341 

.  342 

343 

.  343,344 

.  344 

.  344 

. 346,  365,  367,  380 

. 365,  385,  460-465 


.  342 

.  342 

.  343 

.  344,345 

.  345,346 

.  361-381 

.  346,347 

.  354 

.  353 

. 370-374,  378-380 

.  371 

.  371,372 

.  371,372 

.  379 

.  380 

.  380,381 

.  366,367 

.  366 

.  352-381 

_ 352-362,  380 

. 365,  367,  380 

362,  365,  367,  375 

.  362,379 

_ 362,  365,379 

.  362,365 


542 


INDEX. 


Page. 

UNITED  STATES— Continued. 

Education— 

in  social  and  political  science — 

need  of  in  constitutional  conventions .  363 

judiciary . 363 

journalism . . .  . . .  363,  378 

clergy . .......... .  364 

charitable  organizations .  364 

public  at  large .  .  . : . 366, 367,  376 

university  system . . .  379,  380 

training  required — 

in  political  and  social  history . 368 

political  economy . 368 

social  science . 369 

jurisprudence . 369 

international  law . 369 

administration . . .  .  370 

statistics . . .  370 

should  be  afforded  by  the  universities . 370-374,  378 

instruction  by  publicists .  378 

industrial — 

neglected . . . 365, 462-465 

exhibit  of .  .  340,  385 

Industrial  University  of  Illinois .  340 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology . 340,  385, 464 

Cooper  Institute,  New  York . . . .  340, 464 

Worcester  (Mass.)  Free  Institute  .  340,385,464 

Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  Hoboken,  N.  J  .  .  464 

Cincinnati  (Ohio)  School  of  Design .  464 

Sheffield  Scientific  School,  New  Haven,  Conn .  464 

Textile  Fabrics,  exhibit . 458 

cotton .  458 

prints  .  458 

preparation  for  the  market .  433 

imitated  in  France . 447 

made  in  narrow  width .  447 

silk .  45S 

designs  inferior  to  European  . 460, 461, 463 

stolen  from  France .  461 

industrial  art  education  needed . .  460,  462,  464 

limited  in  variety  . . .  447,  458, 463,  464 

favorable  conditions  for  manufacture  . . 461 

unfavorable  conditions  for  manufacture — 

relations  of  employers  and  operatives . .  461, 462 

labor  costly _ 1 .  462' 

lack  of  industrial  education . .  462 

protective  legislation .  437, 463 

Wood-carving . .  419, 420 

exhibit  of .  420 

dangers  from  bad  government . 364-377 

CONNECTICUT  (see,  also,  New  Haven)— 

Education— 

exhibited  by  the  state  department  of . 338 

DISTBICT  OF  COLUMBIA  (see,  also,  Washington) — 

Education— 

exhibit  by  Washington  schools .  339 

ILLINOIS  (see,  also,  Chicago) — 

Education — 

exhibit . 338 

Chicago  schools .  339 

Industrial  University  at  Champaign . 340 

INDIANA— 

Education— 

exhibit . 338 


INDEX 


543 

Page. 


UNITED  STATES — Continued. 

EANSAS— 

Education — 

exhibit . 338 

MASSACHUSETTS  (see,  also,  Boston,  Worcester) — 

Education— 

exhibit  by  the  State  department  of  public  instruction .  338 

State  board  of  education,  reports  of .  338 

exhibit  of  Boston  schools .  .  338,  341 

Mount  Holyoke  Eemale  Seminary .  339 

W ellesley  College  (for  women) . 339 

Harvard  University .  339 

Institute  of  Technology,  Boston .  340 

W orcester  Eree  Institute .  340 

Perhins  Institution  and  Massachusetts  Asylum  for  the  Blind .  340 

MICHIGAN — 

Education — 

exhibit  of  the  University  of,  Ann  Arbor .  339 

MISSOURI  (see,  also,  Saint  Louis) — 

Education — 

exhibit  by  Saint  Louis  schools .  339 

NEW  JERSEY  (see  Hoboken,  Paterson)— 

NEW  YORK — 

Education — 

exhibit  by  Yassar  College,  Poughkeepsie . 339 

Cooper  Institute .  340 

OHIO  (see,  also,  Cincinnati) — 

Education — 

exhibit  by  the  state  department  of .  338 

Cincinnati  schools .  339 

PENNSYLVANIA— 

Education — 

exhibit  by  the  state  department  of .  338 

RHODE  ISLAND- 


EDUCATION— 

exhibit  by  the  state  department  of .  338 

WISCONSIN  (see,  also,  Milwaukee) — 

Education— 

exhibit . . .  338 

Milwaukee  schools . .  339 

State  University,  Madison .  339 

United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  exhibit  by .  .  337,  338 

United  States  Congress,  disregard  of  art  interests .  .  3-9, 110, 148, 149, 163, 169, 170 

inadequate  provision  for  Vienna  Exposition,  1873 .  3 

Philadelphia  Exhibition,  1876 .  6 

Paris  Exposition,  1878 .  3, 11, 148, 156 

Universal  Exposition  (see  International  Exhibitions). 


Universities  (see  Education). 

Unterwalden  (see  Switzerland:  cantons). 

Uri  (see  Switzerland:  cantons). 

URUGUAY  (see,  also,  Montevideo) —  •  t 

Education . . . . . . .  329, 331, 334 

exhibit . !  185,329,331 

system  of  public,  of  recent  origin .  331 

reorganized  in  1877 .  331,332 

primary .  331-334 

1st  class . 332 

2d  class,  rural .  332 

2d  class . 332 

2d  class,  extended  (ampliades)  .  332 

3d  class .  332 

evening  classes  for  adults . 332 

normal  schools .  333 

gratuitous  and  obligatory .  331 

courses  of  study  in  primary  schools . 332 


544 


INDEX. 


Page. 

URUGUAY — Continued. 

Education— 

teachers .  332-334 

preparation  of .  332 

normal  schools .  333 

women  as . . .  332, 333 

conferences .  333 

salaries . 333 

examinations . 333 

diplomas .  333 

statistics — 

adult  schools . - .  332 

schools  in  the  provinces .  334 

population,  rapid  increase  of . 331 

immigration .  331 

white,  of  Latin  race .  831,332 

negro,  small .  331 

Utah  (see  United  States). 

Utrecht  (see  Netherlands:  provinces). 

Vaillant,  Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Uruguay .  334 

Yalais  (see  Switzerland:  cantons). 

Van  Borselen,  J.  W.  (Netherlands),  painting  by . . . * .  10 

Yan  de  Coppollo,  Kappeyne,  Minister  of  the  Interior,  Netherlands,  promoter  of  popular  educa¬ 
tion .  251 

Yandcr  Linden  (Belgium),  statue  by . .  147 

Yan  Ileek  &  Co.  (Ensehed6,  Netherlands),  cotton .  455 

Yan  Luppen,  G.  J.  A.  (Belgium),  paintings  by .  97 

Yan  Marcko,  E.  (France),  paintings  by .  35 

Yanner  (J.)  &  Sons  (Haverhill,  England),  silk  fabrics . . .  436 

Yanni,  P.  (Italy),  paintings  by - ...  .  74 

Yanves,  Lyc6e  de  (see  France :  education,  secondary). 

Yarela,  Jose  Pedro  (Uruguay),  book  on  liLa  Education  del  Pueblo  ” . . .  329 

“ Memoria  dela  Direction  de  Instruction  Publica" .  329, 333  note ,  334 

Yassar,  Matthew,  promoter  of  women’s  education  in  the  United  States .  .  381 

Yasselot,  A.  Marquet  do  (France),  statues  by . .  122, 126, 128 

Yaud  (see  Switzerland :  cantons). 

Yauthier,  Moreau  (France),  statues  by . .  . .  122 

Yautier,  B.  (Switzerland),  paintings  by .  97 

Yedder,  E.  (United  States),  paintings  by.  .  . 113  and  note 

Yeenendall  Spinning  and  Weaving  Mill  (Amsterdam,  Netherlands),  linen  fabrics .  455 

Vegetable  fibers  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Velvet  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Venice  (Italy) — 

art  education  at. . 167 

Vennersborg  (Sweden) — 

professional  school  of .  272 

Vergniaud  (France),  political  economist .  361 

Verhaert,  P.  (Belgium),  paintings  by .  96 

Yerhas,  F.  (Belgium),  painting  by .  96 

Yerhas,  J.  (Belgium),  painting  by .  96 

Yerlat,  C.  (Belgium),  paintings  by .  95, 96 

Vermont  (see  United  States). 

Yernon-Harcourt,  Sir  William  G.  (England),  political  economist . . . . - .  360,  361 

Yerona  (Italy) — 

art  education  at . 168 

Vertunni,  Chevalier  A.  (Italy),  paintings  by .  75 

Yerveer,  E.  (Netherlands),  style  of,  in  art. . . .  99 

paintings  by .  103 

Verviers  (Belgium) — 

textile  manufactures . 451, 452, 453 

wages  of  operatives .  453, 454 

Yeyred6e  (Spain),  painting  by .  69 

Veyvassat  (France),  aquarelles  by . 37 


INDEX. 


545 


Page. 

Vibert  (France),  paintings  by .  21 

engravings  of .  160 

Victor  Emmanuel,  King  of  Italy,  painting  of,  by  D.  Induno .  .  74 

monuments  to .  168 

Victoria,  Queen,  bust  of,  by  Brodie . . . . . . .  142 

Victoria  (see  Great  Britain :  colonies:  Australia). 

Victorian  "Woolen  Cloth  Manufacturing  Company  (G-eelong,  Victoria,  Australia),  woolen  fabrics  436 

Viel  Castel  (France),  political  economist .  356 

Vienna  Exhibition  (see  International  Exhibitions). 

Vienna  (Austria) — 

Boyal  Museum .  146, 159, 169 

Palace  of  the  Association  of  Artists .  .  146 

monument  to  Beethoven . . .  146, 169 

Hotel  de  Ville .  158 

Votive  Church . 159 

Parliament  House .  159 

A  cademy  of  Fine  Arts .  159, 169 

Hew  Exchange  . .  -  . 159 

Albertine  collection  (art) . 167 

Hotel  of  the  Kunstler  Verein . 169 

Bealschool  building . . .  299 

University  of— 

architectural  designs  for  the  buildings  . . . .  159 

study  of  political  and  social  science .  354 

school  of  embroidery . 413 

silk-dyeing .  440 

jute  manufacture .  438 

woolen  goods  trade .  .  .  438 

Vigne  (see  De  Vigne). 

Villa,  J.  L.  (Italy),  statue  by .  136 

Villari  (Italy),  political  economist .  360 

Vinton,  F.  P.  (United  States),  paintings  by . . .  115, 1 16 

Virginia  (see  United  States). 

Vitebsk  (see  Bussia:  provinces). 

Volkoff,  E.  E.  (Bussia),  painting  by . .  88 

Volksonderniss  (see  Netherlands:  education:  popular  instruction). 

Vollon,  A.  (France),  paintings  by .  36 

Vologda  (see  Bussia:  provinces). 

Volpe  (Italy),  painting  by  .  . . . .  75 

Von  Gebhardt,  C.  (Germany),  painting  by .  85 

Von  Holst,  Professor  (Germany),  instructor  in  constitutional  history  of  the  United  States .  355 

Von  Hiitten,  Ulrich,  painting  of,  by  C.  Becker .  85 

Von  Piloty,  C.  (Germany),  painting  by . . .  85 

Von  Thoren,  Chevalier  0.  (Austria),  paintings  by .  80 

Voslauer  Company  (Austria),  worsted,  yarns .  438 

Vriendt  (see  De  Vriendt). 


Waddington,  Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  France,  promoter  of  popular  education .  235 

Wageningen  (Netherlands) — 

State  Agricultural  Institute . .  268 

Wages  (see  Operatives). 

Wagmiiller,  M.  (Germany),  statuary  by .  .  . . .  145 

Wagner,  A.  (Austria),  statue  by .  146 

Wagner,  Bi  chard,  engraved  portrait  of,  by  Bicheton .  160 

Wagnick  &  Kepner  (Bussia),  steam-engine .  395 

Wahlberg,  A.  (Sweden),  paintings  by .  108 

Wales  (Albert  Edward),  Prince  of,  Pavilion  of,  at  the  Exposition  . . .  153,  432 

Wales  (Alexandra),  Princess  of,  bust  of,  by  D’Epinay . .  142 

Wales,  Welsh  (see  Great  Britain). 

Walker,  Francis  A.  (Hew  Haven,  Conn.),  Superintendent  of  the  United  States  Census .  37q 

Walker,  Frederic  (England),  aquarelles  by . 39,40,47 

oil  painting  by .  40 

Wallis,  Henry  (England),  painting  by . .  .  61 

Waltner,  C.  A.  (France),  engravings  by . .  159 

Ward,  E.  M.  (United  States),  paintings  by . . . .  114 

35  p  R 


546 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Washington,  George,  bust  of,  by  Riguer . . .  144 

no  national  monument  to .  168 

as  a  statesman .  377 

Washington,  D.  C. — 

public  schools .  339 

buildings . . . . . .  339 

Corcoran  Art  Gallery . . .  6 

Washington  Territory  ( see  United  States). 

Watch-making,  schools  for  instruction  in,  in  France .  407, 408 

Switzerland . .* . 413, 414 

Water  colors  (see  Art:  aquarelles). 

Waterhouse,  A.  (England),  architectural  designs  by .  158 

Watson,  J.  D.  (England),  aquarelle  by . . . .  41 

oil  painting  by  . . . . , .  61 

Watts,  G.  F.  (England),  style  of . . .  39,  59 

oil  paintings  by . . .  52 

statue  by . . .  141, 142 

Wauters,  E.  (Belgium),  paintings  by . .  94 

engravings  of .  160 

Weavers  (see  Operatives). 

Weaving,  schools  for  instruction  in,  in  Austria  . . . . .  412 

Weber,  F.  (Switzerland),  engravings  by . .  161 

“Week”  (newspaper,  London),  quoted .  . .  44  note 

Weir,  John  F.  (New  Haven,  Conn.),  painting  by .  114 

Wells,  Horace  (New  Haven,  Conn.),  political  economist . . .  .  370,  379 

Wermland  (see  Sweden:  provinces). 

Werner,  A.  F.  (Germany),  painting  by . .  84 

Wertheimer  (Austria),  promoter  of  Kindergarten  education .  297 

book  “On  Early  Education  and  the  English  Infant -scho.cls ”  . .  .  297 

Western  Australia  (see  Great  Britain :  colonies :  Australia). 

West  Flanders  (see  Belgium:  provinces). 

West  Virginia  (see  United  States). 

Whewell,  William  (England),  educator .  . .  360 

White,  Andrew  D.,  LL.D.,  Honorary  Commissioner  to  the  Exposition,  Vice-President  Group 
II,  International  J urv — 

Report  on  The  Provision  for  Higher  Instruction  in  Subjects  bearing  directly  upon 

Public  Affairs  . 349-381 

Wielemans,  A.  (Austria),  architectural  designs  by .  159 

Willans  (Thomas  B.)  &  Co.  (Rochdale,  England),  woolen  cloths . . .  435 

Willems,  F.  (Belgium),  paintings  by .  96 

William  III.,  King  of  England,  engraving  by  Richeton  of  Rembrandt’s  portrait  of .  160 

Williams,  F.  D.  (United  States),  painting  by .  114 

Wilmarth,  L.  E.  (New  York),  painting  by .  115 

Wilna  (see  Russia:  provinces). 

Wimpffen  (see  De  Wimpffen). 

Winne  (Belgium),  painting  by .  97 

Winterthur  (Switzerland) — 

training  school  for  female  teachers .  313 

Wisconsin  (see  United  States). 

Wladimirsky,  Professor,  Imperial  Technical  School,  Moscow,  Russia . . .  .  395 

Wolff  (Albert)  &  Son  (Vienna,  Austria),  silk  fabrics . . .  439 

Wolowski,  Professor,  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  Paris,  political  economist . . .  217,  356, 359 

W omen  as  teachers — 

in  Algeria  . 315 

Argentine  Republic .  330 

Austria .  201, 293 

Belgium .  242,  244 

Canada . 336  ' 

Europe . 343 

France . : .  200 

Germany .  201 

Japan . 326 

very  anciently . 323 

Netherlands . . .257,  260,  267 

Russia . 284 


INDEX 


547 


Page. 

Women  as  teachers — Continued. 

Switzerland .  312,  313  • 

United  States . 343 

Uruguay . 333 

education  of — 

in  Algeria .  318 

Europe .  344 

Greece . .  .  305,  307 

United  States .  344 


schools  for,  in  France' (see  France :  education:  adult  schools), 
wages  of  (see  Operatives). 

WOOD-CARVING— 


[Note. — The  exhibits  are  indexed  in  detail  under  the  titles  of  the  nations  which 


contributed,  viz: 

Austria-Hungary,  Great  Britain  (England,  India,  Scotland),  Russia, 

Belgium,  Italy,  Spain, 

China,  Japan,  Sweden, 

Denmark,  Netherlands,  Switzerland, 

France,  Norway,  United  States.] 

report  on  by  John  Treadwell  Norton .  417-427 

classification  of  exhibits  (Group  III) .  .  418 

exhibits . .  .  449-427 


wages  of  carvers  . 

designers . 

machines  for . . 

in  ironwood . 

jujube . 

walnut  . . 

ebonized  wood . 

ebony  . 

oak  . . 

maple . . 

teak . 

satinwood . 

ormolu . 

pear . 

mahogany . 

rosewood . 

cedar . 

box . 

pine .  . . 

imitated  in  car  ton-pier  re 
zinc . 


. .  419,422 

.  419 

.  419 

.  425 

. . . .  424 

.  424,425,420 

....  420,421,426 

.  421,427 

420,  423,  42G,  427 

.  420 

. ... _  420,425 

.  421,423 

.  421 

.  421 

.  422 

....  422,425,427 
422 

.  423,425 

.  427 

.  420,426 

.  420 


styles — 

Renaissance . . . 

Louis  XIV . 

Japanese . . 

Chinese . . . 

Queen  Anne . 

Jacobean . . . . 

Gothic . 

illustrations  of . .  419,*  421,*  423, 

Wood,  workers  in  (see  Education:  apprentice  schools). 

W ood- working,  schools  for  instruction  in,  in  Austria . 

Woods,  study  of,  by  artisans . . 

Wool  (see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Wool-carders  (see  Operatives). 

'  Woolsey,  Theodore  Dwight  (New  Haven,  Conn.),  political  economist  . 

Worcester,  Mass. — 

Free  Institute . 

Working  .people  (sec  Operatives). 

Workmen,  classification  of  trades . 

Workshop  instruction  (see  Education :  apprentice  schools ;  also ,  industrial  schools). 

Worms  (France),  paintings  by .  .  . 

aquarelles  by . 

style  of . . . . 


420,  422,  426,  427 
....  420,422,424 

. .  420,423 

.  420 

.  422 

.  422,423 

.  423 

'■  424.“  425,*  426* 

.  412,413 

.  198 


370 

.340,  385,  464 

197 

22 

37 

47 


548 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Worsted  (see  Textile  Fabrics) . 

Wurm,  A.  (Austria),  architectural  designs  by  .  158 

Wurtemberg,  Kingdom  of  (see  Germany). 

Wyatt,  T.  H.  (England),  architectural  designs  by .  158 

W yckhuyse  Freres  &  Sceurs  ( Fouler s,  Belgium) — 

linens  for  hospitals,  etc .  452 

Wylie,  Fobert  (United  States),  painting  by .  115 

Wynfield,  D.  W.  (England),  painting  by . . . . .  62 

Wyoming  ( see  United  States). 

Ximenes,  H.  (Italy),  statues  by .  134 

Yale,  Elihu,  promoter  of  education  in  the  United  States .  381 

Yarn  ( see  Textile  Fabrics). 

Yearns,  W.  F.  (England),  painting  by . . . , . . .  56 

Yewell,  George  H.  (United  States),  paintings  by .  .  114 

Yorkshire  (England),  woolen  cloth  manufacture  in  (see,  also,  Bradford)  . .  435 

Young,  Arthur  (England),  political  economist . . .  365 

Young,  W.  (England),  architectural  designs  by .  158 

Zaalberg  &  Son  (Leyden,  Netherlands),  blankets .  455 

Zamacois  (Spain),  paintings  by .  68,  69 

influence  of,  on  Gerome’s  paintings .  20,  69 

Zante  (Zacynthos — see  Greece:  departments). 

Zealand  (see  Netherlands  :  provinces). 

Zinc,  imitations  of  wood-carving  in . - . .  420 

Zinnauer  (Austria),  promoter  of  popular  education . . .  295 

Zug  (see  Switzerland:  cantons). 

Zurich  ( see  Switzerland :  cantons) . 

Zurich,  city  of  (Switzerland) — 

training  school  for  female  teachers . . .  313 

University  of— 

study  of  natural  sciences  at .  351 

political  and  social  science _ : .  355 

school  of  weaving . . . . .  462 


» 


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